A Comprehensive Approach to Biodiesel Blend Selection Using GRA-TOPSIS: A Case Study of Waste Cooking Oils in Egypt
Abstract
:1. Introduction
Paper Structure
2. Test Fuel
- Engine performance: The engine performance tests indicated that the biodiesel blends provided comparable power output to petroleum diesel. The B20 blend was particularly effective, providing a good balance between performance and emissions.
- Emissions: The biodiesel blends resulted in lower emissions of carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC), and particulate matter (PM) compared to petroleum diesel. However, nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions were slightly higher for the biodiesel blends.
- Fuel consumption: The fuel consumption for the biodiesel blends was slightly higher than that for petroleum diesel, which was attributed to the lower calorific value of the biodiesel.
3. Modeling Method
3.1. GRA-TOPSIS Method
3.2. The Proposed Framework Algorithm
4. Proposed Framework
- The task involves identifying the criteria for performance and emissions.
- Observations are made to explore the criteria.
- We will utilize the GRA-TOPSIS method to rank the available alternatives.
Evaluation Criteria for Optimal Fuel Mixture
- CO: Emissions of carbon monoxide (CO) are influenced by the fuel’s oxygen and carbon content and combustion efficiency. CO emissions indicate incomplete combustion within the cylinder, primarily due to either insufficient oxygen relative to the theoretical need or a restricted combustion time.
- CO2: Emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the diesel engine reflect the fuel’s combustion efficiency within the combustion chamber—effective combustion results in the conversion of most carbon into CO2.
- NOx: The generation of nitrogen oxides (NOx) is contingent upon the peak temperature of the flame, ignition delay, and the availability of nitrogen and oxygen in the mixture undergoing combustion.
- HC: Hydrocarbons (HCs) in the fuel contribute to the combustion process in the presence of oxygen, with the excess HCs being emitted as unburned hydrocarbons.
- Particulate matter: Airborne pollution, known as particulate matter (PM), consists of particles of varying sizes and complexities.
- Engine power: In physics, power is defined as the rate at which work is performed. In the case of cars, horsepower is also a measure of speed. Engine power can be measured using units such as kilowatts (kW), Pferdestärke (PS), or horsepower (HP).
- Fuel consumption (FC): Fuel consumption refers to the quantity of fuel utilized to travel a specific distance. In the United States, this is measured in gallons per 100 miles, while in Europe and the rest of the world, it is measured in liters per 100 km. Fuel consumption increases for all types of fuels as the engine speed increases while maintaining a constant load.
- Engine noise: When a cylinder is fired in an engine, it produces a pulse that is emitted through the exhaust valves. Engines with more cylinders create pulses at a higher frequency, which results in the engine note.
- Tail noise: The sound produced by the exhaust system of vehicles with internal combustion engines is crucial. It should provide a good engine sound quality while complying with noise regulations and not causing disturbances. The intake and exhaust systems play a vital role in determining the engine noise character and sound pressure level (SPL), and they should be tuned to meet the required performance standards. The engine sound quality should convey information about the engine’s RPM, and the sound should be appropriate for the vehicle type, such as providing a robust and sporty sound during acceleration and being silent during constant-speed driving. This also applies to the exterior sound, where the sound character should match the vehicle’s brand identity.
- Exhaust gas temperature (EGT): The EGT measures the temperature at the back of an engine. It indicates how efficiently the heat energy of the fuel is being used. The location where the EGT is measured may vary between manufacturers, and each engine type has specific limits and norms. Therefore, it is an essential parameter in analyzing the emission values.
5. Experimental Results
5.1. Introduction to Biodiesel in Egypt
5.2. Experimental Setup
5.3. Criteria for Selecting the Best Blend
5.4. GRA-TOPSIS Computation
6. Discussion
7. Conclusions and Future Work
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Test | B100 | Egyptian Diesel Oil | B75 | B50 | B40 | B30 | B20 | B10 | B5 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Density g/cm3 @ 15.56 °C | 0.898 | 0.82–0.87 | 0.88 | 0.87 | 0.866 | 0.862 | 0.858 | 0.854 | 0.852 |
Kinematic viscosity cSt @ 40 °C | 3.8 | 1.6–7 | 3.97 | 4.15 | 4.22 | 4.29 | 4.3 | 4.43 | 4.46 |
Flash point (°C) | 175 | > 55 | 147 | 118 | 106 | 95 | 83 | 72 | 66 |
Cloud point (°C) | 7 | 2 | 5.75 | 4.5 | 4 | 3.5 | 3 | 2.5 | 2.25 |
Pour point (°C) | 4 | 4.5–15 | 5.25 | 6.5 | 7 | 7.5 | 8 | 8.5 | 8.75 |
Cetane number | 56 | 45 | 53 | 51 | 49 | 48.3 | 47.2 | 46.1 | 45.55 |
Total acid number (mg KOH/g) | 0.2 | 0.062 | 0.165 | 0.131 | 0.117 | 0.103 | 0.089 | 0.075 | 0.069 |
Calorific value (MJ/kg) | 42.37 | Min. 44.3 | 42.85 | 43.33 | 43.53 | 43.7 | 43.9 | 44 | 44.2 |
Copper strip corrosion 3 h @ 50 °C | 1 A | 1 A | 1 A | 1 A | 1 A | 1 A | 1 A | 1 A | 1 A |
Model | ‘Robin’-Fuji DY23D. |
Type | 4 cycle, overhead valve, single cylinder |
Piston displacement | 230 cm3. |
Bore/stoke | 70 × 60 mm. |
Compression ratio | 21 |
Nominal output | 3.5 kW at 3600 rev/min. |
Maximum torque | 10.5 Nm at 2200 rev/min. |
Cooling | Forced air cooling |
Lubrication | Forced oil lubrication |
Injection type | Direct injection (DI) |
Constituent | Symbol | Scale | Unit | Resolution |
---|---|---|---|---|
Carbon monoxide | CO | 0–9.99 | % vol. | 0.01 |
Carbon dioxide | CO2 | 0–19.9 | % vol. | 0.1 |
Total hydrocarbon | HC | 0–9999 | Ppm | 1 |
Oxygen | O2 | 0-25 | % vol. | 0.01 |
Oxides of nitrogen | NOx | 0–5000 | Ppm | 10 |
Maximum sound level | 135 db |
Minimum sound level | 35 db |
Resolution | 0.1 db |
Accuracy class | IEC 651 Type 2 |
Weighting | 200 g |
Display type | LCD |
Supply | 9 V PP3-type battery supplied |
Dimensions (mm): | 240 × 68 × 25 |
Maximum frequency | 12 kHz |
Maximum operating temperature | +50 °C |
Minimum frequency | 30 Hz |
Minimum operating temperature | 0 °C |
Model numer | RO 1350A |
Load % | Fuel | CO, %vol | CO2, %vol | NOx, ppm | HC, ppm | PM, ppm | Engine Power, Kw | Fuel Cons., kg/h | Engine Noise, db | Tail Noise, db | Exhaust Temp. C |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
0% | Diesel | 0.04 | 1.4 | 76 | 18 | 17.5 | 0.23 | 0.228 | 90 | 66 | 95 |
B5 | 0.06 | 1.1 | 20 | 31 | 7.8 | 0.228 | 0.229 | 89 | 67.5 | 98 | |
B10 | 0.05 | 1.3 | 28 | 38 | 4.7 | 0.221 | 0.232 | 88.7 | 67.4 | 105 | |
B20 | 0.05 | 1.1 | 37 | 34 | 4.4 | 0.211 | 0.238 | 90.8 | 68.1 | 108 | |
B30 | 0.05 | 1.2 | 11 | 37 | 4.27 | 0.2 | 0.241 | 91.7 | 69.3 | 115 | |
B50 | 0.05 | 1.22 | 14 | 28 | 6.9 | 0.191 | 0.249 | 92.1 | 71.5 | 120 | |
B75 | 0.05 | 1.4 | 16 | 22 | 10.1 | 0.182 | 0.232 | 94.7 | 79.4 | 110 | |
B100 | 0.06 | 1.3 | 20 | 20 | 7.2 | 0.17 | 0.239 | 95.1 | 81.3 | 120 | |
15% | Diesel | 0.04 | 1.6 | 89 | 42 | 17.3 | 0.354 | 0.231 | 90.7 | 69 | 115 |
B5 | 0.05 | 1.4 | 43 | 29 | 6 | 0.341 | 0.228 | 89.3 | 68.3 | 120 | |
B10 | 0.06 | 1.6 | 47 | 43 | 2.9 | 0.311 | 0.234 | 90.8 | 68.8 | 125 | |
B20 | 0.05 | 1.6 | 49 | 38 | 6.8 | 0.294 | 0.241 | 91.3 | 69.4 | 125 | |
B30 | 0.08 | 1.6 | 55 | 38 | 4.5 | 0.286 | 0.253 | 92.1 | 69.8 | 130 | |
B50 | 0.06 | 2.1 | 46 | 29 | 9.6 | 0.262 | 0.278 | 94.6 | 73.7 | 130 | |
B75 | 0.04 | 1.7 | 48 | 25 | 9.6 | 0.255 | 0.289 | 94.2 | 80.2 | 125 | |
B100 | 0.06 | 1.8 | 49 | 19 | 7.8 | 0.241 | 0.317 | 94.3 | 81.6 | 125 | |
25% | Diesel | 0.04 | 2.2 | 169 | 18 | 23.1 | 0.57 | 0.255 | 92 | 70.4 | 120 |
B5 | 0.06 | 1.4 | 46 | 30 | 5.9 | 0.56 | 0.258 | 91.3 | 70 | 125 | |
B10 | 0.06 | 1.5 | 52 | 34 | 6.9 | 0.521 | 0.263 | 91.8 | 70.2 | 125 | |
B20 | 0.05 | 1.6 | 59 | 39 | 10.3 | 0.495 | 0.269 | 91 | 70.4 | 135 | |
B30 | 0.05 | 1.6 | 66 | 37 | 7.8 | 0.421 | 0.287 | 91.7 | 70.5 | 140 | |
B50 | 0.6 | 1.8 | 81 | 32 | 8.5 | 0.383 | 0.291 | 92.5 | 72 | 135 | |
B75 | 0.6 | 1.9 | 89 | 27 | 9.4 | 0.364 | 0.31 | 94 | 74.1 | 135 | |
B100 | 0.07 | 2.2 | 111 | 31 | 11.7 | 0.311 | 0.342 | 94.8 | 78.2 | 140 | |
35% | Diesel | 0.07 | 2.4 | 146 | 48 | 26.7 | 1.3 | 0.278 | 92.8 | 69 | 140 |
B5 | 0.05 | 1.5 | 155 | 27 | 8.9 | 1.24 | 0.292 | 89.3 | 68.3 | 150 | |
B10 | 0.05 | 1.6 | 161 | 45 | 10.1 | 1.09 | 0.311 | 90.8 | 68.8 | 135 | |
B20 | 0.05 | 1.8 | 159 | 39 | 11.7 | 1.01 | 0.332 | 91.3 | 69.4 | 125 | |
B30 | 0.05 | 2.1 | 166 | 46 | 21.6 | 0.987 | 0.358 | 92.1 | 69.8 | 155 | |
B50 | 0.06 | 2.2 | 177 | 26 | 13.9 | 0.94 | 0.398 | 94.6 | 73.7 | 150 | |
B75 | 0.06 | 2.7 | 179 | 26 | 13.1 | 0.951 | 0.411 | 94.2 | 80.2 | 150 | |
B100 | 0.07 | 3.3 | 201 | 30 | 12.6 | 0.943 | 0.478 | 94.3 | 81.6 | 125 | |
50% | Diesel | 0.07 | 2.8 | 203 | 20 | 29.3 | 1.42 | 0.312 | 93.2 | 71.5 | 145 |
B5 | 0.05 | 1.5 | 62 | 27 | 12.4 | 1.4 | 0.329 | 93 | 72 | 150 | |
B10 | 0.06 | 1.8 | 71 | 31 | 11.1 | 1.34 | 0.387 | 93.3 | 73.4 | 145 | |
B20 | 0.05 | 1.8 | 79 | 37 | 28.2 | 1.31 | 0.399 | 93.9 | 74.5 | 155 | |
B30 | 0.08 | 2.9 | 59 | 42 | 21.6 | 1.28 | 0.426 | 94.6 | 71.9 | 165 | |
B50 | 0.07 | 2.9 | 144 | 35 | 16.8 | 1.19 | 0.439 | 94 | 75 | 160 | |
B75 | 0.06 | 2.7 | 168 | 26 | 15.1 | 1.1 | 0.489 | 94.4 | 82.2 | 150 | |
B100 | 0.07 | 3.1 | 179 | 30 | 12.6 | 0.91 | 0.578 | 94.7 | 83.4 | 125 | |
65% | Diesel | 0.14 | 2.6 | 179 | 22 | 41 | 1.316 | 1.131 | 93.7 | 70.7 | 150 |
B5 | 0.06 | 1.8 | 101 | 19 | 15.6 | 1.312 | 1.137 | 93.2 | 69.4 | 150 | |
B10 | 0.05 | 1.7 | 67 | 43 | 3.6 | 1.287 | 1.149 | 90.8 | 68.7 | 135 | |
B20 | 0.05 | 1.8 | 79 | 37 | 28.2 | 1.272 | 1.178 | 94.7 | 70.8 | 125 | |
B30 | 0.08 | 2.9 | 59 | 42 | 21.6 | 1.202 | 1.21 | 94.6 | 71.9 | 165 | |
B50 | 0.05 | 2.3 | 149 | 34 | 10.6 | 1.047 | 1.292 | 94.9 | 77.2 | 140 | |
B75 | 0.09 | 3 | 178 | 31 | 23.2 | 0.986 | 1.329 | 95.5 | 82.9 | 155 | |
B100 | 0.18 | 3.6 | 180 | 33 | 15.4 | 0.912 | 1.362 | 96.4 | 83.2 | 150 |
Load % | Fuel | CO, %vol | CO2, %vol | NOx, ppm | HC, ppm | PM, ppm | Engine Power, Kw | Fuel Cons., kg/h | Engine Noise, db | Tail Noise, db | Exhaust Temp. C |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
No Load 0% | Diesel | 0.274 | 0.393 | 0.788 | 0.216 | 0.698 | 0.396 | 0.341 | 0.347 | 0.326 | 0.307 |
B5 | 0.411 | 0.309 | 0.207 | 0.372 | 0.311 | 0.392 | 0.342 | 0.343 | 0.333 | 0.317 | |
B10 | 0.342 | 0.365 | 0.290 | 0.456 | 0.187 | 0.380 | 0.347 | 0.342 | 0.333 | 0.339 | |
B20 | 0.342 | 0.309 | 0.383 | 0.408 | 0.175 | 0.363 | 0.356 | 0.350 | 0.336 | 0.349 | |
B30 | 0.342 | 0.337 | 0.114 | 0.444 | 0.170 | 0.344 | 0.360 | 0.354 | 0.342 | 0.372 | |
B50 | 0.342 | 0.343 | 0.145 | 0.336 | 0.275 | 0.329 | 0.372 | 0.355 | 0.353 | 0.388 | |
B75 | 0.342 | 0.393 | 0.165 | 0.264 | 0.402 | 0.313 | 0.347 | 0.365 | 0.392 | 0.356 | |
B100 | 0.411 | 0.365 | 0.207 | 0.240 | 0.287 | 0.292 | 0.357 | 0.367 | 0.401 | 0.388 | |
15% | Diesel | 0.250 | 0.335 | 0.571 | 0.438 | 0.675 | 0.423 | 0.313 | 0.347 | 0.335 | 0.326 |
B5 | 0.313 | 0.293 | 0.276 | 0.302 | 0.234 | 0.408 | 0.309 | 0.342 | 0.331 | 0.340 | |
B10 | 0.376 | 0.335 | 0.301 | 0.449 | 0.113 | 0.372 | 0.317 | 0.348 | 0.334 | 0.355 | |
B20 | 0.313 | 0.335 | 0.314 | 0.396 | 0.265 | 0.351 | 0.326 | 0.350 | 0.337 | 0.355 | |
B30 | 0.501 | 0.335 | 0.353 | 0.396 | 0.175 | 0.342 | 0.343 | 0.353 | 0.339 | 0.369 | |
B50 | 0.376 | 0.440 | 0.295 | 0.302 | 0.375 | 0.313 | 0.377 | 0.362 | 0.358 | 0.369 | |
B75 | 0.250 | 0.356 | 0.308 | 0.261 | 0.375 | 0.305 | 0.392 | 0.361 | 0.389 | 0.355 | |
B100 | 0.376 | 0.377 | 0.314 | 0.198 | 0.304 | 0.288 | 0.429 | 0.361 | 0.396 | 0.355 | |
25% | Diesel | 0.046 | 0.432 | 0.647 | 0.201 | 0.702 | 0.436 | 0.315 | 0.352 | 0.345 | 0.321 |
B5 | 0.069 | 0.275 | 0.176 | 0.335 | 0.179 | 0.428 | 0.319 | 0.349 | 0.343 | 0.334 | |
B10 | 0.069 | 0.294 | 0.199 | 0.380 | 0.209 | 0.398 | 0.325 | 0.351 | 0.344 | 0.334 | |
B20 | 0.058 | 0.314 | 0.226 | 0.436 | 0.313 | 0.378 | 0.332 | 0.348 | 0.345 | 0.361 | |
B30 | 0.058 | 0.314 | 0.253 | 0.414 | 0.237 | 0.322 | 0.355 | 0.350 | 0.346 | 0.374 | |
B50 | 0.698 | 0.353 | 0.310 | 0.358 | 0.258 | 0.293 | 0.360 | 0.353 | 0.353 | 0.361 | |
B75 | 0.698 | 0.373 | 0.341 | 0.302 | 0.285 | 0.278 | 0.383 | 0.359 | 0.363 | 0.361 | |
B100 | 0.081 | 0.432 | 0.425 | 0.346 | 0.355 | 0.237 | 0.423 | 0.362 | 0.383 | 0.374 | |
35% | Diesel | 0.426 | 0.373 | 0.305 | 0.458 | 0.593 | 0.431 | 0.270 | 0.354 | 0.335 | 0.349 |
B5 | 0.304 | 0.233 | 0.3247 | 0.258 | 0.197 | 0.411 | 0.284 | 0.341 | 0.331 | 0.374 | |
B10 | 0.304 | 0.249 | 0.337 | 0.430 | 0.224 | 0.361 | 0.303 | 0.347 | 0.334 | 0.336 | |
B20 | 0.304 | 0.280 | 0.333 | 0.372 | 0.260 | 0.335 | 0.323 | 0.349 | 0.337 | 0.311 | |
B30 | 0.304 | 0.327 | 0.333 | 0.439 | 0.480 | 0.327 | 0.348 | 0.352 | 0.339 | 0.386 | |
B50 | 0.365 | 0.342 | 0.370 | 0.248 | 0.309 | 0.311 | 0.387 | 0.361 | 0.358 | 0.374 | |
B75 | 0.365 | 0.420 | 0.374 | 0.248 | 0.291 | 0.315 | 0.400 | 0.360 | 0.389 | 0.374 | |
B100 | 0.426 | 0.513 | 0.421 | 0.286 | 0.280 | 0.312 | 0.465 | 0.360 | 0.396 | 0.311 | |
50% | Diesel | 0.383 | 0.394 | 0.540 | 0.223 | 0.529 | 0.400 | 0.258 | 0.350 | 0.334 | 0.342 |
B5 | 0.273 | 0.211 | 0.165 | 0.301 | 0.223 | 0.394 | 0.272 | 0.350 | 0.336 | 0.354 | |
B10 | 0.328 | 0.253 | 0.189 | 0.346 | 0.200 | 0.377 | 0.320 | 0.351 | 0.343 | 0.342 | |
B20 | 0.273 | 0.253 | 0.210 | 0.413 | 0.509 | 0.369 | 0.329 | 0.353 | 0.348 | 0.365 | |
B30 | 0.438 | 0.408 | 0.157 | 0.468 | 0.390 | 0.360 | 0.352 | 0.356 | 0.336 | 0.389 | |
B50 | 0.383 | 0.408 | 0.383 | 0.390 | 0.303 | 0.335 | 0.363 | 0.353 | 0.350 | 0.377 | |
B75 | 0.328 | 0.380 | 0.447 | 0.290 | 0.272 | 0.310 | 0.404 | 0.355 | 0.384 | 0.354 | |
B100 | 0.383 | 0.437 | 0.477 | 0.33 | 0.227 | 0.256 | 0.478 | 0.356 | 0.389 | 0.295 | |
65% | Diesel | 0.502 | 0.361 | 0.473 | 0.231 | 0.641 | 0.395 | 0.326 | 0.351 | 0.335 | 0.361 |
B5 | 0.215 | 0.250 | 0.267 | 0.199 | 0.244 | 0.394 | 0.327 | 0.349 | 0.329 | 0.361 | |
B10 | 0.179 | 0.236 | 0.177 | 0.452 | 0.056 | 0.386 | 0.331 | 0.340 | 0.325 | 0.325 | |
B20 | 0.179 | 0.250 | 0.209 | 0.389 | 0.441 | 0.382 | 0.339 | 0.355 | 0.335 | 0.301 | |
B30 | 0.287 | 0.402 | 0.156 | 0.441 | 0.337 | 0.361 | 0.348 | 0.354 | 0.340 | 0.397 | |
B50 | 0.179 | 0.319 | 0.394 | 0.357 | 0.165 | 0.314 | 0.372 | 0.356 | 0.366 | 0.337 | |
B75 | 0.323 | 0.416 | 0.471 | 0.326 | 0.362 | 0.296 | 0.383 | 0.358 | 0.393 | 0.373 | |
B100 | 0.646 | 0.500 | 0.476 | 0.347 | 0.240 | 0.274 | 0.392 | 0.361 | 0.394 | 0.361 |
Load % | CO, %vol | CO2, %vol | NOx, ppm | HC, ppm | PM, ppm | Engine Power, Kw | Fuel Cons., kg/h | Engine Noise, db | Tail Noise, db | Exhaust Temp. C |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
0% | 0.274 | 0.309 | 0.114 | 0.216 | 0.170 | 0.396 | 0.341 | 0.342 | 0.326 | 0.307 |
15% | 0.250 | 0.293 | 0.276 | 0.198 | 0.113 | 0.423 | 0.309 | 0.342 | 0.331 | 0.326 |
25% | 0.046 | 0.275 | 0.176 | 0.201 | 0.179 | 0.436 | 0.315 | 0.348 | 0.343 | 0.321 |
35% | 0.304 | 0.233 | 0.305 | 0.248 | 0.197 | 0.431 | 0.271 | 0.341 | 0.331 | 0.311 |
50% | 0.273 | 0.211 | 0.157 | 0.223 | 0.200 | 0.400 | 0.258 | 0.350 | 0.334 | 0.295 |
65% | 0.179 | 0.236 | 0.156 | 0.199 | 0.056 | 0.395 | 0.326 | 0.341 | 0.325 | 0.302 |
Load % | CO, %vol | CO2, %vol | NOx, ppm | HC, ppm | PM, ppm | Engine Power, Kw | Fuel Cons., kg/h | Engine Noise, db | Tail Noise, db | Exhaust Temp. C |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
0% | 0.411 | 0.393 | 0.787 | 0.456 | 0.698 | 0.292 | 0.372 | 0.367 | 0.401 | 0.388 |
15% | 0.501 | 0.440 | 0.571 | 0.449 | 0.675 | 0.288 | 0.429 | 0.362 | 0.396 | 0.369 |
25% | 0.698 | 0.432 | 0.647 | 0.436 | 0.702 | 0.237 | 0.423 | 0.362 | 0.383 | 0.374 |
35% | 0.426 | 0.513 | 0.421 | 0.458 | 0.593 | 0.311 | 0.465 | 0.361 | 0.396 | 0.386 |
50% | 0.438 | 0.437 | 0.541 | 0.468 | 0.529 | 0.256 | 0.478 | 0.356 | 0.389 | 0.389 |
65% | 0.646 | 0.500 | 0.476 | 0.452 | 0.641 | 0.274 | 0.392 | 0.361 | 0.394 | 0.397 |
PIS | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Alternatives Criteria | Diesel | B5 | B10 | B20 | B30 | B50 | B75 | B100 | |
0% | CO, %vol | 1.000 | 0.333 | 0.499 | 0.499 | 0.499 | 0.499 | 0.499 | 0.333 |
CO2, %vol | 0.335 | 1.000 | 0.431 | 1.000 | 0.602 | 0.558 | 0.335 | 0.431 | |
NOx, ppm | 0.333 | 0.783 | 0.656 | 0.555 | 1.000 | 0.915 | 0.866 | 0.783 | |
HC, ppm | 1.000 | 0.434 | 0.333 | 0.384 | 0.344 | 0.499 | 0.713 | 0.831 | |
PM, ppm | 0.333 | 0.652 | 0.939 | 0.980 | 1.000 | 0.715 | 0.532 | 0.693 | |
Engine power, Kw | 1.000 | 0.949 | 0.777 | 0.618 | 0.504 | 0.438 | 0.387 | 0.335 | |
Fuel cons., kg/h | 1.000 | 1.000 | 0.732 | 0.522 | 0.456 | 0.342 | 0.732 | 0.498 | |
Engine noise, db | 0.724 | 0.919 | 1.000 | 0.620 | 0.533 | 0.501 | 0.363 | 0.348 | |
Tail noise, db | 1.000 | 0.837 | 0.846 | 0.786 | 0.700 | 0.584 | 0.365 | 0.335 | |
Exhaust temp., C | 1.000 | 0.809 | 0.560 | 0.494 | 0.389 | 0.337 | 0.459 | 0.337 | |
15% | CO, %vol | 1.000 | 0.669 | 0.502 | 0.669 | 0.335 | 0.502 | 1.000 | 0.502 |
CO2, %vol | 0.639 | 1.00 | 0.639 | 0.639 | 0.639 | 0.335 | 0.541 | 0.469 | |
NOx, ppm | 0.333 | 1.000 | 0.852 | 0.793 | 0.657 | 0.884 | 0.821 | 0.793 | |
HC, ppm | 0.343 | 0.546 | 0.334 | 0.388 | 0.388 | 0.546 | 0.667 | 1.000 | |
PM, ppm | 0.333 | 0.699 | 1.000 | 0.648 | 0.818 | 0.518 | 0.518 | 0.595 | |
Engine power, Kw | 1.000 | 0.826 | 0.574 | 0.490 | 0.458 | 0.384 | 0.366 | 0.336 | |
Fuel cons., kg/h | 0.937 | 1.000 | 0.881 | 0.775 | 0.641 | 0.472 | 0.423 | 0.334 | |
Engine noise, db | 0.670 | 1.000 | 0.654 | 0.587 | 0.504 | 0.349 | 0.367 | 0.362 | |
Tail noise, db | 0.907 | 1.000 | 0.932 | 0.862 | 1.000 | 0.560 | 0.367 | 0.341 | |
Exhaust temp., C | 1.000 | 0.611 | 0.440 | 0.440 | 0.343 | 0.343 | 0.440 | 0.440 | |
25% | CO, %vol | 1.000 | 0.933 | 0.933 | 0.965 | 0.965 | 0.333 | 0.333 | 0.903 |
CO2, %vol | 0.334 | 1.000 | 0.800 | 0.667 | 0.667 | 0.501 | 0.445 | 0.334 | |
NOx, ppm | 0.333 | 1.000 | 0.911 | 0.825 | 0.755 | 0.637 | 0.589 | 0.486 | |
HC, ppm | 1.000 | 0.468 | 0.397 | 0.334 | 0.357 | 0.429 | 0.539 | 0.448 | |
PM, ppm | 0.333 | 1.000 | 0.896 | 0.662 | 0.819 | 0.768 | 0.711 | 0.597 | |
Engine power, Kw | 1.000 | 0.930 | 0.727 | 0.634 | 0.465 | 0.409 | 0.386 | 0.333 | |
Fuel cons., kg/h | 1.000 | 0.936 | 0.846 | 0.759 | 0.579 | 0.550 | 0.445 | 0.336 | |
Engine noise, db | 0.664 | 0.868 | 0.712 | 1.000 | 0.739 | 0.569 | 0.397 | 0.342 | |
Tail noise, db | 0.914 | 1.000 | 0.955 | 0.914 | 0.895 | 0.681 | 0.511 | 0.343 | |
Exhaust temp., C | 1.000 | 0.669 | 0.669 | 0.403 | 0.336 | 0.403 | 0.403 | 0.336 | |
35% | CO, %vol | 0.334 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 0.501 | 0.507 | 0.334 |
CO2, %vol | 0.501 | 1.000 | 0.900 | 0.751 | 0.601 | 0.564 | 0.430 | 0.334 | |
NOx, ppm | 1.000 | 0.757 | 0.652 | 0.683 | 0.683 | 0.475 | 0.459 | 0.338 | |
HC, ppm | 0.334 | 0.917 | 0.368 | 0.460 | 0.356 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 0.734 | |
PM, ppm | 0.334 | 1.000 | 0.881 | 0.762 | 0.413 | 0.641 | 0.680 | 0.707 | |
Engine power, Kw | 1.000 | 0.755 | 0.463 | 0.384 | 0.366 | 0.334 | 0.341 | 0.336 | |
Fuel cons., kg/h | 1.000 | 0.879 | 0.753 | 0.650 | 0.556 | 0.455 | 0.429 | 0.333 | |
Engine noise, db | 0.449 | 1.000 | 0.655 | 0.588 | 0.505 | 0.350 | 0.368 | 0.363 | |
Tail noise, db | 0.907 | 1.000 | 0.932 | 0.862 | 1.000 | 0.560 | 0.367 | 0.341 | |
Exhaust temp., C | 0.509 | 0.383 | 0.608 | 1.000 | 0.341 | 0.383 | 0.383 | 1.000 | |
50% | CO, %vol | 0.432 | 1.000 | 0.604 | 1.000 | 0.337 | 0.432 | 0.604 | 0.432 |
CO2, %vol | 0.382 | 1.000 | 0.728 | 0.728 | 0.365 | 0.365 | 0.401 | 0.334 | |
NOx, ppm | 0.333 | 1.000 | 0.893 | 0.815 | 1.000 | 0.459 | 0.398 | 0.375 | |
HC, ppm | 1.000 | 0.611 | 0.500 | 0.393 | 0.334 | 0.423 | 0.647 | 0.524 | |
PM, ppm | 0.334 | 0.875 | 1.000 | 0.348 | 0.465 | 0.615 | 0.695 | 0.858 | |
Engine power, Kw | 1.000 | 0.935 | 0.767 | 0.703 | 0.650 | 0.529 | 0.445 | 0.334 | |
Fuel cons., kg/h | 1.000 | 0.886 | 0.639 | 0.604 | 0.538 | 0.511 | 0.429 | 0.333 | |
Engine noise, db | 0.823 | 1.000 | 0.756 | 0.508 | 0.367 | 0.482 | 0.399 | 0.353 | |
Tail noise, db | 1.000 | 0.923 | 0.761 | 0.668 | 0.937 | 0.633 | 0.361 | 0.337 | |
Exhaust temp., C | 0.499 | 0.444 | 0.499 | 0.399 | 0.333 | 0.363 | 0.444 | 1.000 | |
65% | CO, %vol | 0.420 | 0.867 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 0.684 | 1.000 | 0.619 | 0.334 |
CO2, %vol | 0.514 | 0.908 | 1.000 | 0.904 | 0.442 | 0.613 | 0.422 | 0.333 | |
NOx, ppm | 0.335 | 0.590 | 0.883 | 0.751 | 1.000 | 0.402 | 0.337 | 0.333 | |
HC, ppm | 0.801 | 1.000 | 0.335 | 0.392 | 0.335 | 0.447 | 0.502 | 0.464 | |
PM, ppm | 0.333 | 0.609 | 1.000 | 0.432 | 0.509 | 0.727 | 0.488 | 0.613 | |
Engine power, Kw | 1.000 | 0.996 | 0.887 | 0.832 | 0.646 | 0.432 | 0.382 | 0.336 | |
Fuel cons., kg/h | 1.000 | 0.949 | 0.846 | 0.710 | 0.593 | 0.417 | 0.368 | 0.333 | |
Engine noise, db | 0.511 | 0.562 | 1.000 | 0.433 | 0.440 | 0.420 | 0.386 | 0.344 | |
Tail noise, db | 0.789 | 0.914 | 1.000 | 0.781 | 0.700 | 0.468 | 0.345 | 0.340 | |
Exhaust temp., C | 0.452 | 0.452 | 0.682 | 1.000 | 0.338 | 0.584 | 0.407 | 0.452 |
NIS | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Alternatives Criteria | Diesel | B5 | B10 | B20 | B30 | B50 | B75 | B100 | |
0% | CO, %vol | 0.333 | 1.000 | 0.501 | 0.501 | 0.501 | 0.501 | 0.501 | 1.000 |
CO2, %vol | 1.000 | 0.338 | 0.613 | 0.338 | 0.436 | 0.462 | 1.000 | 0.613 | |
NOx, ppm | 1.000 | 0.368 | 0.405 | 0.456 | 0.334 | 0.344 | 0.352 | 0.368 | |
HC, ppm | 0.335 | 0.593 | 1.000 | 0.721 | 0.919 | 0.503 | 0.387 | 0.359 | |
PM, ppm | 1.000 | 0.405 | 0.340 | 0.335 | 0.333 | 0.384 | 0.472 | 0.391 | |
Engine power, Kw | 0.339 | 0.347 | 0.376 | 0.429 | 0.506 | 0.594 | 0.719 | 1.000 | |
Fuel cons., kg/h | 0.352 | 0.364 | 0.405 | 0.523 | 0.612 | 1.000 | 0.405 | 0.550 | |
Engine noise, db | 0.395 | 0.352 | 0.341 | 0.438 | 0.499 | 0.532 | 0.930 | 1.000 | |
Tail noise, db | 0.341 | 0.366 | 0.363 | 0.376 | 0.399 | 0.450 | 0.834 | 1.000 | |
Exhaust temp., C | 0.336 | 0.366 | 0.460 | 0.517 | 0.726 | 1.000 | 0.563 | 1.000 | |
15% | CO, %vol | 0.335 | 0.403 | 0.504 | 0.403 | 1.000 | 0.504 | 0.335 | 0.504 |
CO2, %vol | 0.414 | 0.335 | 0.414 | 0.414 | 0.414 | 1.000 | 0.469 | 0.542 | |
NOx, ppm | 1.000 | 0.335 | 0.355 | 0.367 | 0.405 | 0.350 | 0.361 | 0.367 | |
HC, ppm | 0.923 | 0.461 | 1.000 | 0.706 | 0.706 | 0.461 | 0.400 | 0.333 | |
PM, ppm | 1.000 | 0.390 | 0.334 | 0.408 | 0.361 | 0.484 | 0.484 | 0.432 | |
Engine power, Kw | 0.335 | 0.363 | 0.448 | 0.518 | 0.558 | 0.730 | 0.802 | 1.000 | |
Fuel cons., kg/h | 0.346 | 0.338 | 0.354 | 0.375 | 0.417 | 0.544 | 0.628 | 1.000 | |
Engine noise, db | 0.421 | 0.344 | 0.428 | 0.466 | 0.544 | 0.951 | 0.963 | 1.000 | |
Tail noise, db | 0.350 | 0.337 | 0.346 | 0.357 | 0.365 | 0.464 | 0.845 | 1.000 | |
Exhaust temp. C | 0.337 | 0.435 | 0.611 | 0.611 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 0.611 | 0.611 | |
25% | CO, %vol | 0.333 | 0.341 | 0.341 | 0.337 | 0.337 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 0.345 |
CO2, %vol | 1.000 | 0.335 | 0.366 | 0.403 | 0.403 | 0.504 | 0.577 | 1.000 | |
NOx, ppm | 1.000 | 0.334 | 0.346 | 0.360 | 0.375 | 0.413 | 0.436 | 0.517 | |
HC, ppm | 0.334 | 0.541 | 0.681 | 1.000 | 0.845 | 0.603 | 0.468 | 0.570 | |
PM, ppm | 1.000 | 0.334 | 0.347 | 0.403 | 0.360 | 0.371 | 0.386 | 0.431 | |
Engine power, Kw | 0.336 | 0.345 | 0.384 | 0.416 | 0.544 | 0.645 | 0.712 | 1.000 | |
Fuel cons., kg/h | 0.377 | 0.368 | 0.386 | 0.411 | 0.383 | 0.611 | 0.715 | 1.000 | |
Engine noise, db | 0.453 | 0.391 | 0.433 | 0.369 | 0.424 | 0.511 | 0.830 | 1.000 | |
Tail noise, db | 0.359 | 0.347 | 0.353 | 0.359 | 0.363 | 0.417 | 0.527 | 1.000 | |
Exhaust temp., C | 0.343 | 0.413 | 0.413 | 0.697 | 1.000 | 0.697 | 0.697 | 1.000 | |
35% | CO, %vol | 1.000 | 0.333 | 0.333 | 0.333 | 0.333 | 0.500 | 0.500 | 1.000 |
CO2, %vol | 0.503 | 0.335 | 0.348 | 0.377 | 0.431 | 0.453 | 0.605 | 1.000 | |
NOx, ppm | 0.333 | 0.374 | 0.407 | 0.395 | 0.395 | 0.534 | 0.555 | 1.000 | |
HC, ppm | 1.000 | 0.346 | 0.795 | 0.555 | 0.857 | 0.335 | 0.335 | 0.382 | |
PM, ppm | 1.000 | 0.334 | 0.350 | 0.374 | 0.639 | 0.412 | 0.397 | 0.388 | |
Engine power, Kw | 0.333 | 0.379 | 0.550 | 0.724 | 0.796 | 1.000 | 0.943 | 0.983 | |
Fuel cons., kg/h | 0.335 | 0.352 | 0.377 | 0.409 | 0.458 | 0.561 | 0.604 | 1.000 | |
Engine noise, db | 0.637 | 0.345 | 0.429 | 0.467 | 0.544 | 0.955 | 0.963 | 1.000 | |
Tail noise, db | 0.350 | 0.337 | 0.346 | 0.357 | 0.365 | 0.464 | 0.845 | 1.000 | |
Exhaust temp., C | 0.513 | 0.775 | 0.438 | 0.340 | 1.000 | 0.775 | 0.775 | 0.340 | |
50% | CO, %vol | 0.604 | 0.334 | 0.430 | 0.334 | 1.000 | 0.604 | 0.430 | 0.604 |
CO2, %vol | 0.728 | 0.333 | 0.381 | 0.381 | 0.801 | 0.801 | 0.667 | 1.000 | |
NOx, ppm | 1.000 | 0.338 | 0.352 | 0.367 | 0.333 | 0.549 | 0.672 | 0.749 | |
HC, ppm | 0.335 | 0.426 | 0.504 | 0.695 | 1.000 | 0.617 | 0.410 | 0.482 | |
PM, ppm | 1.000 | 0.350 | 0.333 | 0.893 | 0.542 | 0.421 | 0.390 | 0.353 | |
Engine power, Kw | 0.335 | 0.344 | 0.374 | 0.392 | 0.410 | 0.479 | 0.575 | 1.000 | |
Fuel cons., kg/h | 0.333 | 0.348 | 0.410 | 0.426 | 0.466 | 0.489 | 0.599 | 1.000 | |
Engine noise, db | 0.393 | 0.359 | 0.413 | 0.589 | 1.000 | 0.634 | 0.913 | 0.892 | |
Tail noise, db | 0.344 | 0.355 | 0.386 | 0.416 | 0.353 | 0.430 | 0.884 | 1.000 | |
Exhaust temp., C | 0.505 | 0.578 | 0.505 | 0.675 | 1.000 | 0.812 | 0.578 | 0.336 | |
65% | CO, %vol | 0.619 | 0.351 | 0.333 | 0.333 | 0.394 | 0.333 | 0.419 | 1.000 |
CO2, %vol | 0.488 | 0.346 | 0.333 | 0.346 | 0.577 | 0.423 | 0.614 | 1.000 | |
NOx, ppm | 0.989 | 0.435 | 0.349 | 0.375 | 0.334 | 0.663 | 0.973 | 1.000 | |
HC, ppm | 0.364 | 0.334 | 1.000 | 0.670 | 0.929 | 0.574 | 0.502 | 0.547 | |
PM, ppm | 1.000 | 0.424 | 0.333 | 0.594 | 0.491 | 0.381 | 0.513 | 0.422 | |
Engine power, Kw | 0.333 | 0.335 | 0.350 | 0.359 | 0.410 | 0.599 | 0.731 | 1.000 | |
Fuel cons., kg/h | 0.339 | 0.345 | 0.358 | 0.393 | 0.440 | 0.639 | 0.802 | 1.000 | |
Engine noise, db | 0.551 | 0.503 | 0.355 | 0.682 | 0.666 | 0.715 | 0.840 | 1.000 | |
Tail noise, db | 0.373 | 0.349 | 0.338 | 0.375 | 0.397 | 0.558 | 0.989 | 1.000 | |
Exhaust temp. C | 0.961 | 0.961 | 0.926 | 0.903 | 1.000 | 0.937 | 0.974 | 0.961 |
Alternatives | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
PIS | ||||||||
Load | Diesel | B5 | B10 | B20 | B30 | B50 | B75 | B100 |
0% | 0.834008 | 0.68486 | 0.620825 | 0.594875 | 0.541341 | 0.506731 | 0.542906 | 0.53322 |
15% | 0.677057 | 0.739079 | 0.602257 | 0.564207 | 0.518041 | 0.473721 | 0.569517 | 0.588976 |
25% | 0.824281 | 0.789834 | 0.712438 | 0.626605 | 0.594418 | 0.501206 | 0.483488 | 0.466317 |
35% | 0.520669 | 0.847483 | 0.669747 | 0.712195 | 0.51952 | 0.600153 | 0.587785 | 0.590402 |
50% | 0.698708 | 0.781893 | 0.661906 | 0.545067 | 0.443669 | 0.466289 | 0.530461 | 0.570679 |
65% | 0.611309 | 0.781412 | 0.765402 | 0.676217 | 0.489992 | 0.571023 | 0.453124 | 0.421888 |
Alternatives | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
NIS | ||||||||
Load | Diesel | B5 | B10 | B20 | B30 | B50 | B75 | B100 |
0% | 0.483568 | 0.493329 | 0.560649 | 0.509861 | 0.609658 | 0.60105 | 0.55936 | 0.69238 |
15% | 0.597721 | 0.398929 | 0.579737 | 0.516884 | 0.654961 | 0.64191 | 0.55058 | 0.60078 |
25% | 0.491797 | 0.405714 | 0.450457 | 0.581687 | 0.598783 | 0.60625 | 0.62357 | 0.73136 |
35% | 0.719892 | 0.414669 | 0.490959 | 0.437648 | 0.66994 | 0.56045 | 0.58863 | 0.66131 |
50% | 0.526268 | 0.402582 | 0.433342 | 0.588225 | 0.798019 | 0.60178 | 0.54874 | 0.61965 |
65% | 0.611424 | 0.468802 | 0.59545 | 0.579467 | 0.667895 | 0.59191 | 0.68104 | 0.80775 |
Blends | 0% | Rank | 15% | Rank | 25% | Rank | 35% | Rank | 50% | Rank | 65% | Rank |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Diesel | 1.7246964 | 1 | 1.132731 | 2 | 1.676059 | 2 | 0.72326 | 8 | 1.32767 | 3 | 0.9998119 | 4 |
B5 | 1.3882419 | 2 | 1.852658 | 1 | 1.946775 | 1 | 2.04376 | 1 | 1.9422 | 1 | 1.6668274 | 1 |
B10 | 1.1073328 | 4 | 1.038845 | 4 | 1.581589 | 3 | 1.36416 | 3 | 1.52744 | 2 | 1.2854178 | 2 |
B20 | 1.1667396 | 3 | 1.091554 | 3 | 1.07722 | 4 | 1.62732 | 2 | 0.92663 | 5 | 1.1669638 | 3 |
B30 | 0.8879421 | 6 | 0.790949 | 7 | 0.99271 | 5 | 0.77547 | 7 | 0.55596 | 8 | 0.7336363 | 6 |
B50 | 0.8430791 | 7 | 0.737987 | 8 | 0.826738 | 6 | 1.07083 | 4 | 0.77485 | 7 | 0.9647191 | 5 |
B75 | 0.9705842 | 5 | 1.034395 | 5 | 0.77535 | 7 | 0.99856 | 5 | 0.9667 | 4 | 0.6653403 | 7 |
B100 | 0.7701273 | 8 | 0.980359 | 6 | 0.637603 | 8 | 0.89278 | 6 | 0.92098 | 6 | 0.5222989 | 8 |
Blends | 0% | 15% | 25% | 35% | 50% | 65% | Harmonic Mean Ranking of the Loads |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Diesel | 1 | 2 | 8 | 3 | 4 | 4 | 4 |
B5 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
B10 | 4 | 4 | 3 | 3 | 2 | 2 | 8 |
B20 | 3 | 3 | 4 | 2 | 5 | 3 | 7 |
B30 | 6 | 7 | 5 | 1 | 7 | 8 | 2 |
B50 | 7 | 8 | 6 | 4 | 7 | 5 | 6 |
B75 | 5 | 5 | 7 | 5 | 4 | 7 | 5 |
B100 | 8 | 6 | 8 | 6 | 6 | 8 | 3 |
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Sleem, M.M.; Abdelfattah, O.Y.; Abohany, A.A.; Sorour, S.E. A Comprehensive Approach to Biodiesel Blend Selection Using GRA-TOPSIS: A Case Study of Waste Cooking Oils in Egypt. Sustainability 2024, 16, 6124. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16146124
Sleem MM, Abdelfattah OY, Abohany AA, Sorour SE. A Comprehensive Approach to Biodiesel Blend Selection Using GRA-TOPSIS: A Case Study of Waste Cooking Oils in Egypt. Sustainability. 2024; 16(14):6124. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16146124
Chicago/Turabian StyleSleem, Marwa M., Osama Y. Abdelfattah, Amr A. Abohany, and Shaymaa E. Sorour. 2024. "A Comprehensive Approach to Biodiesel Blend Selection Using GRA-TOPSIS: A Case Study of Waste Cooking Oils in Egypt" Sustainability 16, no. 14: 6124. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16146124