Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of an Innovative Compact Hybrid Electrical-Thermal Storage System for Residential Buildings in Mediterranean Climate
<p>Schematic diagram for the reference system.</p> "> Figure 2
<p>Schematic diagram for the innovative system.</p> "> Figure 3
<p>Main steps of the LCA methodology according to ISO 14040. Adapted from [<a href="#B24-sustainability-13-05322" class="html-bibr">24</a>].</p> "> Figure 4
<p>Overview of the impact categories that are covered in the ReCiPe2016 method and their relation to the areas of protection. Adapted from [<a href="#B28-sustainability-13-05322" class="html-bibr">28</a>].</p> "> Figure 5
<p>System boundaries of the study.</p> "> Figure 6
<p>Total impact points per m<sup>2</sup> of living floor area using the ReCiPe indicator.</p> "> Figure 7
<p>Total impact points of damage categories per m<sup>2</sup> of living floor using the ReCiPe indicator.</p> "> Figure 8
<p>Total impact categories towards ReCiPe endpoint single score.</p> "> Figure 9
<p>Impact points from the ReCiPe indicator per life cycle stage.</p> "> Figure 10
<p>Results per m<sup>2</sup> of living floor using the indicator IPCC GWP 100a total.</p> "> Figure 11
<p>Results per m<sup>2</sup> of living floor using the indicator IPCC GWP 100a per life cycle stage.</p> "> Figure 12
<p>Results per m<sup>2</sup> of living floor using the indicator IPCC GWP 20a total.</p> "> Figure 13
<p>Results per m<sup>2</sup> of living floor using the indicator IPCC GWP 20a per life cycle stage.</p> "> Figure 14
<p>Contribution of each module to the overall innovative system.</p> "> Figure 15
<p>Relative impact of the main system components for different PCM-Al mass relations. (<b>a</b>) Relation 1/3; (<b>b</b>) relation 1/4; (<b>c</b>) relation 1/5; (<b>d</b>) relation 1/6.</p> ">
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
2.1. Case Study
2.1.1. Reference Building
2.1.2. Reference System
2.1.3. Innovative System
2.2. LCA Methodology
2.2.1. ReCiPe and GWP Indicator
2.2.2. Definition of Goal and Scope
2.2.3. Functional Unit
2.2.4. System Boundaries
- Manufacturing stage: it refers to materials production phase, including extraction of raw materials, transportation to the factory, and manufacturing processes;
- Operational stage: it refers to all activities related to the use of the systems, including energy consumption for heating, cooling, and DHW production;
- End-of-life stage: it refers to the dismantling and demolishing of the system components, and their transport to the landfill site and/or to recycling sorting plants.
2.2.5. Inventory Analysis of the Manufacturing Stage
2.2.6. Inventory Analysis of the Operational Stage
2.2.7. Impact Assessment of Manufacturing and Disposal Stage
2.2.8. Impact Assessment of Operational Stage
2.3. Uncertainty Analysis
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Comparison between the Studied Systems
3.2. Parametric Study of the Relationship in Mass PCM-Al
4. Conclusions
- When using the ReCiPe indicator:
- ○
- The overall impact of the innovative system is higher than for the reference system. This is mainly due to the higher complexity of the system;
- ○
- The damage category with a higher impact is the eco-system quality one, and within this, the urban land occupation withstands among all others;
- ○
- When evaluating the life cycle stages, it is clear that for the reference system, the operation has a higher impact than the manufacturing and disposal, while in the innovative system, it is the other way around. This is due to the lower use of electricity from the grid in the innovative system.
- When using the IPCC GWP indicator:
- ○
- The overall impact of the innovative system is lower than that of the reference system;
- ○
- In this case, the impact of the operational stage clearly makes the difference, since although in the manufacturing stage the impact of the innovative system is higher than that of the reference system, the decrease in the operational stage in the innovative system clearly compensates it.
- Contribution of the different subsystems:
- ○
- In the innovative system, the sub-systems with higher contribution in the overall impact are the latent TES system (29%), the sorption storage (27%), and the solar field (21%);
- ○
- The other systems have much lower contribution, i.e., electrical storage (14%), heat pump (7%), PV panels (1%), and sensible heat storage (1%).
- Parametric study:
- ○
- Given that it is the sub-system with a higher contribution to the overall impact and that it also has an impact on the energy performance of the system, the influence of the latent storage sub-system in the overall impact was evaluated;
- ○
- When changing the PCM-aluminum ratio in the storage component (the two materials with higher impact in the energy performance and in the environmental evaluation), the contribution of this sub-system to the overall impact changes from 21% to 34%, showing that this is a target to study to improve the innovative system.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Component | Variable | Value | Unit |
---|---|---|---|
Solar collector | Surface area | 1.64 | m2 |
DHW storage tank | Storage capacity | 120 | L |
Gas boiler | Maximum thermal power | 25 | kW |
Reversible heat pump | Nominal cooling power | 10 | kW |
Component | Variable | Value | Unit |
---|---|---|---|
Fresnel solar collectors | Surface area | 60 | m2 |
PV panels | Surface area | 20.9 | m2 |
Heat pump | Nominal cooling power | 13.2 | kW |
Sensible heat storage (buffer tank) | Storage capacity | 800 | L |
DHW tank | Storage capacity | 250 | L |
Latent heat thermal energy storage | Cooling storage capacity | 12 | kWh |
Electrical storage (battery) | Electrical storage capacity | 7.3 | kWh |
Element | Unit | Quantity/Unit | Unit of Measure | Replacement | Total Amount | Unit of Measure |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Solar collector | ||||||
Solar collector | 1 | 98.5 | kg | 1.2 | 118.2 | kg |
2-way manual valve | 1 | 0.5 | kg | 2.5 | 1.3 | kg |
Check valve | 1 | 1.7 | kg | 2.5 | 4.2 | kg |
Non-return valve | 1 | 0.4 | kg | 2.5 | 1 | kg |
Piping | 7.7 (m) | 7.7 | kg | 1 | 7.7 | kg |
Insulation (outdoor) | 7.7 (m) | 2.3 | kg | 1 | 2.3 | kg |
DHW storage tank | ||||||
Motorized 3-way valve | 1 | 5 | kg | 2.5 | 12.5 | kg |
2-way manual valve | 4 | 1.8 | kg | 2.5 | 4.5 | kg |
Check valve | 1 | 1.7 | kg | 2.5 | 4.2 | kg |
Circulation pump | 1 | 1 | unit | 2 | 2 | unit |
Flow rate display/meter | 1 | 1.2 | kg | 1.5 | 1.8 | kg |
Buffer tank | 1 | 1 | unit | 3 | 3 | unit |
Gas boiler | ||||||
Gas boiler | 1 | 1 | unit | 1.5 | 1.5 | unit |
Piping | 21.3 (m) | 21.3 | kg | 1 | 21.3 | kg |
Insulation (indoor) | 21.3 (m) | 3.8 | kg | 1 | 3.8 | kg |
Heat pump | ||||||
Heat pump | 1 | 1 | unit | 1.5 | 1.5 | unit |
2-way manual valve | 2 | 0.9 | kg | 2.5 | 2.2 | kg |
Element | Unit | Quantity/Unit | Unit of Measure | Replacement | Total Amount | Unit of Measure |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Heat pump | ||||||
Heat pump | 1 | 1 | unit | 1.5 | 1.5 | unit |
Sorption module | ||||||
Adsorber | 2 | 35 | kg | 2 | 140 | kg |
Evaporator | 2 | 18 | kg | 2 | 72 | kg |
Bar spacer | 28 | 1.14 | kg | 2 | 64 | kg |
Bar spacer (PVC) | 1 | 32 | m | 2 | 25 | kg |
Shell | 2 | 23 | kg | 2 | 92 | kg |
Perforated metal plate | 2 | 7 | kg | 2 | 28 | kg |
Compensator | 4 | 0.3 | kg | 2 | 2.4 | kg |
Sealing | 4 | 0.025 | kg | 2 | 0.2 | kg |
Vacuum flange | 4 | 0.08 | kg | 2 | 0.64 | kg |
Insulation | 2 | 3 | kg | 2 | 12 | kg |
Pumps | 3 | 5 | kg | 2 | 30 | kg |
3-way valves | 8 | 0.9 | kg | 2 | 14.4 | kg |
Hydraulic tubes | 1 | 25 | kg | 2 | 50 | kg |
Insulation | 1 | 4 | kg | 2 | 8 | kg |
Base plate | 1 | 62.5 | kg | 2 | 125 | kg |
Frame | 1 | 62.5 | kg | 2 | 125 | kg |
Shell | 1 | 155 | kg | 2 | 310 | kg |
Zeolite | 1 | 22 | kg | 2 | 44 | kg |
Dry cooler | ||||||
System separation unit | 1 | 45 | kg | 2 | 90 | kg |
Heat exchanger and frame | 1 | 561 | kg | 2 | 1122 | kg |
Vans | 3 | 10 | kg | 2 | 60 | kg |
Electric cables | 10 | 3 | kg | 2 | 60 | kg |
Fresnel collectors | ||||||
Collector frame | 1 | 875 | kg | 1.2 | 1050 | kg |
Zinc coat (collector frame) | 1 | 220 | m2 | 1.2 | 264 | m2 |
Electric tracking motor | 1 | 5 | kg | 1.2 | 6 | kg |
Tracking mechanism | 1 | 37 | kg | 1.2 | 44.4 | kg |
Tracking mechanism (plastic (PTFE)) | 1 | 0.17 | kg | 1.2 | 0.2 | kg |
Mirrors (silver layer) | 1 | 501 | kg | 1.2 | 601.2 | kg |
Mirrors (bearing) | 1 | 7.5 | kg | 1.2 | 9 | kg |
Absorber | 1 | 137 | kg | 1.2 | 164.4 | kg |
Stands and receiver | 1 | 157 | kg | 1.2 | 188.4 | kg |
Fixing elements (carbon steel) | 1 | 35 | kg | 1.2 | 42 | kg |
Sensible heat storage | ||||||
Buffer tank | 1 | 1 | unit | 0.7 | 0.7 | unit |
Latent storage | ||||||
PCM (paraffin) | 1 | 160 | kg | 1.5 | 240 | kg |
Aluminum | 1 | 760 | kg | 1.5 | 1140 | kg |
Electric storage | ||||||
Electric battery | 1 | 108 | kg | 0.75 | 81 | kg |
DC-DC converter | 1 | 30 | kg | 1.5 | 45 | kg |
AC-DC converter | 1 | 51 | kg | 1.5 | 76.5 | kg |
Electric controller | 1 | 0.5 | kg | 1.5 | 0.75 | kg |
Current transducer | 3 | 0.09 | kg | 1.5 | 0.405 | kg |
Line filter | 1 | 1.35 | kg | 1.5 | 2.025 | kg |
Fuses | 6 | 0.015 | kg | 1.5 | 0.135 | kg |
Auxiliary power supply | 1 | 0.75 | kg | 1.5 | 1.125 | kg |
Grid monitoring | 1 | 0.36 | kg | 1.5 | 0.54 | kg |
LED indicators | 5 | 0.05 | kg | 1.5 | 0.375 | kg |
Insolation monitoring | 1 | 0.39 | kg | 1.5 | 0.585 | kg |
Connectors | 4 | 0.03 | kg | 1.5 | 0.18 | kg |
Time delay relay | 1 | 0.07 | kg | 1.5 | 0.105 | kg |
Power relay | 1 | 0.645 | kg | 1.5 | 0.9675 | kg |
Relays | 5 | 0.045 | kg | 1.5 | 0.3375 | kg |
Grid contactors | 1 | 0.63 | kg | 1.5 | 0.945 | kg |
DC contactors | 3 | 0.75 | kg | 1.5 | 3.375 | kg |
Battery contactor | 1 | 3.9 | kg | 1.5 | 5.85 | kg |
Circuit breakers + auxiliaries | 7 | 0.4 | kg | 1.5 | 4.2 | kg |
Pre-charge resistor | 1 | 0.01 | kg | 1.5 | 0.015 | kg |
Switches | 4 | 0.15 | kg | 1.5 | 0.9 | kg |
Smart meter | 1 | 0.3 | kg | 1.5 | 0.45 | kg |
Ethernet switch | 1 | 0.28 | kg | 1.5 | 0.42 | kg |
Terminal blocks | 84 | 0.01 | kg | 1.5 | 1.26 | kg |
Electric cabinet + accessories | 1 | 35 | kg | 1.5 | 52.5 | kg |
DIN rail | 6 | 0.6 | kg | 1.5 | 5.4 | kg |
Wires | 1 | 22.5 | kg | 1.5 | 33.75 | kg |
Screws | 150 | 0.04 | kg | 1.5 | 9 | kg |
Nuts | 100 | 0.03 | kg | 1.5 | 4.5 | kg |
Washers | 100 | 0.01 | kg | 1.5 | 1.5 | kg |
Slotted wiring duct | 3 | 0.5 | kg | 1.5 | 2.25 | kg |
Strain relief bar | 5 | 0.01 | kg | 1.5 | 0.075 | kg |
PV panels | ||||||
PV panels | 1 | 20 | m2 | 1.2 | 24 | m2 |
Component | Energy Consumption (kWh/Year) | Type of Energy |
---|---|---|
Heat pump | 2198 | Electricity |
Gas boiler | 10,130 | Gas |
Circulation pump: solar collectors | 90 | Electricity |
Circulation pump: heating | 54 | Electricity |
Total 1 | 2342 | Electricity |
Total 2 | 10,130 | Gas |
Component | Energy Consumption (kWh/Year) | Type of Energy |
---|---|---|
Heat pump | 1564 * | Electricity |
Dry cooler | 215 | Electricity |
Adsorption | 80 | Electricity |
DHW electric heater | 552 | Electricity |
Circulation pumps | 355 | Electricity |
Total | 2766 | Electricity |
Element | Mass Used | ReCiPe | GWP 100a | GWP 20a |
---|---|---|---|---|
(kg) | Impact/m2 | kgCO2-eq/m2 | kgCO2-eq/m2 | |
Solar collector | ||||
Solar collector | 118.2 | 3.293 | 2.617 | 3.089 |
2-way manual valve | 1.3 | 0.014 | 0.025 | 0.029 |
Check valve | 4.2 | 0.046 | 0.083 | 0.097 |
Non-return valve | 1 | 0.004 | 0.008 | 0.010 |
Piping | 7.7 | 0.032 | 0.065 | 0.074 |
Insulation (outdoor) | 2.3 | 0.163 | 0.109 | 0.130 |
DHW storage tank | ||||
Motorized 3-way valve | 12.5 | 0.052 | 0.106 | 0.119 |
2-way manual valve | 4.5 | 0.019 | 0.038 | 0.043 |
Check valve | 4.2 | 0.018 | 0.036 | 0.041 |
Circulation pump | 2 (unit) | 0.265 | 0.188 | 0.219 |
Flow rate display/meter | 1.8 | 0.015 | 0.168 | 0.218 |
Buffer tank | 3 (unit) | 10.134 | 24.611 | 28.768 |
Gas boiler | ||||
Gas boiler | 1.5 (unit) | 6.435 | 7.649 | 8.960 |
Piping | 21.3 | 0.089 | 0.180 | 0.203 |
Insulation (indoor) | 3.8 | 0.270 | 0.180 | 0.216 |
Heat pump | ||||
Heat pump | 1.5 (unit) | 17.152 | 23.356 | 50.132 |
2-way manual valve | 2.2 | 0.009 | 0.019 | 0.021 |
Element | Mass Used | ReCiPe | GWP 100a | GWP 20a |
---|---|---|---|---|
(kg) | Impact/m2 | kgCO2-eq/m2 | kgCO2-eq/m2 | |
Heat pump | ||||
Heat pump | 1.5 (unit) | 16.892 | 22.020 | 48.469 |
Sorption module | ||||
Adsorber | 140 | 7.907 | 12.166 | 15.163 |
Evaporator | 72 | 8.030 | 207.522 | 2.314 |
Bar spacer | 64 | 1.015 | 165.806 | 1.964 |
Bar spacer (PVC) | 25 | 0.131 | 65.384 | 0.814 |
Shell | 92 | 1.459 | 238.347 | 2.823 |
Perforated metal plate | 28 | 0.444 | 72.540 | 0.859 |
Compensator | 2.4 | 0.038 | 6.218 | 0.074 |
Sealing | 0.2 | 0.002 | 1.717 | 0.041 |
Vacuum flange | 0.64 | 0.036 | 5.561 | 0.069 |
Insulation | 12 | 0.881 | 66.642 | 0.717 |
Pumps | 30 | 0.271 | 63.202 | 0.747 |
3-way valves | 14.4 | 8.954 | 214.067 | 2.493 |
Hydraulic tubes | 50 | 5.576 | 144.112 | 1.607 |
Insulation | 8 | 0.587 | 44.428 | 0.478 |
Base plate | 125 | 1.982 | 323.841 | 3.836 |
Frame | 125 | 1.982 | 323.841 | 3.836 |
Shell | 310 | 4.916 | 8.031 | 9.513 |
Zeolite | 44 | 0.452 | 2.104 | 2.378 |
Dry cooler | ||||
System separation unit | 90 | 1.427 | 2.332 | 2.762 |
Heat exchanger and frame | 1122 | 40.204 | 43.016 | 51.867 |
Vans | 60 | 0.110 | 1.586 | 1.608 |
Electric cables | 60 | 6.692 | 172.935 | 1.929 |
Fresnel collectors | ||||
Collector frame | 1050 | 14.493 | 27.203 | 32.222 |
Zinc coat (collector frame) | 264 (m2) | 17.834 | 13.752 | 15.148 |
Electric tracking motor | 6 | 0.641 | 0.570 | 0.661 |
Tracking mechanism | 44.4 | 0.704 | 1.150 | 1.363 |
Tracking mechanism (plastic (PTFE)) | 0.2 | 0.001 | 0.005 | 0.005 |
Mirrors (silver layer) | 601.2 | 1.145 | 6.681 | 7.255 |
Mirrors (bearing) | 9 | 0.050 | 0.298 | 0.356 |
Absorber | 164.4 | 9.285 | 14.286 | 17.806 |
Stands and receiver | 188.4 | 2.988 | 4.881 | 5.782 |
Fixing elements (carbon steel) | 42 | 0.666 | 1.088 | 1.289 |
Sensible heat storage | ||||
Buffer tank | 0.7 (unit) | 2.211 | 5.118 | 5.966 |
Latent storage | ||||
Paraffin | 240 | 0.597 | 1.600 | 1.708 |
RPW-HEX | 1140 | 8.570 | 99.062 | 123.471 |
Electric storage | ||||
Electric battery | 81 | 6.153 | 5.675 | 6.896 |
DC-DC converter | 45 | 5.019 | 1.297 | 1.297 |
AC-DC converter | 76.5 | 8.532 | 2.205 | 2.205 |
Electric controller | 0.75 | 0.084 | 0.022 | 0.022 |
Current transducer | 0.405 | 0.045 | 0.012 | 0.012 |
Line filter | 2.025 | 1.259 | 0.301 | 0.301 |
Fuses | 0.135 | 0.084 | 0.020 | 0.020 |
Auxiliary power supply | 1.125 | 0.125 | 0.032 | 0.032 |
Grid monitoring | 0.54 | 0.060 | 0.016 | 0.016 |
LED indicators | 0.375 | 0.042 | 0.011 | 0.011 |
Insolation monitoring | 0.585 | 0.002 | 0.010 | 0.010 |
Connectors | 0.18 | 0.020 | 0.016 | 0.005 |
Time delay relay | 0.105 | 0.065 | 0.050 | 0.016 |
Power relay | 0.9675 | 0.602 | 0.097 | 0.144 |
Relays | 0.3375 | 0.210 | 0.095 | 0.050 |
Grid contactors | 0.945 | 0.105 | 0.121 | 0.027 |
DC contactors | 3.375 | 0.376 | 0.001 | 0.097 |
Battery contactor | 5.85 | 0.020 | 0.134 | 0.095 |
Circuit breakers + auxiliaries | 4.2 | 0.468 | 0.067 | 0.121 |
Pre-charge resistor | 0.015 | 0.002 | 0.062 | 0.001 |
Switches | 0.9 | 0.560 | 0.125 | 0.134 |
Smart meter | 0.45 | 0.280 | 1.513 | 0.067 |
Ethernet switch | 0.42 | 0.261 | 0.156 | 0.062 |
Terminal blocks | 1.26 | 0.508 | 0.973 | 0.125 |
Electric cabinet + accessories | 52.5 | 5.855 | 0.259 | 1.513 |
DIN rail | 5.4 | 0.602 | 0.669 | 0.156 |
Wires | 33.75 | 3.764 | 0.223 | 0.973 |
Screws | 9 | 1.004 | 0.065 | 0.259 |
Nuts | 4.5 | 2.798 | 0.002 | 0.669 |
Washers | 1.5 | 0.933 | 1.297 | 0.223 |
Slotted wiring duct | 2.25 | 0.251 | 2.205 | 0.065 |
Strain relief bar | 0.075 | 0.008 | 0.022 | 0.002 |
PV panels | ||||
PV panels | 24 (m2) | 2.549 | 11.289 | 13.386 |
Installation Element | Total (kWh/Year) | ReCiPe | GWP 100a | GWP 20a |
---|---|---|---|---|
Impact/m2 | kgCO2-eq/m2 | kgCO2-eq/m2 | ||
Heat pump | 2198 | 65.640 | 277.958 | 303.125 |
Gas boiler | 10,130 | 85.471 | 826.817 | 988.944 |
Circulating pump-solar collectors | 90 | 2.688 | 11.381 | 12.412 |
Circulating pump-heating | 54 | 1.613 | 6.829 | 7.447 |
Total (gas) | 10,130 | 85.471 | 826.817 | 988.944 |
Total (electricity) | 2342 | 69.941 | 296.168 | 322.983 |
Installation Element | Total (kWh/Year) | ReCiPe | GWP 100a | GWP 20a |
---|---|---|---|---|
Impact/m2 | kgCO2-eq/m2 | kgCO2-eq/m2 | ||
Heat pump | 1564 | 46.707 | 197.783 | 215.690 |
Dry cooler | 215 | 6.421 | 27.189 | 29.650 |
Adsorption | 80 | 2.389 | 10.117 | 11.033 |
DHW electric heater | 552 | 16.485 | 69.806 | 76.126 |
Circulating pumps | 355 | 10.602 | 44.893 | 48.958 |
Total | 2766 | 82.603 | 349.787 | 381.457 |
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Zsembinszki, G.; Llantoy, N.; Palomba, V.; Frazzica, A.; Dallapiccola, M.; Trentin, F.; Cabeza, L.F. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of an Innovative Compact Hybrid Electrical-Thermal Storage System for Residential Buildings in Mediterranean Climate. Sustainability 2021, 13, 5322. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13095322
Zsembinszki G, Llantoy N, Palomba V, Frazzica A, Dallapiccola M, Trentin F, Cabeza LF. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of an Innovative Compact Hybrid Electrical-Thermal Storage System for Residential Buildings in Mediterranean Climate. Sustainability. 2021; 13(9):5322. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13095322
Chicago/Turabian StyleZsembinszki, Gabriel, Noelia Llantoy, Valeria Palomba, Andrea Frazzica, Mattia Dallapiccola, Federico Trentin, and Luisa F. Cabeza. 2021. "Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of an Innovative Compact Hybrid Electrical-Thermal Storage System for Residential Buildings in Mediterranean Climate" Sustainability 13, no. 9: 5322. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13095322