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Article

Influence of Three Different Antistripping Agents on Moisture Susceptibility, Stiffness, and Rutting Resistance of Hot-Mix Asphalt

by
Mario Orozco
1,
Jaime Preciado
1,
Gilberto Martinez-Arguelles
1,*,
Luis Fuentes
1,
Lubinda F. Walubita
2 and
Rodrigo Polo-Mendoza
1,3
1
Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Universidad del Norte, Barranquilla 081007, Colombia
2
Texas A&M Transportation Institute (TTI), The Texas A&M University System, College Station, TX 77843, USA
3
Faculty of Science, Charles University, 116 36 Prague, Czech Republic
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Buildings 2024, 14(8), 2458; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14082458
Submission received: 2 July 2024 / Revised: 5 August 2024 / Accepted: 6 August 2024 / Published: 8 August 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical Properties of Asphalt and Asphalt Mixtures)
Browse Figures
Figure 1
<p>Grain size distribution adopted in this research. Color coding: <span style="color:#7F7F7F">grey—Colombian requirements for passing percentage</span>; <span style="color:#00B0F0">blue—granulometry used</span>.</p> "> Figure 2
<p>Rheological characterization of the base asphalt binder.</p> "> Figure 3
<p>Physical appearance of the liquid ASAs.</p> "> Figure 4
<p>Influence of the type of asphalt binder on the HMA’s air voids.</p> "> Figure 5
<p>Rheological characterization for the studied asphalt binders. Color coding: <span style="color:red">red—B-AB</span>; <span style="color:#00B0F0">blue—HL056-AB</span>; black—HL112-AB; <span style="color:#7F7F7F">grey—HL168-AB</span>; <span style="color:#00B050">green—ALA-AB</span>; <span style="color:#ED7D31">orange—SLA-AB</span>.</p> "> Figure 6
<p>ITS and TSR results.</p> "> Figure 7
<p>Master curves at 25 °C for the different HMAs. Color coding: <span style="color:red">red—B-AB</span>; <span style="color:#00B0F0">blue—HL056-AB</span>; black—HL112-AB; <span style="color:#7F7F7F">grey—HL168-AB</span>; <span style="color:#00B050">green—ALA-AB</span>; <span style="color:#ED7D31">orange—SLA-AB</span>.</p> "> Figure 8
<p>Results of the uniaxial cyclic compression test. Color coding: <span style="color:red">red—B-AB</span>; <span style="color:#7F7F7F">grey—HL168-AB</span>; <span style="color:#00B050">green—ALA-AB</span>; <span style="color:#ED7D31">orange—SLA-AB</span>.</p> ">
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
The construction and maintenance of road infrastructure is required for the sustained economic growth of communities and societies. Nonetheless, these activities imply the tangible risk of boosting the depletion of non-renewable resources (e.g., aggregates and binders). A widely used strategy for preserving as much of these natural resources as possible is the design of high-performance composite materials. For instance, antistripping agents (ASAs) are employed to mitigate the loss of adhesive bonding between asphalt binders and aggregates, enhancing the mechanical behaviour of hot-mix asphalts (HMAs). There is still no consensus on the effectiveness of ASAs. In this regard, the present research aims to contribute to the literature by conducting a case study on the influence of three different ASAs (hydrated lime, an amines-based liquid additive, and a silanes-based liquid additive) on the moisture susceptibility, stiffness, and rutting resistance of HMA. For these purposes, indirect tensile strength, indirect tensile stiffness modulus, and uniaxial cyclic compression tests were carried out. Overall, the involved experimental protocol drew the main conclusion that the incorporation of hydrated lime as a mineral filler (at a content of 1.68% by dry weight of aggregates) is capable of improving the mechanical performance of HMAs through decreases in humidity sensitivity and permanent deformation, together with a slight increase in rigidity.

1. Introduction

The literature has well documented that the stripping phenomenon undesirably contributes to the deterioration of asphalt pavements by catalyzing/generating distresses such as raveling, aggregate loss, cracking, and rutting [1,2,3,4,5]. These surface distresses can seriously compromise safety, serviceability, and structural performance, particularly at high vehicle-operational speeds [6,7,8]. In this regard, several research efforts have proposed the modification of asphalt materials with antistripping agents (ASAs) in order to mitigate the loss of adhesive bonding between the asphalt binder and aggregate interface [9,10,11]. Table 1 presents a summary of several case studies. ASAs employ different mechanisms to enhance the adhesive bonding between the asphalt binder and aggregates, for example: (i) modifying the surface properties of aggregates and (ii) reducing the surface tension of the asphalt binder [3,4,5,12,13,14,15]. The specific physicochemical properties of aggregates and asphalt binders significantly impact the effectiveness of a particular ASA treatment [16,17,18]. Further, this effectiveness depends on an adequate dosage and the incorporation method [5,19,20]. Remarkably, there are two main groups of ASAs, namely liquid ASAs and mineral (powder) ASAs [10,21,22].
Liquid ASAs have been used for decades in the road infrastructure industry, especially those based on fatty amines, polyamines, amid amines, and liquid polymers [16,23,24]. Liquid ASAs have an adherence-promoting mechanism that reduces the surface tension between the aggregate surface and asphalt binder, thereby enhancing interfacial bonding [14,25,26]. Notably, liquid ASAs are usually used in low dosages (i.e., around 0.1–1% by weight of the asphalt binder) and can be incorporated as follows: (i) added directly to the aggregates, or (ii) mixed with the asphalt binder before mixing it with the aggregates [22,27,28]. Overall, when the liquid ASAs are added directly to the aggregates, a uniform distribution of the additive is not ensured due to the relatively low dosages typically provided, whilst the liquid ASAs may be better distributed in the asphalt matrix if they are incorporated into the asphalt binder at high temperatures [16,17,29]. Regarding mechanical performance, several case studies have proved that hot-mix asphalts (HMAs) modified with liquid ASAs (e.g., organosilane-based ASA and Iterlene In/400-S) exhibit an enhancement in resistance to moisture damage and fatigue life [3,10,21,23].
On the other hand, mineral ASAs are extra-fine solid powders with adhesion/cohesion-promoting properties over time, e.g., fly ash, hydrated lime (HL), and Portland cement [30,31,32,33,34,35]. Although HL has been traditionally used as a mineral filler rather than as an adhesion enhancer, this agent is the most widely used mineral ASA to enhance HMAs’ behaviour [22,35,36,37]. HL improves the adhesion bonding between the aggregates and asphalt binder by modifying the chemistry of the aggregate surface through the interaction of calcium and silicates from lime and aggregates [38,39,40]. Notably, the interaction between the HL and asphalt binder differs from that of typical mineral fillers since, unlike typical mineral fillers, HL is highly chemically reactive and presents a relatively low molecular weight [41,42,43]. Moreover, HL reacts with the acidic components of the asphalt binder, such as carboxylic acids, to form insoluble products such as organic calcium salts [44,45,46,47]. Commonly, HL is used in dosages of around 1–2% by weight of dry aggregates [10,21,37]. It is essential to highlight that numerous investigations have agreed that HL can increase the stiffness and fatigue life of HMA while reducing moisture susceptibility [3,9,36,37,48,49,50].
Although there are a considerable number of research efforts on ASAs for HMAs, state-of-the-art research is almost entirely focused on moisture susceptibility without considering the interaction with other aspects of HMAs’ mechanical performance. In this way, there is a clear gap in the literature. Consequently, in addition to evaluating moisture susceptibility, this research also evaluates the stiffness and rutting resistance of HMAs. Three ASAs were considered for these purposes: amines-based liquid additive (ALA), silanes-based liquid additive (SLA), and HL.
Table 1. Summary of case studies focused on HMA modified with ASAs.
Table 1. Summary of case studies focused on HMA modified with ASAs.
AdditiveTechnologyAdditive
Dosage (%)		AggregateAsphalt Binder 3,4Reference
Liquid ASA 1WetfixAlkylamines0.2–0.6Main compound: 50.95% CaO60/70 PenG[12]
0.3Amphibolite, clinkstone, spilite, granulite, basalt, mixed rock (ash rock, metatuf, spilite)50/70 PenG[51]
Lilamin VP 75PFatty amines0.2–0.6Main compound: 50.95% CaO60/70 PenG[12]
ZycothermOrganosilanes0.1Amphibolite, clinkstone, spilite, granulite, basalt, mixed rock (ash rock, metatuf, spilite)50/70 PenG[51]
0.1Limestone60/70 PenG[52]
0.1SiliceousPG 64-22[28]
0.15LimestonePG 64-22[53]
AdHere LOF 65-00Amidoamines0.3Amphibolite, clinkstone, spilite, granulite, basalt, mixed rock (ash rock, metatuf, spilite)50/70 PenG[51]
0.25, 0.5, 0.75Grinded limestonePG 64-22[54]
EvonikPolyamines0.3Limestone60/70 PenG[52]
ZycosilOrganosilanes0.5–4.5Granite60/70 PenG[4]
0.5Siliceous, limestone60/70 PenG[3]
0.5Limestone, slag-limestone, quartzite, granite, andesite60/70 PenG[10]
Iterlene ln/400Alkylamido-imidazo-polyamine0.2, 0.3, 0.4Main compounds: 58.97% SiO2, 17.37% Al2O385/100 PenG[21]
0.2, 0.4, 0.6Granite, dolomite50/70 PenG[55]
Mineral ASA 2HLDry HL to wet aggregates procedure1, 1.5, 2Limestone, basalt50/70 PenG[37]
HL slurry to aggregates procedure2Limestone, quartzite, granite, andesite60/70 PenG[10]
Dry HL to wet aggregates procedure145% limestone type, 55% gravel typePG 70-28 and PG 64-22[9]
As mineral filler150% limestone, 15% No. 10 screenings, 25% natural sand, 10% manufactured sandPG 64-22[22]
As mineral filler1, 2Limestone60/70 PenG[52]
Mixed with asphalt binder1, 1.5, 258.97% SiO2, 17.37% Al2O385/100 PenG[21]
Fly ashDry fly ash to wet aggregates procedure1.1345% limestone type, 55% gravel typePG 70-28 and PG 64-22[9]
As mineral filler150% Limestone, 15% No. 10 screenings, 25% natural sands, 10% manufactured sandPG 64-22[22]
As mineral filler0.5–5Limestone60/70 PenG[11]
PortlandcementAs mineral filler0.5–5Limestone60/70 PenG[11]
Legend: 1 Dosage by weight of asphalt binder; 2 modification by dry aggregates procedure; 3 PenG—penetration grade; 4 PG—performance grade.

2. Materials

2.1. Aggregates

The natural aggregates (i.e., coarse and fine aggregates) used in this research were obtained from a quarry located in the department of Atlántico (northern region of Colombia). These aggregates mainly comprise sedimentary rocks of marine origin. Table 2 shows the physical properties of these aggregates and their comparison against the Colombian specification limits [56]. Additionally, Figure 1 exhibits the grain size distribution adopted for the design of asphalt concrete, which corresponds to an HMA with a nominal maximum aggregate size of 19 mm [56]. It is worth mentioning that this type of dense HMA is traditionally used in Colombia for highways and other high-traffic roads [57].
Buildings 14 02458 g001
Figure 1. Grain size distribution adopted in this research. Color coding: grey—Colombian requirements for passing percentage; blue—granulometry used.
Figure 1. Grain size distribution adopted in this research. Color coding: grey—Colombian requirements for passing percentage; blue—granulometry used.
Buildings 14 02458 g001
Table 2. Physical properties of the natural aggregates.
Table 2. Physical properties of the natural aggregates.
TestValue (%)Specification Limits (%)Standard MethodReference
LA abrasion loss18.4<30ASTM C131[58]
Fractured particles in one face94.7-ASTM D5821[59]
Flakiness index11.0<25BS-EN-933[60]
Sand equivalent54.0>50AASHTO T176[61]
Sodium sulfate soundness (fine aggregate)7.8<12AASHTO T104[62]
Sodium sulfate soundness (coarse aggregate)5.1<8AASHTO T104[62]
Bulk specific gravity (fine aggregate)2.65-ASTM C128[63]
Bulk specific gravity (coarse aggregate)2.53-ASTM C127[64]

2.2. Base Asphalt Binder

In this study, a PG 64-22 asphalt binder was utilized as the base binder. This asphalt binder was refined in the central Colombian refinery, which is located in the department of Santander (northeastern region of Colombia). Table 3 summarizes the fundamental physical properties of this asphalt binder, namely softening point, penetration grade, penetration index, and rotational viscosity. Likewise, Figure 2 shows the rheological properties, expressed in terms of the viscosity and master curve.
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Figure 2. Rheological characterization of the base asphalt binder.
Figure 2. Rheological characterization of the base asphalt binder.
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Table 3. Physical properties of the base asphalt binder.
Table 3. Physical properties of the base asphalt binder.
TestUnitValue (%)Standard MethodReference
Softening point°C49.7ASTM D36/D36M[65]
PenGdmm58.3ASTM D5/D5M[66]
Penetration index (PI)-−0.93ASTM D5/D5M[66]
Rotational viscosity @135 °CPa·s0.432ASTM D4402/D4402M[67]
Rotational viscosity @160 °CPa·s0.109ASTM D4402/D4402M[67]

2.3. ASAs

This research evaluated one mineral ASA (i.e., HL) and two liquid ASAs (i.e., ALA and SLA). In order to avoid commercial advertising, the commercial/trade names of these liquid additives are not reported in this manuscript, but the main generic chemical compositions are informed. The physicochemical properties of the liquid ASAs are presented in Table 4. Also, Figure 3 exhibits the physical appearance of these additives.

2.4. HMA Design

For the HMA design, the liquid ASAs were incorporated as asphalt binder modifying agents. Following the manufacturer’s recommendations, the ALA and SLA were used at dosages of 0.5 and 0.1% by weight of asphalt binder, respectively. Meanwhile, the HL was included as a mineral filler inside the natural aggregates at three different dosages (0.56, 1.12, and 1.68% by dry weight of aggregates); these HL dosages are equivalent to 10, 20, and 30% by asphalt binder weight, respectively, and were adopted following the manufacturer’s suggestions. Only to determine production temperatures, the HL was employed as an additive to the asphalt binder. In this regard, the rotational viscometer test was conducted according to the ASTM D4402/D4402M standard [67]. Table 5 shows the mixing and compaction temperatures based on viscosity limits of 0.17 ± 0.02 and 0.28 ± 0.03 Pa·s, respectively.
Table 5 reveals that the asphalt binders modified with liquid ASAs (ALA-AB and SLA-AB) developed almost the same (in fact, slightly lower) production temperatures as those associated with B-AB. Conversely, HL-modified asphalt binders (i.e., HL056-AB, HL112-AB, and HL168-AB) yielded considerably higher mixing and compaction temperatures. Notably, as the HL content augments, the production temperatures also increase incrementally. The preceding is a crucial factor to consider in the environmental and economic performance of HMAs [68,69,70]. The higher these temperatures are, the greater the potential environmental impacts and the lower the cost-effectiveness of their fabrication [71,72,73]. Although these aspects are outside the boundaries of this investigation, they must be evaluated in future research efforts (in order to accomplish a comprehensive assessment).
Another potential downside to having higher production temperatures in the HL-modified HMAs is that the asphalt binder (and, subsequently, the fabricated asphalt mixtures) would suffer a more severe short-term thermal aging process [29,74,75]. Unfortunately, increased thermal aging is highly associated with lower cracking resistance and inferior long-term performance [29,76,77,78]. Therefore, it is recommended that future research lines experimentally investigate the impact of HL on the aging resistance of modified asphalt materials.
In accordance with Colombian regulations [56], the Marshall method was employed (in the laboratory) to produce the HMA samples and determine their optimum asphalt content. It is important to note that the Colombian specification adopts the ASTM D6926-20 standard [79] for these purposes. Thus, the HMA cylindrical specimens (diameter of 101.6 mm and height of 63.5 mm) were manufactured using an automated Marshall hammer. In all cases, the optimum asphalt binder content was 5.6% (by total weight of the mixture). On the other hand, the air voids (also called voids in total mix) were dependent on the type of asphalt binder. Figure 4 shows these results. From this graph, the following findings can be drawn: (i) a low HL content (0.56%) raises the percentage of air voids, while higher dosages (1.12 and 1.68%) reduce it significantly, and (ii) the ALA generates an outstanding increase in air voids, whilst SLA provokes a slight decrease.

2.5. Modified Asphalt Binders

The rheological characterization of the modified asphalt binders was performed using the dynamic shear rheometer device according to the ASTM D7552 standard [80]. This test was conducted for loading frequencies between 0.016–16 Hz at six temperatures (13, 25, 37, 52, 64, and 76 °C), according to the AASHTO TP-101-14 standard [81]. In this way, a 25 mm diameter plate was employed for temperatures higher than 37 °C, whilst an 8 mm diameter plate was used for the other temperatures. Based on time-superposition principles [82,83,84,85,86], master curves of the complex shear modulus for the asphalt binders were generated. Accordingly, the Christensen–Anderson–Marasteanu model (Equations (1) and (2)) was used to generate these master curves [87,88,89,90]. It is essential to highlight that 25 °C was selected as the reference temperature (which represents a close approximation to the ambient temperature). More details on the master curve generation procedure can be found in Walubita et al. [82]. Figure 5 shows the results associated with this test. The reported results represent an average of the three replicate specimens.
G * = G g [ 1 + ( f c f ) v ] − w v
R = log 10 ( 2 ) v
where
  • G * is the complex shear modulus;
  • G g is the glassy modulus;
  • f c is the loading frequency;
  • f is the reduced frequency;
  • w ,   v are the experimental curve fitting coefficients;
  • R is the rheological index.
Buildings 14 02458 g005
Figure 5. Rheological characterization for the studied asphalt binders. Color coding: red—B-AB; blue—HL056-AB; black—HL112-AB; grey—HL168-AB; green—ALA-AB; orange—SLA-AB.
Figure 5. Rheological characterization for the studied asphalt binders. Color coding: red—B-AB; blue—HL056-AB; black—HL112-AB; grey—HL168-AB; green—ALA-AB; orange—SLA-AB.
Buildings 14 02458 g005
According to Figure 5, the addition of liquid ASAs does not significantly affect the rheological behaviour of the asphalt binder. However, a slight decrease in the complex shear modulus can be seen when modifying the asphalt binder with ALA. As theoretically expected, the HL168-AB exhibited the highest magnitude of the complex shear modulus, consecutively followed by HL112-AB, HL056-AB, B-AB, SLA-AB, and ALA-AB. The previous trend can be explained by the theory of suspension rheology, which states that the increase in the stiffness of the colloidal systems (e.g., an asphalt binder) upon the addition of solid particles is governed by the volume fraction of the solid particles [91,92,93,94]. On the other hand, it is also notable that the augment of the stiffness (in terms of the complex shear modulus) is not directly proportional to the concentration of HL. Notably, higher variations in the complex modulus were observed in the range of 1.12–1.68% of HL than in the range of 0.56–1.12%. This increase in the complex shear modulus is strongly related to particle contacts and interaction at high solid particle concentrations [15,95]. Overall, Figure 5 also indicates that the effects of the ASAs on the rheological behaviour of the base asphalt binder are more pronounced at low loading frequencies, corresponding to the high-temperature domain [96,97,98].

3. Methods and Results

3.1. Moisture Susceptibility

One of the main aspects that influence the service life of asphalt pavements is the resistance to moisture damage reached by the HMA layers [12,29,99,100]. Notably, moisture susceptibility is associated with loss of adhesion between the asphalt binder and the aggregates, also known as the stripping phenomenon [22,26,52,101]. The ASTM D4867 standard [102] was used to evaluate the moisture susceptibility of the HMAs by determining the tensile strength ratio (TSR). Commonly, a TSR of 80% is used as the minimum acceptance criterion according to the requirements of different agencies [103,104,105,106], including the Colombian specifications [56]. Hence, the indirect tensile strength (ITS) test was conducted on HMA samples (cylindrical specimens with 101.6 mm of diameter and 63.5 mm of thickness) in dry and wet conditions. Notably, the ITS test involves loading a cylindrical specimen with a vertical diametric compressive force at a monotonic deformation rate of 50 mm/min until the crack failure occurs [107,108,109,110]. The ITS of each specimen is determined using Equation (3) [102]. Meanwhile, the TSR is determined using Equation (4) [102]. These outcomes are presented in Figure 6; the reported results are the average value regarding three samples.
I T S = 2 · P π · d · t
T S R = I T S w e t I T S d r y × 100 %
where
  • P is the peak load;
  • d is the diameter of the specimen;
  • t is the thickness of the specimen;
  • ITSwet is the indirect tensile strength measured in the wet state;
  • ITSdry is the indirect tensile strength measured in the dry state.
Buildings 14 02458 g006
Figure 6. ITS and TSR results.
Figure 6. ITS and TSR results.
Buildings 14 02458 g006
According to Figure 6, only the HL112-AB and HL168-AB mixtures achieve a TSR value higher than 80%. The preceding means that the mineral ASA technology provokes a better moisture resistance than the liquid ASAs, even when the control HMA performs poorly. For the ITSdry, the HL168-AB and HL112-AB mixtures presented an increase of 17% and 8% regarding the control HMA (i.e., B-AB mixture), respectively. Among the HL mixtures, the HL056-AB exhibited the most deficient performance with lower ITSwet and TSR values. Overall, Figure 6 shows that adding ASAs causes some positive effects in reducing moisture susceptibility. However, the liquid ASAs yield a similar impact, and both fail to meet an acceptable TSR value.

3.2. Stiffness

For the dynamic characterization of the HMAs’ stiffness, the indirect tensile stiffness modulus test was conducted following the BS-EN-12697-26 standard [111]. This non-destructive test can measure the rigidity of HMAs at different temperatures and loading frequencies. This study tested the HMA specimens at three temperatures (5, 25, and 40 °C) and four different load frequencies (1, 2, 4, and 8 Hz). Thus, the stiffness modulus was computed using Equation (5) [111].
E * = F × ( v + 0.27 ) t × ∆ H
where
  • E* is the stiffness modulus;
  • F is the peak value of the applied vertical load;
  • v is the Poisson’s ratio;
  • t is the mean thickness of the cylindrical HMA specimen;
  • ∆H is the amplitude of the horizontal deformation.
For the data interpretation, master curves of the stiffness modulus were constructed. Master curves are traditionally used to describe the time–temperature dependency of the HMA and were fitted using the sigmoidal model and the time–temperature superposition principle [82,112,113]. The principle for generating master curves consists of fitting a sigmoidal curve to the measured stiffness modulus using nonlinear least square regression techniques [114,115,116]. The amount of shifting required at each temperature to match the master curve describes the temperature dependency of the HMA [117,118,119]. These shifting factors at each temperature are determined simultaneously with other coefficients of the sigmoidal function, as shown in Equations (6) and (7) [120,121]. In this regard, the Arrhenius shifting model (Equation (8)) was used to determine log a T for each test temperature [82,122]. For these purposes, a reference temperature of 25 °C (which is a close representation of the ambient temperature) was adopted in this research.
log 10 ( | E * | ) = δ + α 1 + e β − γ × log 10 ( f r )
log 10 ( f r ) = log 10 ( f ) + log 10 ( a T )
log 10 ( a T ) = C a ( 1 T − 1 T r )
where
  • α, β, δ, and γ are the sigmoidal functional coefficients (fitting parameters);
  • f r is the reduced frequency;
  • f is the frequency at the test temperature;
  • a T is the horizontal shift factor at temperature T;
  • T is the test temperature (K);
  • T r is the reference temperature (K);
  • C a is a material constant, a function of the activation energy and ideal gas constant.
Figure 7 exhibits the master curves at a reference temperature of 25 °C for all the evaluated HMAs. This graph reveals no significant difference in the stiffness modulus of the HMAs in the high-frequency domain, where all the curves are nearly overlapping each other. Nonetheless, for small magnitudes (mainly at lower frequencies), the HL168-AB mixture yields the higher stiffness modulus, closely followed by the HL112-AB mixture. Notably, the alterations caused by the ASAs are considerably less significant in the high-frequency domain. In order to guarantee proper visualization, Figure 7 only shows a reference temperature (25 °C); however, the other temperatures maintain a behaviour consistent with that previously described. Table 6 highlights the average effect of ASAs on the stiffness modulus of the modified HMA regarding the control mixture for the three considered temperatures (5, 25, and 40 °C). Through this table, it is possible to draw the following findings: (i) the effect of the ALA on the stiffness modulus is negative and more evident at high temperatures; (ii) the SLA induces a complex behaviour without a clear trend; (iii) all the HL-modified HMAs exhibited an increase (i.e., positive percentages) in the stiffness modulus, but the variation in the HL056-AB mixture was below 10%; and (iv) the rigidity augments caused by the HL are more prominent at high temperatures, which is desirable to generate an elevated resistance to the rutting phenomena.

3.3. Rutting Resistance

The uniaxial cyclic compression test was employed to evaluate the rutting resistance (i.e., accumulation of permanent deformation) of the HMAs following the BS-EN-12697-25 standard [123]. Thus, a preload consisting of 600 s and axial stress of 10 kPa was applied. Subsequently, a square pulse was applied with a 500 ms pulse width and a 500 ms rest period for 3600 cycles. Notably, the uniaxial cyclic compression test was performed at 40 °C (i.e., a relatively high temperature at which the HMA is most susceptible to rutting phenomena) with an axial stress of 100 kPa. The strain was measured using two linear variable displacement transducers. As in previous tests, for each HMA, three replicates were conducted on cylindrical specimens (with a diameter of 101.6 mm and a thickness of 63.5 mm). Figure 8 shows the results from this test, i.e., a plot that related the load cycles versus the permanent deformation accumulated throughout the time. Remarkably, the three HL-modified HMAs exhibited the same behaviour, so this graph only shows an asphalt mixture with HL content (i.e., HL168-AB mixture).
The main results obtained through Figure 8 are described below. Overall, all the HMAs evaluated in this case study exhibited typical characteristics of permanent deformation response under repeated loading, i.e., initial aggregate rearrangement and consolidation with the material hardening stage followed by a steady stage [124,125,126]. As expected, HL-modified HMA exhibited the lowest permanent deformation magnitude (at all load cycles), indicating more elevated rutting resistance than other designs (namely, the control mixture and HMAs modified with liquid ASAs). In fact, incorporating HL in the HMAs reduced about 41% of the permanent deformation (compared with the control mixture), suggesting a lower rutting potential and improvement in long-term performance. On the other hand, the liquid ASAs appear to have undesirably increased the permanent deformation (and, consequently, the rutting potential) of the HMAs. On average, the addition of the liquid ASAs increased the permanent deformation potential of the HMAs by about 20–57% throughout the load cycles. Notably, the SLA technology yields the worst performance, closely followed by the ALA technology.

4. Discussion

The laboratory tests conducted in this study showed the effects of HL, ALA, and SLA on the properties and performance of asphalt materials (i.e., both the asphalt binder and HMA). The different ASAs did not significantly alter the complex shear modulus of the asphalt binder; however, these small differences were more noticeable in the HL-modified asphalt binders. Regarding the HMA’s moisture resistance, the two highest dosages of HL yield the higher TSR value. Meanwhile, in terms of stiffness, only the HL-modified mixtures present a notable enhancement; contrariwise, the liquid ASAs negatively affect the HMAs’ rigidity. Similar results were reported for the rutting resistance, in which only the asphalt concrete with HL has less accumulated permanent deformation than the control mixture. The preceding laboratory evaluations indicate that the mineral ASA technology is superior to the liquid ASA technologies, at least under the conditions and boundaries adopted in this case study. Remarkably, these results are compatible with the recent literature, for instance, Abuawad et al. [5] and Sengul et al. [127].
Although the results of this investigation are promising, it is still early to establish definitive conclusions because (due to the study’s boundaries) the cracking and fracture characterization of the asphalt materials were not performed. The preceding aspects must be addressed in future research lines in order to ensure holistic and inclusivity concerning all the field-performance indicators. Furthermore, it is also necessary to evaluate the mechanisms involved in the asphalt-HL interaction and the influence (at a molecular level) of the physicochemical composition of the raw materials. Identifying these aspects (those that must be explored in detail for the incoming literature) is the main contribution generated by this case study to advancing the state-of-the-art in HMAs.
Finally, it is essential to note that obtaining HMAs with better performance than conventional alternatives could significantly reduce the thicknesses of the HMA layers in asphalt pavements. Therefore, implementing antistripping agents generates environmental and economic implications that would be appropriate to evaluate. For these purposes, the integration of “life cycle assessment” and “life cycle cost analysis” methodologies would be suitable.

5. Conclusions

There is still no consensus in the literature on the impact of ASAs on the properties and performance of HMAs. In this regard, it is still necessary to carry out investigations that address particular cases in order to identify possible trends and improvement opportunities. Thus, this case study makes an important contribution to the state of the art by evaluating the effects of three different ASAs (an amines-based liquid additive, a silanes-based liquid additive, and hydrated lime) on the behaviour of typical Colombian asphalt mixtures. For the assessed materials and considered test conditions, the following key findings and conclusions were drawn:
  • As measured and quantified through the complex shear modulus master curve, the HL additions improve the asphalt binder’s temperature susceptibility and resistance to plastic shear flow, increasing the magnitude of the complex shear modulus. By contrast, the liquid ASAs did not significantly impact the asphalt binder’s rheological response behaviour and temperature sensitivity;
  • All the ASAs evaluated exhibited enhanced resistance to moisture susceptibility of the HMA, with the following order of superiority: HL168-AB, HL112-AB, SLA-AB, ALA-AB, and HL056-AB;
  • Overall, the liquid ASAs tended to soften the asphalt materials, whilst using HL increased its stiffness;
  • It was observed in the uniaxial cyclic compression test that the HL168-AB mixture had the highest resistance to permanent deformation, with minor rutting potential. On the other hand, adding ALA and SLA yields an undesirable increase in the HMA’s permanent deformation by 20% and 57%, respectively;
  • All the laboratory tests identified the HL168-AB mixture as the best performer among all the HMAs evaluated in the study;
  • In addition to moisture susceptibility, it was evident that the inclusion of ASAs can affect other mechanical properties of the HMAs, such as stiffness and rutting resistance. The preceding prompts a balanced strategic approach (comprising multiple laboratory tests) for evaluating HMA performance. This means that the selection of ASAs should not be solely based on humidity sensitivity evaluation but a balanced consideration of other interactive factors and properties that would optimize the overall performance of the HMA.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, G.M.-A. and L.F.; methodology, L.F.W.; software, M.O.; validation, G.M.-A., L.F. and L.F.W.; formal analysis, J.P.; investigation, M.O.; resources, G.M.-A.; data curation, M.O.; writing—original draft preparation, M.O.; writing—review and editing, J.P. and R.P.-M.; visualization, R.P.-M.; supervision, L.F.; project administration, G.M.-A.; funding acquisition, G.M.-A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by Administrative Department of Science, Technology, and Innovation (COLCIENCIAS), grant number 745/2016, and the APC was funded by Universidad del Norte.

Data Availability Statement

Data are contained within the article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Buildings 14 02458 g003
Figure 3. Physical appearance of the liquid ASAs.
Figure 3. Physical appearance of the liquid ASAs.
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Figure 4. Influence of the type of asphalt binder on the HMA’s air voids.
Figure 4. Influence of the type of asphalt binder on the HMA’s air voids.
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Figure 7. Master curves at 25 °C for the different HMAs. Color coding: red—B-AB; blue—HL056-AB; black—HL112-AB; grey—HL168-AB; green—ALA-AB; orange—SLA-AB.
Figure 7. Master curves at 25 °C for the different HMAs. Color coding: red—B-AB; blue—HL056-AB; black—HL112-AB; grey—HL168-AB; green—ALA-AB; orange—SLA-AB.
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Figure 8. Results of the uniaxial cyclic compression test. Color coding: red—B-AB; grey—HL168-AB; green—ALA-AB; orange—SLA-AB.
Figure 8. Results of the uniaxial cyclic compression test. Color coding: red—B-AB; grey—HL168-AB; green—ALA-AB; orange—SLA-AB.
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Table 4. Physical and chemical properties of the liquid ASAs.
Table 4. Physical and chemical properties of the liquid ASAs.
ColorDensity (g/cm3)SolubilitypHFreezing Point (°C)Viscosity (cPs)
ALAAmber0.88Insoluble10–11--
SLAPale yellow1.01Miscible with water105100–500
Table 5. Production temperature ranges.
Table 5. Production temperature ranges.
BinderAbbreviationMixing
Temperatures (°C)		Compaction
Temperature (°C)
Base asphalt binderB-AB150–155140–144
HL (0.56%)-modified asphalt binderHL056-AB157–162146–150
HL (1.12%)-modified asphalt binderHL112-AB163–168152–157
HL (1.68%)-modified asphalt binderHL168-AB164–169153–158
ALA-modified asphalt binderALA-AB148–153138–143
SLA-modified asphalt binderSLA-AB148–153138–143
Table 6. Average variations of stiffness modulus regarding the B-AB mixture.
Table 6. Average variations of stiffness modulus regarding the B-AB mixture.
Temperature (°C)Frequency (Hz)ALA-ABSLA-ABHL056-ABHL112-ABHL168-AB
58+0%+3%+4%+14%+28%
4−3%+2%+4%+16%+26%
2−4%+1%+4%+15%+27%
1−5%+0%+4%+12%+27%
258−16%−1%+29%+33%+36%
4−14%−1%+33%+36%+40%
2−12%+0%+40%+42%+46%
1−11%+0%+45%+45%+51%
408−13%+1%+43%+59%+97%
4−17%+3%+49%+66%+101%
2−17%+0%+49%+68%+98%
1−18%−7%+52%+65%+95%
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MDPI and ACS Style

Orozco, M.; Preciado, J.; Martinez-Arguelles, G.; Fuentes, L.; Walubita, L.F.; Polo-Mendoza, R. Influence of Three Different Antistripping Agents on Moisture Susceptibility, Stiffness, and Rutting Resistance of Hot-Mix Asphalt. Buildings 2024, 14, 2458. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14082458

AMA Style

Orozco M, Preciado J, Martinez-Arguelles G, Fuentes L, Walubita LF, Polo-Mendoza R. Influence of Three Different Antistripping Agents on Moisture Susceptibility, Stiffness, and Rutting Resistance of Hot-Mix Asphalt. Buildings. 2024; 14(8):2458. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14082458

Chicago/Turabian Style

Orozco, Mario, Jaime Preciado, Gilberto Martinez-Arguelles, Luis Fuentes, Lubinda F. Walubita, and Rodrigo Polo-Mendoza. 2024. "Influence of Three Different Antistripping Agents on Moisture Susceptibility, Stiffness, and Rutting Resistance of Hot-Mix Asphalt" Buildings 14, no. 8: 2458. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14082458

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