Materials

15 pages, 5873 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of SWCNT-Tuball Paper on the Lightning Strike Protection of CFRPs and Their Selected Mechanical Properties

by Kamil Dydek, Anna Boczkowska, Rafał Kozera, Paweł Durałek, Łukasz Sarniak, Małgorzata Wilk and Waldemar Łogin

Materials 2021, 14(11), 3140; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14113140 - 7 Jun 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3763

Abstract

The main aim of this work was the investigation of the possibility of replacing the heavy metallic meshes applied onto the composite structure in airplanes for lightning strike protection with a thin film of Tuball single-wall carbon nanotubes in the form of ultra-light, [...] Read more.

The main aim of this work was the investigation of the possibility of replacing the heavy metallic meshes applied onto the composite structure in airplanes for lightning strike protection with a thin film of Tuball single-wall carbon nanotubes in the form of ultra-light, conductive paper. The Tuball paper studied contained 75 wt.% or 90 wt.% of carbon nanotubes and was applied on the top of carbon fibre reinforced polymer before fabrication of flat panels. First, the electrical conductivity, impact resistance and thermo-mechanical properties of modified laminates were measured and compared with the reference values. Then, flat panels with selected Tuball paper, expanded copper foil and reference panels were fabricated for lightning strike tests. The effectiveness of lightning strike protection was evaluated by using the ultrasonic phased-array technique. It was found that the introduction of Tuball paper on the laminates surface improved both the surface and the volume electrical conductivity by 8800% and 300%, respectively. The impact resistance was tested in two directions, perpendicular and parallel to the carbon fibres, and the values increased by 9.8% and 44%, respectively. The dynamic thermo-mechanical analysis showed higher stiffness and a slight increase in glass transition temperature of the modified laminates. Ultrasonic investigation after lightning strike tests showed that the effectiveness of Tuball paper is comparable to expanded copper foil. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fabrication and Application of Electrically Conducting Composites)

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25 pages, 29952 KiB

Open AccessReview

Degradation Mechanisms of Metal-Supported Solid Oxide Cells and Countermeasures: A Review

by Zhipeng Zhou, Venkata Karthik Nadimpalli, David Bue Pedersen and Vincenzo Esposito

Materials 2021, 14(11), 3139; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14113139 - 7 Jun 2021

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 5813

Abstract

Metal-supported oxide cells (MSCs) are considered as the third-generation solid oxide cells (SOCs) succeeding electrolyte-supported (first generation) and anode-supported (second generation) cells, which have gained much attention and progress in the past decade. The use of metal supports and advanced technical methods (such [...] Read more.

Metal-supported oxide cells (MSCs) are considered as the third-generation solid oxide cells (SOCs) succeeding electrolyte-supported (first generation) and anode-supported (second generation) cells, which have gained much attention and progress in the past decade. The use of metal supports and advanced technical methods (such as infiltrated electrodes) has vastly improved cell performance, especially with its rapid startup ability and power density, showing a significant decrease in raw materials cost. However, new degradation mechanisms appeared, limiting the further improvement of the performance and lifetime. This review encapsulates the degradation mechanisms and countermeasures in the field of MSCs, reviewing the challenges and recommendations for future development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Performance and Degradation Mechanisms of Electrode Materials for Solid Oxide Cells Devices)

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13 pages, 1896 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Bio-Based Polyurethane Networks Derived from Liquefied Sawdust

by Kamila Gosz, Agnieszka Tercjak, Adam Olszewski, Józef Haponiuk and Łukasz Piszczyk

Materials 2021, 14(11), 3138; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14113138 - 7 Jun 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2969

Abstract

The utilization of forestry waste resources in the production of polyurethane resins is a promising green alternative to the use of unsustainable resources. Liquefaction of wood-based biomass gives polyols with properties depending on the reagents used. In this article, the liquefaction of forestry [...] Read more.

The utilization of forestry waste resources in the production of polyurethane resins is a promising green alternative to the use of unsustainable resources. Liquefaction of wood-based biomass gives polyols with properties depending on the reagents used. In this article, the liquefaction of forestry wastes, including sawdust, in solvents such as glycerol and polyethylene glycol was investigated. The liquefaction process was carried out at temperatures of 120, 150, and 170 °C. The resulting bio-polyols were analyzed for process efficiency, hydroxyl number, water content, viscosity, and structural features using the Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). The optimum liquefaction temperature was 150 °C and the time of 6 h. Comprehensive analysis of polyol properties shows high biomass conversion and hydroxyl number in the range of 238–815 mg KOH/g. This may indicate that bio-polyols may be used as a potential substitute for petrochemical polyols. During polyurethane synthesis, materials with more than 80 wt% of bio-polyol were obtained. The materials were obtained by a one-step method by hot-pressing for 15 min at 100 °C and a pressure of 5 MPa with an NCO:OH ratio of 1:1 and 1.2:1. Dynamical-mechanical analysis (DMA) showed a high modulus of elasticity in the range of 62–839 MPa which depends on the reaction conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biomaterials)

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14 pages, 2343 KiB

Open AccessArticle

On the Rate of Interaction of Sodium Borohydride with Platinum (IV) Chloride Complexes in Alkaline Media

by Magdalena Luty-Błocho, Marek Wojnicki, Edit Csapo and Krzysztof Fitzner

Materials 2021, 14(11), 3137; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14113137 - 7 Jun 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2909

Abstract

In this work, sodium borohydride was used as a strong reductant of traces of platinum complex ions. The investigations of the kinetics of redox reaction between platinum(IV) chloride complex ions and sodium borohydride were carried out. For the first time, the kinetic experiments [...] Read more.

In this work, sodium borohydride was used as a strong reductant of traces of platinum complex ions. The investigations of the kinetics of redox reaction between platinum(IV) chloride complex ions and sodium borohydride were carried out. For the first time, the kinetic experiments were carried out in a basic medium (pH~13), which prevents NaBH₄ from decomposition and suppresses the release of hydrogen to the environment. The rate constants of Pt(IV) reduction to Pt(II) ions under different temperatures and concentrations of chloride ions conditions were determined. In alkaline solution (pH~13), the values of enthalpy and entropy of activation are 29.6 kJ/mol and –131 J/mol K. It was also found that oxygen dissolved in the solution strongly affects kinetics of the reduction process. Using collected results, the reduction mechanism was suggested. For the first time, the appearance of diborane as an intermediate product during Pt(IV) ions reduction was suggested. Moreover, the influence of oxygen present in the reacting solution on the rate of reduction reaction was also shown. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research Progress on the Extractive Metallurgy)

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(a) Spectrum of aqueous solutions containing 5ˑ10−4 M Pt(IV) complex ions in 0.05 M NaOH; kinetic curve for Pt(IV) in 0.05 M NaOH registered at 262 nm (a’). Optical path length 2 mm; (b) change of absorption bands characteristic for Pt(IV) complex ions during the reaction with NaBH4. Conditions: C0,Pt(IV) = 0.05 mM, C0,NaBH4 = 3.0 mM, I = 0.05 M, T = 50.0 ± 0.1 °C, pH = 12.9 ± 0.2, path length 1 cm. Full article ">Figure 2
(a) Change of absorption bands characteristic for Pt(IV) complex ions during the reaction with NaBH4. Conditions: C0,Pt(IV) = 0.05 mM, C0,NaBH4 = 3.0 mM, I = 0.05 M, T = 50.0 ± 0.1 °C, pH = 12.9 ± 0.2. Time of reaction 10 s (with step 0.2 s); (b) the change of absorbance value (A <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mo>∝</mo> <mo> </mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> concentration of Pt species) with time (kinetic curves) during the reaction of platinum ions with NaBH4. Conditions: C0,Pt(IV) = 0.05 mM, C0,NaBH4 = 3.0 mM, I = 0.05 M, T = 50.0 ± 0.1 °C, pH = 12.9 ± 0.2, path length 1 cm. Full article ">Figure 3
(a) The kinetic curves obtained at 262 nm for the reaction between platinum(IV) chloride complex ions and sodium borohydride in aqueous solution at different temperatures; (b) the sample of kinetic curve (change of Pt(IV) ions concentration in time of reaction reduction) at 25 °C (b). Conditions: C0,Pt(IV) = 0.05 mM, C0,NaBH4 = 3.0 mM, pH = 12.9 ± 0.2. Full article ">Figure 4
The linear plot of Eyring dependence (T·ln(k1/T) vs. T) for the reaction between platinum(IV) chloride complex ions and sodium borohydride in aqueous solution. Conditions: C0,Pt(IV) = 0.05 mM, C0,NaBH4 = 3.0 mM, pH = 12.9 ± 0.2. Full article ">Figure 5
The influence of chloride ions addition on the observed rate constant for the reaction between platinum(IV) ions and sodium borohydride. Conditions: C0,Pt(IV) = 0.05 mM, C0,NaBH4 = 3.0 mM, T = 25.0 ± 0.1 °C, pH = 12.9 ± 0.2. Full article ">Figure 6
(a) Kinetic curves obtained for the reaction between platinum(IV) chloride complex ions and sodium borohydride at a standard procedure and in the case of deaerated solution; (b) kinetic curves registered in a short time. Conditions: C0,Pt(IV) = 0.05 mM, C0,NaBH4 = 3.0 mM, T = 25.0 ± 0.1 °C, pH = 12.9 ± 0.2. Full article ">

19 pages, 7917 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fatigue Behavior of Linear Friction Welded Ti-6Al-4V and Ti-6Al-2Sn-4Zr-2Mo-0.1Si Dissimilar Welds

by Sidharth Rajan, Priti Wanjara, Javad Gholipour and Abu Syed Kabir

Materials 2021, 14(11), 3136; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14113136 - 7 Jun 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2566

Abstract

The use of joints fabricated from dissimilar titanium alloys allows the design of structures with local properties tailored to different service requirements. To develop welded structures for aerospace applications, particularly under critical loading, an understanding of the fatigue behavior is crucial, but remains [...] Read more.

The use of joints fabricated from dissimilar titanium alloys allows the design of structures with local properties tailored to different service requirements. To develop welded structures for aerospace applications, particularly under critical loading, an understanding of the fatigue behavior is crucial, but remains limited, especially for solid-state technologies such as linear friction welding (LFW). This paper presents the fatigue behavior of dissimilar titanium alloys, Ti–6Al–4V (Ti64) and Ti–6Al–2Sn–4Zr–2Mo–0.1Si (Ti6242), joined by LFW with the aim of characterizing the stress versus number of cycles to failure (S-N) curves in both the low- and high-cycle fatigue regimes. Prior to fatigue testing, metallurgical characterization of the dissimilar alloy welds indicated softening in the heat-affected zone due to the retention of metastable β, and the typical practice of stress relief annealing (SRA) for alleviating the residual stresses was effective also in transforming the metastable β to equilibrated levels of α + β phases and recovering the hardness. Thus, the dissimilar alloy joints were fatigue-tested in the SRA (750 °C for 2 h) condition and their low- and high-cycle fatigue behaviors were compared to those of the Ti64 and Ti6242 base metals (BMs). The low-cycle fatigue (LCF) behavior of the dissimilar Ti6242–Ti64 linear friction welds was characterized by relatively high maximum stress values (~ 900 to 1100 MPa) and, in the high-cycle fatigue (HCF) regime, the fatigue limit of 450 MPa at 10⁷ cycles was just slightly higher than that of the Ti6242 BM (434 MPa) and the Ti64 BM (445 MPa). Fatigue failure of the dissimilar titanium alloy welds in the low-cycle and high-cycle regimes occurred, respectively, on the Ti64 and Ti6242 sides, roughly 3 ± 1 mm away from the weld center, and the transitioning was reasoned based on the microstructural characteristics of the BMs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Welding and Joining Processes of Materials)

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13 pages, 2981 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on Cutting Chip in Milling GH4169 with Indexable Disc Cutter

by Gensheng Li, Chao Xian and Hongmin Xin

Materials 2021, 14(11), 3135; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14113135 - 7 Jun 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2281

Abstract

The study and control for chip have a significant impact on machining quality and productivity. In this paper, GH4169 was cut with an indexable disc milling cutter. The chips corresponding to each group of cutting parameters were collected, and the chip parameters (chip [...] Read more.

The study and control for chip have a significant impact on machining quality and productivity. In this paper, GH4169 was cut with an indexable disc milling cutter. The chips corresponding to each group of cutting parameters were collected, and the chip parameters (chip curl radius, chip thickness deformation coefficient, and chip width deformation coefficient) were measured. The qualitative relationship between the chip parameters and cutting parameters was studied. The quadratic polynomial models between chip parameters and cutting parameters were established and verified. The results showed that the chip parameters (chip curl radius, chip thickness deformation coefficient and chip width deformation coefficient) were negatively correlated with spindle speed; chip parameters were positively correlated with feed speed; chip parameters were positively correlated with cutting depth. The maximum deviation rate between measured values and predicted values for chip curl radius was 9.37%; the maximum deviation rate for cutting thickness deformation coefficient was 13.8%, and the maximum deviation rate of cutting width deformation coefficient was 7.86%. It can be seen that the established models are accurate. The models have guiding significance for chip control. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surface Processing Technology for High-Temperature Resistant Materials)

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13 pages, 3421 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Advanced Biofuels Based on Fischer–Tropsch Synthesis for Applications in Gasoline Engines

by Jiří Hájek, Vladimír Hönig, Michal Obergruber, Jan Jenčík, Aleš Vráblík, Radek Černý, Martin Pšenička and Tomáš Herink

Materials 2021, 14(11), 3134; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14113134 - 7 Jun 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2945

Abstract

The aim of the article is to determine the properties of fuel mixtures of Fischer–Tropsch naphtha fraction with traditional gasoline (petrol) to be able to integrate the production of advanced alternative fuel based on Fischer–Tropsch synthesis into existing fuel markets. The density, octane [...] Read more.

The aim of the article is to determine the properties of fuel mixtures of Fischer–Tropsch naphtha fraction with traditional gasoline (petrol) to be able to integrate the production of advanced alternative fuel based on Fischer–Tropsch synthesis into existing fuel markets. The density, octane number, vapor pressure, cloud point, water content, sulphur content, refractive index, ASTM color, heat of combustion, and fuel composition were measured using the gas chromatography method PIONA. It was found that fuel properties of Fischer–Tropsch naphtha fraction is not much comparable to conventional gasoline (petrol) due to the high n-alkane content. This research work recommends the creation of a low-percentage mixture of 3 vol.% of FT naphtha fraction with traditional gasoline to minimize negative effects—similar to the current legislative limit of 5 vol.% of bioethanol in E5 gasoline. FT naphtha fraction as a biocomponent does not contain sulphur or polyaromatic hydrocarbons nor benzene. Waste materials can be processed by FT synthesis. Fischer–Tropsch synthesis can be considered a universal fuel—the naphtha fraction cut can be declared as a biocomponent for gasoline fuel without any further necessary catalytic upgrading. Full article

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15 pages, 3750 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Dry Treatment for Municipal Solid Waste Incineration Bottom Ash for the Reduction of Salts and Potential Toxic Elements

by Marco Abis, Martina Bruno, Franz-Georg Simon, Raul Grönholm, Michel Hoppe, Kerstin Kuchta and Silvia Fiore

Materials 2021, 14(11), 3133; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14113133 - 7 Jun 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2707

Abstract

The main obstacle to bottom ash (BA) being used as a recycling aggregate is the content of salts and potential toxic elements (PTEs), concentrated in a layer that coats BA particles. This work presents a dry treatment for the removal of salts and [...] Read more.

The main obstacle to bottom ash (BA) being used as a recycling aggregate is the content of salts and potential toxic elements (PTEs), concentrated in a layer that coats BA particles. This work presents a dry treatment for the removal of salts and PTEs from BA particles. Two pilot-scale abrasion units (with/without the removal of the fine particles) were fed with different BA samples. The performance of the abrasion tests was assessed through the analyses of particle size and moisture, and that of the column leaching tests at solid-to-liquid ratios between 0.3 and 4. The results were: the particle-size distribution of the treated materials was homogeneous (25 wt % had dimensions <6.3 mm) and their moisture halved, as well as the electrical conductivity of the leachates. A significant decrease was observed in the leachates of the treated BA for sulphates (44%), chlorides (26%), and PTEs (53% Cr, 60% Cu and 8% Mo). The statistical analysis revealed good correlations between chloride and sulphate concentrations in the leachates with Ba, Cu, Mo, and Sr, illustrating the consistent behavior of the major and minor components of the layer surrounding BA particles. In conclusion, the tested process could be considered as promising for the improvement of BA valorization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recovery of Waste Materials: Technological Research and Industrial Scale-Up)

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Grinding mechanisms: (a) compression, (b) chipping, (c) abrasion (adapted from Wills and Finch 2015 [<a href="#B27-materials-14-03133" class="html-bibr">27</a>]). Full article ">Figure 2
Aggregate motion in a tumbling mill (adapted from Ali et al., 2019 [<a href="#B28-materials-14-03133" class="html-bibr">28</a>]; Wills 2016 [<a href="#B29-materials-14-03133" class="html-bibr">29</a>]; Wills and Finch 2015 [<a href="#B27-materials-14-03133" class="html-bibr">27</a>]). Full article ">Figure 3
Particle size distribution of (a) the raw samples from Plant A and Plant B, of (b) samples treated for 60 min and of (c) samples treated for 120 min. Dotted line is mesh = 2 mm. Full article ">Figure 4
Moisture content of the raw samples from Plant A and Plant B, of the samples treated for 60 and 120 min abrasion (Abr.) time, and those treated with the concrete mixer (only Plant B). Full article ">Figure 5
Correlations between electrical conductivity and (a) chloride and (b) sulphate concentrations in the leachates. Full article ">Figure 6
Trends of (a) chlorides and (b) sulphates’ cumulative release from the raw BA samples, and of (c) chlorides and (d) sulphates’ cumulative release after the abrasion tests (raw: untreated samples; CM: samples treated in the concrete mixer for 240 min; abr. 60 and abr. 120: samples treated in the sieving drum unit for 60 min and 120 min). Full article ">Figure 7
Correlations between chlorides (a1–a4) and sulphates (b1–b4) and Ba, Cu, Mo, and Sr in the leachates derived from the column leaching tests. Full article ">

17 pages, 3139 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improving the Properties of Degraded Soils from Industrial Areas by Using Livestock Waste with Calcium Peroxide as a Green Oxidizer

by Angelika Więckol-Ryk, Maciej Thomas and Barbara Białecka

Materials 2021, 14(11), 3132; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14113132 - 7 Jun 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2525

Abstract

Over the past years, the treatment and use of livestock waste has posed a significant problem in environmental engineering. This paper outlines a new approach to application of calcium peroxide (CaO₂) as a green oxidizer and microbiocidal agent in the treatment [...] Read more.

Over the past years, the treatment and use of livestock waste has posed a significant problem in environmental engineering. This paper outlines a new approach to application of calcium peroxide (CaO₂) as a green oxidizer and microbiocidal agent in the treatment of poultry manure. It also presents the application of pretreated waste in improvement of degraded soils in industrial areas. The CCD (Central Composite Design) and RSM (Response Surface Methodology) were employed for optimizing the process parameters (CaO₂ concentration 1.6–8.4 wt %, temperature 5.2–38.8 °C and contact time 7–209 h). The analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to analyze the experimental results, which indicated good fit of the approximated to the experimental data (R² = 0.8901, R²_adj = 0.8168). The amendment of CaO₂ in optimal conditions (8 wt % of CaO_2, temperature 22 °C and contact time 108 h) caused a decrease in bacteria Escherichia coli (E. coli) in poultry manure from 8.7 log₁₀ CFU/g to the acceptable level of 3 log₁₀ CFU/g. The application of pretreated livestock waste on degraded soils and the studies on germination and growth of grass seed mixture (Lollum perenne—Naki, Lollum perenne—Grilla, Poa pratensis—Oxford, Festuca rubbra—Relevant, Festuca rubbra—Adio and Festuca trachypylla—Fornito) showed that a dose of 0.08 g of CaO₂ per 1 gram of poultry manure induced higher yield of grass plants. The calculated indicators for growth of roots (GFR) and shoots (GFS) in soils treated with poultry manure were 10–20% lower compared to soils with amended CaO₂. The evidence from this study suggests that CaO₂ could be used as an environmentally friendly oxidizer and microbiocidal agent for livestock waste. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Processing of End-of-Life Materials and Industrial Wastes)

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Full article ">Figure 1
Soil sampling areas near the former “Miasteczko Śląskie” zinc smelter (a) and non-ferrous metals steelworks “Szopienice” (b). Full article ">Figure 2
Bar-chart of the absolute value of standardized assessment of the effects (E. coli, log10CFU/g, 3 value, 1 block, 16 experiments, MS = 0.3877). L—linear effect and Q—quadratic effect. Full article ">Figure 3
The correlation between the estimated and observed values (E. coli, log10CFU/g, 3 value, 1 block, 16 experiments, MS = 0.3877). Full article ">Figure 4
The interactions between: (A) temperature (°C) and CaO2 concentration (wt %), (B) contact time (h) and CaO2 concentration (wt %) and (C) contact time (h) and temperature (°C). Full article ">Figure 5
Pot samples with the grass seed mixture after 21 days of plant growth. Full article ">Figure 6
Impact of poultry manure treated with calcium peroxide on roots and shoots length of the grass seed mixture. Full article ">

19 pages, 12589 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Investigation of Degradation of 316L Steel Caused by Cavitation

by Artur Maurin

Materials 2021, 14(11), 3131; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14113131 - 7 Jun 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2285

Abstract

The degradation process of 316L stainless steel caused by cavitation was investigated by means of finite element analysis. The damage characteristics of metal specimens subjected to the cavitation bubble collapse process were recreated by simulation with a micro-jet water hammer. The simulation results [...] Read more.

The degradation process of 316L stainless steel caused by cavitation was investigated by means of finite element analysis. The damage characteristics of metal specimens subjected to the cavitation bubble collapse process were recreated by simulation with a micro-jet water hammer. The simulation results were compared with the cavitation pits created in the experimental tests. In the experiment, different inlet and outlet pressures in a test chamber with a system of barricade exciters differentiated the erosion process results. Hydrodynamic cavitation caused uneven distribution of the erosion over the specimens’ surface, which has been validated by roughness measurements, enabling localisation and identification of the shape and topography of the impact pits. The erosion rate of the steel specimens was high at the beginning of the test and decreased over time, indicating the phase transformation and/or the strain-hardening of the surface layer. A numerical simulation showed that the impact of the water micro-jet with a velocity of 100 m/s exceeds the tensile strength of 316L steel, and produces an impact pit. The subsequent micro-jet impact on the same zone deepens the pit depth only to a certain extent due to elastoplastic surface hardening. The correlation between post-impact pit geometry and impact velocity was investigated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Erosion Resistance of Materials)

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19 pages, 3422 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Linear Friction Welding of an AZ91 Magnesium Alloy and the Effect of Ca Additions on the Weld Characteristics

by Luis Angel Villegas-Armenta, Priti Wanjara, Javad Gholipour, Isao Nakatsugawa, Yasumasa Chino and Mihriban Pekguleryuz

Materials 2021, 14(11), 3130; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14113130 - 7 Jun 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2905

Abstract

Solid-state welding offers distinct advantages for joining reactive materials, such as magnesium (Mg) and its alloys. This study investigates the effect of linear friction welding (LFW) on the microstructure and mechanical properties of cast AZ91 (Mg–9Al–1Zn) and AZ91–2Ca alloys, which (to the best [...] Read more.

Solid-state welding offers distinct advantages for joining reactive materials, such as magnesium (Mg) and its alloys. This study investigates the effect of linear friction welding (LFW) on the microstructure and mechanical properties of cast AZ91 (Mg–9Al–1Zn) and AZ91–2Ca alloys, which (to the best knowledge of the authors) has not been reported in the literature. Using the same set of LFW process parameters, similar alloy joints—namely, AZ91/AZ91 and AZ91–2Ca/AZ91–2Ca—were manufactured and found to exhibit integral bonding at the interface without defects, such as porosity, inclusions, and/or cracking. Microstructural examination of the AZ91/AZ91 joint revealed dissolution of the Al-rich second phase in the weld zone, while the Mn containing phases remained and were refined. In the AZ91–2Ca/AZ91–2Ca joint, the weld zone retained Ca- and Mn-rich phases, which were also refined due to the LFW process. In both joint types, extensive recrystallization occurred during LFW, as evidenced by the refinement of the grains from ~1000 µm in the base materials to roughly 2–6 µm in the weld zone. These microstructural changes in the AZ91/AZ91 and AZ91–2Ca/AZ91–2Ca joints increased the hardness in the weld zone by 32%. The use of digital image correlation for strain mapping along the sample gage length during tensile testing revealed that the local strains were about 50% lower in the weld zone relative to the AZ91 and AZ91–2Ca base materials. This points to the higher strength of the weld zone in the AZ91/AZ91 and AZ91–2Ca/AZ91–2Ca joints due to the fine grain size, second phase refinement, and strong basal texture. Final fracture during tensile loading of both joints occurred in the base materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Welding and Joining of Materials for Advanced Aerospace Applications)

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11 pages, 3036 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tuning of the Structure and Magnetocaloric Effect of Mn_1−xZr_xCoGe Alloys (Where x = 0.03, 0.05, 0.07, and 0.1)

by Karolina Kutynia and Piotr Gębara

Materials 2021, 14(11), 3129; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14113129 - 7 Jun 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2303

Abstract

The aim of the present work is to study the influence of a partial substitution of Mn by Zr in MnCoGe alloys. The X-ray diffraction (XRD) studies revealed a coexistence of the orthorhombic TiNiSi-type and hexagonal Ni₂In- type phases. The Rietveld [...] Read more.

The aim of the present work is to study the influence of a partial substitution of Mn by Zr in MnCoGe alloys. The X-ray diffraction (XRD) studies revealed a coexistence of the orthorhombic TiNiSi-type and hexagonal Ni₂In- type phases. The Rietveld analysis showed that the changes in lattice constants and content of recognized phases depended on the Zr addition. The occurrence of structural transformation was detected. This transformation was confirmed by analysis of the temperature dependence of exponent n given in the relation ΔS_M = C·(B_MAX)ⁿ. A decrease of the Curie temperature with an increase of the Zr content in the alloy composition was detected. The magnetic entropy changes were 6.93, 13.42, 3.96, and 2.94 J/(kg K) for Mn_0.97Zr_0.03CoGe, Mn_0.95Zr_0.05CoGe, Mn_0.93Zr_0.07CoGe, and Mn_0.9Zr_0.1CoGe, respectively. A significant rise in the magnetic entropy change for samples doped by Zr (x = 0.05) was caused by structural transformation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structure, Magnetocaloric Properties, and Thermodynamic Modeling of Alloys)

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17 pages, 3954 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Novel Triarylamine-Based Hole Transport Materials: Synthesis, Characterization and Computational Investigation

by Laila M. Nhari, Reda M. El-Shishtawy, Qiuchen Lu, Yuanzuo Li and Abdullah M. Asiri

Materials 2021, 14(11), 3128; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14113128 - 7 Jun 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 21357

Abstract

Three novel triarylamine-based electron-rich chromophores were synthesized and fully characterized. Compounds 1 and 2 were designed with electron-rich triphenylamine skeleton bearing two and four decyloxy groups namely, 3,4-bis(decyloxy)-N,N-diphenylaniline and N-(3,4-bis(decyloxy)phenyl)-3,4-bis(decyloxy)-N-phenylaniline, respectively. The well-known electron-rich phenothiazine was introduced to [...] Read more.

Three novel triarylamine-based electron-rich chromophores were synthesized and fully characterized. Compounds 1 and 2 were designed with electron-rich triphenylamine skeleton bearing two and four decyloxy groups namely, 3,4-bis(decyloxy)-N,N-diphenylaniline and N-(3,4-bis(decyloxy)phenyl)-3,4-bis(decyloxy)-N-phenylaniline, respectively. The well-known electron-rich phenothiazine was introduced to diphenylamine moiety through a thiazole ring to form N,N-bis(3,4-bis(decyloxy)phenyl)-5-(10H-phenothiazin-2-yl)thiazol-2-amine (Compound 3). These three novel compounds were fully characterized and their UV–vis absorption indicated their transparency as a favorable property for hole transport materials (HTMs) suitable for perovskite solar cells. Cyclic voltammetry measurements revealed that the HOMO energy levels were in the range 5.00–5.16 eV for all compounds, indicating their suitability with the HOMO energy level of the perovskite photosensitizer. Density functional theory (DFT) and time-dependent DFT (TD-DFT) have been used to investigate the possibility of the synthesized compounds to be utilized as HTMs for perovskite solar cells (PSCs). The computational investigation revealed that the hole mobility of Compound 1 was 1.08 × 10⁻² cm² V⁻¹ s⁻¹, and the substitution with two additional dialkoxy groups on the second phenyl ring as represented by Compound 2 significantly boosted the hole mobility to reach the value 4.21 × 10⁻² cm² V⁻¹ s⁻¹. On the other hand, Compound 3, in which the third phenyl group was replaced by a thiazole-based phenothiazine, the value of hole mobility decreased to reach 5.93 × 10⁻⁵ cm² V⁻¹ s⁻¹. The overall results indicate that these three novel compounds could be promising HTMs for perovskite solar cells. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Hole Transporting Materials for Perovskite Solar Cells)

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14 pages, 6104 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Atomic Simulations of Packing Structures, Local Stress and Mechanical Properties for One Silicon Lattice with Single Vacancy on Heating

by Feng Dai, Dandan Zhao and Lin Zhang

Materials 2021, 14(11), 3127; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14113127 - 7 Jun 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2009

Abstract

The effect of vacancy defects on the structure and mechanical properties of semiconductor silicon materials is of great significance to the development of novel microelectronic materials and the processes of semiconductor sensors. In this paper, molecular dynamics is used to simulate the atomic [...] Read more.

The effect of vacancy defects on the structure and mechanical properties of semiconductor silicon materials is of great significance to the development of novel microelectronic materials and the processes of semiconductor sensors. In this paper, molecular dynamics is used to simulate the atomic packing structure, local stress evolution and mechanical properties of a perfect lattice and silicon crystal with a single vacancy defect on heating. In addition, their influences on the change in Young’s modulus are also analyzed. The atomic simulations show that in the lower temperature range, the existence of vacancy defects reduces the Young’s modulus of the silicon lattice. With the increase in temperature, the local stress distribution of the atoms in the lattice changes due to the migration of the vacancy. At high temperatures, the Young’s modulus of the silicon lattice changes in anisotropic patterns. For the lattice with the vacancy, when the temperature is higher than 1500 K, the number and degree of distortion in the lattice increase significantly, the obvious single vacancy and its adjacent atoms contracting inward structure disappears and the defects in the lattice present complex patterns. By applying uniaxial tensile force, it can be found that the temperature has a significant effect on the elasticity–plasticity behaviors of the Si lattice with the vacancy. Full article

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(a) Perfect Si lattice; (b) Si lattice with one vacancy. Full article ">Figure 2
The average potential energy per atom varying with the temperature. Full article ">Figure 3
Variation of Young’s modulus with the temperature: (a) perfect lattice with a temperature increase of 100 K; (b) lattice with one vacancy with a temperature increase of 100 K; (c) perfect lattice with a temperature increase of 20 K; (d) lattice with one vacancy with a temperature increase of 20 K. Full article ">Figure 4
The atomic packing structure and the pressure distribution of Si lattice with one vacancy at different temperatures: (a1–a3) 300, (b1–b3) 400, (c1–c3) 700, (d1–d3) 1200 and (e1–e3) 1500 K; the black dotted line shows the packing structure and the pressure of the nearest neighbor atoms of vacancy, while the orange dotted line shows the packing structure and the pressure of the atoms neighboring the vacancy; the red atoms in this figure indicate that the atom undergoes compression, and the pressure is positive. The atomic pressure of dark red atoms is higher than that of light red atoms. Blue atoms are stretched, and the pressure is negative. Dark blue color indicates atoms that are under less pressure than light blue atoms. Full article ">Figure 5
Stress varying with the strain and pressure distribution of (a) the prefect Si lattice and the Si lattice with one vacancy at 300 K, (b) the Si lattice with one vacancy at 1200 and (c) 1300 K along the [100] axis. The pictures on the right shows the packing structures corresponding to the letters at different strains on the left. Full article ">Figure 6
Variations of yield strength and tensile strength of the Si lattice with temperature; (a) a temperature increase of 100 K; and (b) a temperature increase of 20 K. Full article ">

11 pages, 1595 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Evaluation of Mineral Trioxide Aggregate Obturation Using Four Different Techniques—A Laboratory Study

by Abhishek Isaac Mathew, Silvia Chamin Lee, Giampiero Rossi-Fedele, George Bogen, Venkateshbabu Nagendrababu and William Nguyen Ha

Materials 2021, 14(11), 3126; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14113126 - 7 Jun 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 4096

Abstract

This study aimed to compare the density of mineral trioxide aggregate (MTA) as a root canal filling material in the apical 5 mm of artificial root canals. Forty transparent acrylic blocks with 30-degree curved canals were instrumented and allocated into four compaction technique [...] Read more.

This study aimed to compare the density of mineral trioxide aggregate (MTA) as a root canal filling material in the apical 5 mm of artificial root canals. Forty transparent acrylic blocks with 30-degree curved canals were instrumented and allocated into four compaction technique groups (n = 10): Lawaty (hand files); gutta-percha (GP) points; auger (nickel–titanium rotary files in reverse mode); and plugger technique. Filled canals were weighed after setting the MTA to calculate difference in mass. Two postoperative radiographs compared radiopacity by measuring luminance variations at 0.5 mm, 1 mm, 2 mm, 3 mm, 4 mm, and 5 mm from the root apex. Obturation time was measured using a digital chronometer. The significance level was set to p < 0.05. The plugger group had a lower mass. Relative luminance was significantly higher for the Lawaty group than the plugger group at all examined apical levels. The relative luminance of the auger and GP groups were significantly higher than the plugger group at depths between 0.5 mm and 2 mm. Relative luminance was highest for the Lawaty technique at all depths between 0.5 mm and 4 mm. The Lawaty technique group was associated with increased obturation time compared with pluggers. Compacting MTA in curved canals with the Lawaty technique has the highest mass and radiopacity but requires more time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dental Materials in Endodontic and Post-endodontic Therapy)

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12 pages, 4465 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Elastic Properties and Energy Loss Related to the Disorder–Order Ferroelectric Transitions in Multiferroic Metal–Organic Frameworks [NH₄][Mg(HCOO)₃] and [(CH₃)₂NH₂][Mg(HCOO)₃]

by Zhiying Zhang, Hongliang Yu, Xin Shen, Lei Sun, Shumin Yue and Hao Tang

Materials 2021, 14(11), 3125; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14113125 - 7 Jun 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2284

Abstract

Elastic properties are important mechanical properties which are dependent on the structure, and the coupling of ferroelasticity with ferroelectricity and ferromagnetism is vital for the development of multiferroic metal–organic frameworks (MOFs). The elastic properties and energy loss related to the disorder–order ferroelectric transition [...] Read more.

Elastic properties are important mechanical properties which are dependent on the structure, and the coupling of ferroelasticity with ferroelectricity and ferromagnetism is vital for the development of multiferroic metal–organic frameworks (MOFs). The elastic properties and energy loss related to the disorder–order ferroelectric transition in [NH₄][Mg(HCOO)₃] and [(CH₃)₂NH₂][Mg(HCOO)₃] were investigated using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA). The DSC curves of [NH₄][Mg(HCOO)₃] and [(CH₃)₂NH₂][Mg(HCOO)₃] exhibited anomalies near 256 K and 264 K, respectively. The DMA results illustrated the minimum in the storage modulus and normalized storage modulus, and the maximum in the loss modulus, normalized loss modulus and loss factor near the ferroelectric transition temperatures of 256 K and 264 K, respectively. Much narrower peaks of loss modulus, normalized loss modulus and loss factor were observed in [(CH₃)₂NH₂][Mg(HCOO)₃] with the peak temperature independent of frequency, and the peak height was smaller at a higher frequency, indicating the features of first-order transition. Elastic anomalies and energy loss in [NH₄][Mg(HCOO)₃] near 256 K are due to the second-order paraelectric to ferroelectric phase transition triggered by the disorder–order transition of the ammonium cations and their displacement within the framework channels, accompanied by the structural phase transition from the non-polar hexagonal P6₃22 to polar hexagonal P6₃. Elastic anomalies and energy loss in [(CH₃)₂NH₂][Mg(HCOO)₃] near 264 K are due to the first-order paraelectric to ferroelectric phase transitions triggered by the disorder–order transitions of alkylammonium cations located in the framework cavities, accompanied by the structural phase transition from rhombohedral R

\bar{3}

c to monoclinic Cc. The elastic anomalies in [NH₄][Mg(HCOO)₃] and [(CH₃)₂NH₂][Mg(HCOO)₃] showed strong coupling of ferroelasticity with ferroelectricity. Full article

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OM image of (a) [NH4][Mg(HCOO)3] and (b) [(CH3)2NH2][Mg(HCOO)3] crystals. Full article ">Figure 2
SEM image of (a) [NH4][Mg(HCOO)3] and (b) [(CH3)2NH2][Mg(HCOO)3] crystals. Full article ">Figure 3
Rietveld fit of XRD patterns of (a) [NH4][Mg(HCOO)3] and (b) [(CH3)2NH2][Mg(HCOO)3] at room temperature. Full article ">Figure 4
Structures of (a) [NH4][Mg(HCOO)3] and (b) [(CH3)2NH2][Mg(HCOO)3] at room temperature. Full article ">Figure 5
DSC curves of (a) [NH4][Mg(HCOO)3] and (b) [(CH3)2NH2][Mg(HCOO)3] during cooling and heating processes at the rate of 5 K/min. Full article ">Figure 6
Temperature dependences of (a) storage modulus E’, (b) loss modulus E’’, (c) loss factor tanδ of [NH4][Mg(HCOO)3] single crystals, (d) normalized storage modulus E’T/E’280, (e) normalized loss modulus E’’T/E’’298 and (f) loss factor tanδ of [NH4][Mg(HCOO)3] pellet determined by DMA during heating at the rate of 2 K/min. The vertical dash-dotted line indicates the ferroelectric transition temperature of 256 K. Full article ">Figure 6 Cont.
Temperature dependences of (a) storage modulus E’, (b) loss modulus E’’, (c) loss factor tanδ of [NH4][Mg(HCOO)3] single crystals, (d) normalized storage modulus E’T/E’280, (e) normalized loss modulus E’’T/E’’298 and (f) loss factor tanδ of [NH4][Mg(HCOO)3] pellet determined by DMA during heating at the rate of 2 K/min. The vertical dash-dotted line indicates the ferroelectric transition temperature of 256 K. Full article ">Figure 7
Temperature dependences of (a) storage modulus E’, (b) loss modulus E’’, (c) loss factor tanδ of [(CH3)2NH2][Mg(HCOO)3] single crystals, (d) normalized storage modulus E’T/E’298, (e) normalized loss modulus E’’T/E’’298 and (f) loss factor tanδ of [(CH3)2NH2][Mg(HCOO)3] pellet determined by DMA during heating at the rate of 2 K/min. The vertical dash-dotted line indicates the ferroelectric transition temperature of 264 K. Full article ">Figure 8
Double logarithmic plot ln(tanδ) vs. ln(f) for the peak in the temperature dependence of tanδ near 260 K in [NH4][Mg(HCOO)3] (a) and near 270 K in [(CH3)2NH2][Mg(HCOO)3] (b). Full article ">

22 pages, 9140 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of AlSi11 after Chip Recycling, Co-Extrusion, and Arc Welding

by Piotr Noga, Lechosław Tuz, Krzysztof Żaba and Adam Zwoliński

Materials 2021, 14(11), 3124; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14113124 - 7 Jun 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2747

Abstract

Recycling of raw materials and is crucial for the production of new products for the global economy. The aim here is, on the one hand, to reduce energy consumption, and, on the other hand, to obtain materials with similar functional properties. The study [...] Read more.

Recycling of raw materials and is crucial for the production of new products for the global economy. The aim here is, on the one hand, to reduce energy consumption, and, on the other hand, to obtain materials with similar functional properties. The study undertook research on the possibility of processing AlSi11 aluminum chips by compaction and co-extruding to obtain a product in the form of a flat bar with mechanical properties not lower than those of the cast materials. The performed tests and the developed technique allowed to obtain flat bars with more favorable mechanical properties (Yield Strength YS ≥ 155 MPa; Ultimate Tensile Strength UTS ≥ 212 MPa) than the castings (YS ≥ 70 MPa ≥ 150 MPa). The weldability evaluation tests revealed that the material is susceptible to porosity. The presence of pores, which reduces the cross-section (up to 60%), reduces the tensile strength (up to 20 MPa). The typical joint structure and plasticity is obtained, which indicate the possibility of tensile strength improvement. Full article

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14 pages, 5386 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Damage Development on the Surface of Nickel Coating in the Initial Period of Erosion

by Dominika E. Zakrzewska, Marta H. Buszko, Alicja K. Krella, Anna Komenda, Grzegorz Mordarski and Robert P. Socha

Materials 2021, 14(11), 3123; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14113123 - 7 Jun 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2601

Abstract

The common occurrence of the phenomenon of cavitation in many industries and the multitude of factors affecting the resistance to cavitation erosion of used materials contribute to the search for methods and appropriate parameters of coating application that are able to minimize the [...] Read more.

The common occurrence of the phenomenon of cavitation in many industries and the multitude of factors affecting the resistance to cavitation erosion of used materials contribute to the search for methods and appropriate parameters of coating application that are able to minimize the effects of erosion. To determine the validity of the developed application parameters and the method used, cavitation studies and microscopic observations of the development of erosion during the cavitation test were carried out. There was a clear lack of incubation time and a linear increase in losses after 60 min of the test. Moreover, the damage observed during the test overlapped, widening the area of erosion and thus leading to damage to the integrity of the coating. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Erosion Resistance of Materials)

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11 pages, 2793 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Mechanical Properties Enhancement of the Au-Cu-Al Alloys via Phase Constitution Manipulation

by Kang-Wei Goo, Wan-Ting Chiu, Ayano Toriyabe, Masahiro Homma, Akira Umise, Masaki Tahara, Kenji Goto, Takumi Sannomiya and Hideki Hosoda

Materials 2021, 14(11), 3122; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14113122 - 7 Jun 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2482

Abstract

To enhance the mechanical properties (e.g., strength and elongation) of the face-centered cubic (fcc) α-phase in the Au-Cu-Al system, this study focused on the introduction of the martensite phase (doubled B19 (DB19) crystal structure of Au₂CuAl) via the manipulation of alloy [...] Read more.

To enhance the mechanical properties (e.g., strength and elongation) of the face-centered cubic (fcc) α-phase in the Au-Cu-Al system, this study focused on the introduction of the martensite phase (doubled B19 (DB19) crystal structure of Au₂CuAl) via the manipulation of alloy compositions. Fundamental evaluations, such as microstructure observations, phase identifications, thermal analysis, tensile behavior examinations, and reflectance analysis, have been conducted. The presence of fcc annealing twins was observed in both the optical microscope (OM) and the scanning electron microscope (SEM) images. Both strength and elongation of the alloys were greatly promoted while the DB19 martensite phase was introduced into the alloys. Amongst all the prepared specimens, the 47Au41Cu12Al and the 44Au44Cu12Al alloys performed the optimized mechanical properties. The enhancement of strength and ductility in these two alloys was achieved while the stress plateau was observed during the tensile deformation. A plot of the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) against fracture strain was constructed to illustrate the effects of the introduction of the DB19 martensite phase on the mechanical properties of the alloys. Regardless of the manipulation of the alloy compositions and the introduction of the DB19 martensite phase, the reflectance stayed almost identical to pure Au. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structure and Mechanical Properties of Alloys)

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OM images of (a) 57Au31Cu12Al, (b) 55Au33Cu12Al, (c) 47Au41Cu12Al, and (d) 44Au44Cu12Al alloys as well as SEM images of (e) 57Au31Cu12Al and the (f) 44Au44Cu12Al alloys. Full article ">Figure 2
X-ray diffraction patterns of (a) 57Au31Cu12Al, (b) 55Au33Cu12Al, (c) 47Au41Cu12Al, and (d) 44Au44Cu12Al alloys at 293 K (±3 K). (The subscript of α indicates the α-phase and the subscript of M suggests the DB19 martensite phase). Full article ">Figure 3
DSC curves of (a) 57Au31Cu12Al, (b) 55Au33Cu12Al, (c) 47Au41Cu12Al, and (d) 44Au44Cu12Al alloys. The inserted figures indicate the enlarged transformation peaks. As, Af, Ms, and Mf indicate the austenite (reverse martensite) transformation start temperature, austenite transformation finish temperature, martensite transformation start temperature, and martensite transformation finish temperature, respectively. Full article ">Figure 4
Stress–strain curves of the tensile tests of (a) 57Au31Cu12Al, (b) 55Au33Cu12Al, (c) 47Au41Cu12Al, and (d) 44Au44Cu12Al alloys at 293 K (±3 K). The cross symbols indicate the fracture of the specimens. Full article ">Figure 5
The relationship between the UTS and the fraction strain of 57Au31Cu12Al, 55Au33Cu12Al, 47Au41Cu12Al, and 44Au44Cu12Al alloys. (The α and M indicate the α-phase and the DB19 martensite phase, respectively). Full article ">Figure 6
The cross-section SEM images and the zoomed-in images of (a,c) 55Au33Cu12Al and (b,d) 47Au41Cu12Al alloys. Full article ">Figure 7
Reflectance analysis results of (a) 57Au31Cu12Al, (b) 55Au33Cu12Al, (c) 47Au41Cu12Al, and (d) 44Au44Cu12Al alloys as well as the (e) pure Au. Full article ">

3 pages, 191 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Editorial Materials: Special Issue on Advances in Luminescent Engineered Nanomaterials

by Luís Pinto da Silva

Materials 2021, 14(11), 3121; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14113121 - 7 Jun 2021

Viewed by 1985

Abstract

Engineered nanomaterials are purposely manufactured particles with sizes typically between 1 and 100 nm, which can be either organic, inorganic, or organometallic in nature [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Luminescent Engineered Nanomaterials)

14 pages, 5650 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Effect of Confining Conditions on the Hydraulic Conductivity Behavior of Fiber-Reinforced Lime Blended Semiarid Soil

by Abdullah Ali Shaker, Mosleh Ali Al-Shamrani, Arif Ali Baig Moghal and Kopparthi Venkata Vydehi

Materials 2021, 14(11), 3120; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14113120 - 6 Jun 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3115

Abstract

The hydraulic properties of expansive soils are affected due to the formation of visible cracks in the dry state. Chemical stabilization coupled with fiber reinforcement is often considered an effective strategy to improve the geotechnical performance of such soils. In this study, hydraulic [...] Read more.

The hydraulic properties of expansive soils are affected due to the formation of visible cracks in the dry state. Chemical stabilization coupled with fiber reinforcement is often considered an effective strategy to improve the geotechnical performance of such soils. In this study, hydraulic conductivity tests have been conducted on expansive clay using two different types of fibers (fiber cast (FC) and fiber mesh (FM)) exhibiting different surface morphological properties. The fiber parameters include their dosage (added at 0.2% to 0.6% by dry weight of soil) and length (6 and 12 mm). Commercially available lime is added to ensure proper bonding between clay particles and fiber materials, and its dosage was fixed at 6% (by dry weight of the soil). Saturated hydraulic conductivity tests were conducted relying on a flexible wall permeameter on lime-treated fiber-blended soil specimens cured for 7 and 28 days. The confining pressures were varied from 50 to 400 kPa, and the saturated hydraulic conductivity values (k_sat) were determined. For FC fibers, an increase in fiber dosage caused k_sat values to increase by 9.5% and 94.3% for the 6 and 12 mm lengths, respectively, at all confining pressures and curing periods. For FM fibers, k_sat values for samples mixed with 6 mm fiber increased by 12 and 99.2% for 6 and 12 mm lengths, respectively for all confining pressures at the end of the 28-day curing period. The results obtained from a flexible wall permeameter (FWP) were compared with those of a rigid wall permeameter (RWP) available in the literature, and the fundamental mechanism responsible for such variations is explained. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Testing of Materials and Elements in Civil Engineering (2nd Edition))

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18 pages, 8383 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Strengthening of Continuous Reinforced Concrete Deep Beams with Large Openings Using CFRP Strips

by Mohammed Riyadh Khalaf, Ali Hussein Ali Al-Ahmed, Abbas AbdulMajeed Allawi and Ayman El-Zohairy

Materials 2021, 14(11), 3119; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14113119 - 6 Jun 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3019

Abstract

To accommodate utilities in buildings, different sizes of openings are provided in the web of reinforced concrete deep beams, which cause reductions in the beam strength and stiffness. This paper aims to investigate experimentally and numerically the effectiveness of using carbon fiber reinforced [...] Read more.

To accommodate utilities in buildings, different sizes of openings are provided in the web of reinforced concrete deep beams, which cause reductions in the beam strength and stiffness. This paper aims to investigate experimentally and numerically the effectiveness of using carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) strips, as a strengthening technique, to externally strengthen reinforced concrete continuous deep beams (RCCDBs) with large openings. The experimental work included testing three RCCDBs under five-point bending. A reference specimen was prepared without openings to explore the reductions in strength and stiffness after providing large openings. Openings were created symmetrically at the center of spans of the other specimens to represent 40% of the overall beam depth. Moreover, finite elements (FE) analysis was validated using the experimental results to conduct a parametric study on RCCDBs strengthened with CFRP strips. The results confirmed reductions in the ultimate load by 21% and 7% for the un-strengthened and strengthened specimens, respectively, due to the large openings. Although the large openings caused reductions in capacities, the CFRP strips limited the deterioration by enhancing the specimen capacity by 17% relative to the un-strengthened one. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fiber Reinforced Materials for Buildings Strengthening)

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13 pages, 9703 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Air Permeability of Maraging Steel Cellular Parts Made by Selective Laser Melting

by Annadurai Dhinakar, Bai-En Li, Yo-Cheng Chang, Kuo-Chi Chiu and Jhewn-Kuang Chen

Materials 2021, 14(11), 3118; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14113118 - 6 Jun 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2553

Abstract

Additive manufacturing, such as selective laser melting (SLM), can be used to manufacture cellular parts. In this study, cellular coupons of maraging steels are prepared through SLM by varying hatch distance. Air flow and permeability of porous maraging steel blocks are obtained for [...] Read more.

Additive manufacturing, such as selective laser melting (SLM), can be used to manufacture cellular parts. In this study, cellular coupons of maraging steels are prepared through SLM by varying hatch distance. Air flow and permeability of porous maraging steel blocks are obtained for samples of different thickness based on the Darcy equation. By reducing hatch distance from 0.75 to 0.4 mm, the permeability decreases from 1.664 × 10⁻⁶ mm² to 0.991 × 10⁻⁶ mm² for 4 mm thick coupons. In addition, by increasing the thickness from 2 to 8 mm, the permeability increases from 0.741 × 10⁻⁶ mm² to 1.345 × 10⁻⁶ mm² at 16.2 J/mm³ energy density and 0.14 MPa inlet pressure. Simulation using ANSYS-Fluent is conducted to observe the pressure difference across the porous coupons and is compared with the experimental results. Surface artifacts and the actual morphology of scan lines can cause the simulated permeability to deviate from the experimental values. The measured permeability of maraging steel coupons is regression fit with both energy density and size of samples which provide a design guideline of porous mold inserts for industry applications such as injection molding. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Metal Additive Manufacturing)

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16 pages, 8058 KiB

Open AccessArticle

On Characteristics of Ferritic Steel Determined during the Uniaxial Tensile Test

by Ihor Dzioba, Sebastian Lipiec, Robert Pala and Piotr Furmanczyk

Materials 2021, 14(11), 3117; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14113117 - 6 Jun 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2522

Abstract

Tensile uniaxial test is typically used to determine the strength and plasticity of a material. Nominal (engineering) stress-strain relationship is suitable for determining properties when elastic strain dominates (e.g., yield strength, Young’s modulus). For loading conditions where plastic deformation is significant (in front [...] Read more.

Tensile uniaxial test is typically used to determine the strength and plasticity of a material. Nominal (engineering) stress-strain relationship is suitable for determining properties when elastic strain dominates (e.g., yield strength, Young’s modulus). For loading conditions where plastic deformation is significant (in front of a crack tip or in a neck), the use of true stress and strain values and the relationship between them are required. Under these conditions, the dependence between the true values of stresses and strains should be treated as a characteristic—a constitutive relationship of the material. This article presents several methodologies to develop a constitutive relationship for S355 steel from tensile test data. The constitutive relationship developed was incorporated into a finite element analysis of the tension test and verified with the measured tensile test data. The method of the constitutive relationship defining takes into account the impact of high plastic strain, the triaxiality stress factor, Lode coefficient, and material weakness due to the formation of microvoids, which leads to obtained correctly results by FEM (finite elements method) calculation. The different variants of constitutive relationships were applied to the FEM loading simulation of the three-point bending SENB (single edge notched bend) specimen to evaluate their applicability to the calculation of mechanical fields in the presence of a crack. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Testing of Materials and Elements in Civil Engineering (2nd Edition))

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21 pages, 17160 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Fire Temperature and Exposure Time on High-Strength Steel Bolts Microstructure and Residual Mechanical Properties

by Paweł Artur Król and Marcin Wachowski

Materials 2021, 14(11), 3116; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14113116 - 6 Jun 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2909

Abstract

In this study, the influence of different fire conditions on tempered 32CrB3 steel bolts of Grade 8.8 was investigated. In this research different temperatures, heating time, and cooling methods were correlated with the microstructure, hardness, and residual strength of the bolts. Chosen parameters [...] Read more.

In this study, the influence of different fire conditions on tempered 32CrB3 steel bolts of Grade 8.8 was investigated. In this research different temperatures, heating time, and cooling methods were correlated with the microstructure, hardness, and residual strength of the bolts. Chosen parameters of heat treatments correspond to simulated natural fire conditions that may occur in public facilities. Heat treated and unheated samples cut out from a series of tested bolts were subjected to microstructural tests using light microscopy (LM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), XRD phase analysis, and the quantitative analysis of the microstructure. The results of the microstructure tests were compared with the results of strength tests, including hardness and the ultimate residual tensile strength of the material (UTS) in the initial state and after the heat treatments. Results of the investigations revealed considerable microstructural changes in the bolt material as a result of exposing it to different fire conditions and cooling methods. A conducted comparative analysis also showed a significant effect of all such factors as the temperature level of the simulated fire, its duration, and the fire-fighting method on the mechanical properties of the bolts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Manufacturing, Heat Treatment and Forming of Advanced Metallic and Ceramic Materials)

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17 pages, 3666 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of Mechanical Properties of Chairside CAD/CAM Restorations Fabricated Using a Standardization Method

by Myung-Sik Hong, Yu-Sung Choi, Hae-Hyoung Lee, Jung-Hwan Lee and Junyong Ahn

Materials 2021, 14(11), 3115; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14113115 - 6 Jun 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2668

Abstract

The aim of this in vitro study was to investigate the fracture resistance, fracture failure pattern, and fractography of four types of chairside computer-aided design/computer-aided manufacturing (CAD/CAM) restoration materials in teeth and titanium abutments fabricated using a standardization method. An artificial mandibular left [...] Read more.

The aim of this in vitro study was to investigate the fracture resistance, fracture failure pattern, and fractography of four types of chairside computer-aided design/computer-aided manufacturing (CAD/CAM) restoration materials in teeth and titanium abutments fabricated using a standardization method. An artificial mandibular left first premolar prepared for all-ceramic crown restoration was scanned. Forty extracted mandibular molars and cylindrical titanium specimens were milled into a standardized shape. A total of eighty CAD/CAM restoration blocks were milled into a crown and twenty pieces of each lithium disilicate (LS), polymer-infiltrated-ceramic-network (PICN), resin nano ceramic (RNC), and zirconia-reinforced lithium silicate (ZLS) materials were used. Crowns were bonded to abutments, and all specimens underwent thermal cycling treatment for 10,000 cycles. Fracture resistance was measured using a universal testing machine and fracture failure patterns were analyzed using optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy. Statistical differences were analyzed using appropriate ANOVA, Tukey HSD post hoc tests, and independent sample t-tests (α = 0.05). The results indicated that, in both teeth abutments and titanium abutments, the fracture resistances showed significantly the highest values in LS and the second highest in ZLS (p < 0.05). The fracture resistances based on teeth abutments and titanium abutments were significantly different in all the CAD/CAM restoration materials (p < 0.05). There are statistically significant correlations between the types of materials and the types of abutments (p < 0.05). Each of the different materials showed different fracture failure patterns, and there was no noticeable difference in fractographic analysis. Lithium disilicates and zirconia-reinforced lithium silicates exhibited statistically high fracture resistance, indicating their suitability as restoration materials for natural teeth or implant abutments. There were no distinct differences in the fracture pattern based on the restoration and abutment materials showed that the fracture initiated at the groove where the ball indenter was toughed and propagated toward the axial wall. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Dental Materials)

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14 pages, 5682 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Al Matrix Composites Reinforced by Ti and C Dedicated to Work at Elevated Temperature

by Bartosz Hekner, Jerzy Myalski, Patryk Wrześniowski and Tomasz Maciąg

Materials 2021, 14(11), 3114; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14113114 - 6 Jun 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2028

Abstract

In this paper, the applicability of aluminium matrix composites to high-temperature working conditions (not exceeding the Al melting point) was evaluated. The behaviour of Al-Ti-C composites at elevated temperatures was described based on microstructural and phase composition observations for composites heated at temperatures [...] Read more.

In this paper, the applicability of aluminium matrix composites to high-temperature working conditions (not exceeding the Al melting point) was evaluated. The behaviour of Al-Ti-C composites at elevated temperatures was described based on microstructural and phase composition observations for composites heated at temperatures of 540 and 600 °C over differing time intervals from 2 to 72 h. The materials investigated were aluminium matrix composites (AMC) reinforced with a spatial carbon (C) structure covered by a titanium (Ti) layer. This layer protected the carbon surface against contact with the aluminium during processing, protection which was maintained for the material’s lifetime and ensured the required phase compositions of Al₄C₃ phase limitation and AlTi₃ phase creation. It was also proved that heat treatment influenced not only phase compositions but also the microstructure of the material, and, as a consequence, the properties of the composite. Full article

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23 pages, 13434 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Deformation, the Stressed State and Fracture Predictions for Cogging Shafts with Convex Anvils

by Marcin Kukuryk

Materials 2021, 14(11), 3113; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14113113 - 6 Jun 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2099

Abstract

In this article, a new manner of cogging a forging (type: shaft), consisting in the application of a two-stage process composed of preliminary shaping in convex anvils, and also principal forging in flat or shaped anvils, is presented. A new manner of forging [...] Read more.

In this article, a new manner of cogging a forging (type: shaft), consisting in the application of a two-stage process composed of preliminary shaping in convex anvils, and also principal forging in flat or shaped anvils, is presented. A new manner of forging brought about the formation of favorable conditions for achieving the maximum values of the effective strain in the central part of a forging, accompanied by a simultaneous absence of tensile stresses, which was exerting a favorable influence upon reforging the axial zone of an ingot. What was determined, was the effective geometric shapes of convex anvils; the efficiency of different technological parameters in the case of the intensity of reforging the axial zone of an ingot was analyzed as well. The investigations were complemented by means of predicting the formation of ductile fractures in the course of forging with the application of three different ductile fracture criteria. The comparison of theoretical and experimental outcomes of investigations indicates a good level of being commensurate. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metal Forming and Forging)

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11 pages, 6251 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Investigation on Spray-Granulated, Macroporous, Bioactive Glass Microspheres for a Controlled Drug Delivery System

by Henni Setia Ningsih, Liu-Gu Chen, Ren-Jei Chung and Yu-Jen Chou

Materials 2021, 14(11), 3112; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14113112 - 6 Jun 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2672

Abstract

Bioactive glass (BG) has been regarded as an excellent candidate for biomedical applications due to its superior properties of bioactivity, biocompatibility, osteoconductivity and biodegradability. Thus, in this study, we aimed to fabricate drug carriers that were capable of loading therapeutic antibiotics while promoting [...] Read more.

Bioactive glass (BG) has been regarded as an excellent candidate for biomedical applications due to its superior properties of bioactivity, biocompatibility, osteoconductivity and biodegradability. Thus, in this study, we aimed to fabricate drug carriers that were capable of loading therapeutic antibiotics while promoting bone regeneration using macroporous BG microspheres, prepared by a spray drying method. Characterizations of particle morphology and specific surface area were carried out via scanning electron microscopy and nitrogen adsorption/desorption isotherm. Evaluations of in vitro bioactivity were performed based on Kokubo’s simulated body fluid to confirm the formation of the hydroxyapatite (HA) layer after immersion. In addition, the in vitro drug release behaviors were examined, using tetracycline as the therapeutic antibiotic in pH 7.4 and 5.0 environments. Finally, the results showed that BG microspheres of up to 33 μm could be mass-produced, targeting various therapeutic situations and their resulting bioactivities and drug release behaviors, and related properties were discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Bioactive Materials)

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16 pages, 3410 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanical and Physicochemical Properties of 3D-Printed Agave Fibers/Poly(lactic) Acid Biocomposites

by Valeria Figueroa-Velarde, Tania Diaz-Vidal, Erick Omar Cisneros-López, Jorge Ramón Robledo-Ortiz, Edgar J. López-Naranjo, Pedro Ortega-Gudiño and Luis Carlos Rosales-Rivera

Materials 2021, 14(11), 3111; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14113111 - 5 Jun 2021

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 3130

Abstract

In order to provide a second economic life to agave fibers, an important waste material from the production of tequila, filaments based on polylactic acid (PLA) were filled with agave fibers (0, 3, 5, 10 wt%), and further utilized to produce biocomposites by [...] Read more.

In order to provide a second economic life to agave fibers, an important waste material from the production of tequila, filaments based on polylactic acid (PLA) were filled with agave fibers (0, 3, 5, 10 wt%), and further utilized to produce biocomposites by fused deposition modeling (FDM)-based 3D printing at two raster angles (−45°/45° and 0°/90°). Differential scanning calorimetry, water uptake, density variation, morphology, and composting of the biocomposites were studied. The mechanical properties of the biocomposites (tensile, flexural, and Charpy impact properties) were determined following ASTM international norms. The addition of agave fibers to the filaments increased the crystallinity value from 23.7 to 44.1%. However, the fibers generated porous structures with a higher content of open cells and lower apparent densities than neat PLA pieces. The printing angle had a low significant effect on flexural and tensile properties, but directly affected the morphology of the printed biocomposites, positively influenced the impact strength, and slightly improved the absorption values for biocomposites printed at −45°/45°. Overall, increasing the concentrations of agave fibers had a detrimental effect on the mechanical properties of the biocomposites. The disintegration of the biocomposites under simulated composting conditions was slowed 1.6-fold with the addition of agave fibers, compared to neat PLA. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Functional and Architected Materials)

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SEM micrographs of agave fibers (AF) used for biocomposite preparation (A) after sieving, and (B) after high shear mixing process (100× magnification). Full article ">Figure 2
SEM micrographs of agave fibers/PLA biocomposites with different agave fiber content (0, 3, 5 and 10 wt%) and angle deposition (−45°/45° and 0°/90°) (70× magnification). Full article ">Figure 3
Water absorption of agave fibers/PLA printed biocomposites at different agave fiber percentages (0, 3, 5, and 10 wt%) and (A) printing angle of −45°/45°, and (B) printing angle of 0°/90°. Full article ">Figure 4
(A) Tensile strength and (B) tensile modulus of printed agave fibers/PLA biocomposites. The letters a–e on top of the bars indicates significant differences (p < 0.05). Full article ">Figure 5
(A) Flexural strength and (B) flexural modulus of printed agave fibers/PLA biocomposites. The letters a–f on top of the bars indicates significant differences (p < 0.05). Full article ">Figure 6
Charpy impact strength of printed agave fibers/PLA biocomposites. The letters a–b on top of the bars indicates significant differences (p < 0.05). Full article ">Figure 7
(A) Percentage weight losses of agave fiber/PLA printed biocomposites under simulated composting conditions and (B) photographs of agave fiber/PLA pieces after being composted. Full article ">

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Materials, Volume 14, Issue 11 (June-1 2021) – 444 articles

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