Sensors

10 pages, 7883 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Performance Analysis of Positioning Solution Using Low-Cost Single-Frequency U-Blox Receiver Based on Baseline Length Constraint

by Liguo Lu, Liye Ma, Tangting Wu and Xiaoyong Chen

Sensors 2019, 19(19), 4352; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19194352 - 8 Oct 2019

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 3574

Abstract

With the rapid development of the satellite navigation industry, low-cost and high-precision Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) positioning has recently become a research hotspot. The traditional application of GNSS may be further extended thanks to the low cost of measuring instruments, but effective [...] Read more.

With the rapid development of the satellite navigation industry, low-cost and high-precision Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) positioning has recently become a research hotspot. The traditional application of GNSS may be further extended thanks to the low cost of measuring instruments, but effective methods are also desperately needed due to the low quality of the data obtained using these instruments. Thus, in this paper, we propose the analysis and evaluation of the ambiguity fixed-rate and positioning accuracy of single-frequency Global Positioning System (GPS) and BeiDou Navigation Satellite System (BDS) data, collected from a low-cost u-blox receiver, based on the Constrained LAMBDA (CLAMBDA) method with a baseline length constraint, instead of the classical LAMBDA method. Three sets of experiments in different observation environments, including two sets of static short-baseline experiments and a set of dynamic vehicle experiments, are adopted in this paper. The experiment results show that, compared to classical LAMBDA method, the CLAMBDA method can significantly improve the success rate of the GNSS ambiguity resolution. When the ambiguity is fixed correctly, the baseline solution accuracy reaches 0.5 and 1 cm in a static scenario, and 1 and 2 cm on a dynamic platform. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)

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27 pages, 19080 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Indoor Positioning on Disparate Commercial Smartphones Using Wi-Fi Access Points Coverage Area

by Imran Ashraf, Soojung Hur and Yongwan Park

Sensors 2019, 19(19), 4351; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19194351 - 8 Oct 2019

Cited by 38 | Viewed by 4604

Abstract

The applications of location-based services require precise location information of a user both indoors and outdoors. Global positioning system’s reduced accuracy for indoor environments necessitated the initiation of Indoor Positioning Systems (IPSs). However, the development of an IPS which can determine the user’s [...] Read more.

The applications of location-based services require precise location information of a user both indoors and outdoors. Global positioning system’s reduced accuracy for indoor environments necessitated the initiation of Indoor Positioning Systems (IPSs). However, the development of an IPS which can determine the user’s position with heterogeneous smartphones in the same fashion is a challenging problem. The performance of Wi-Fi fingerprinting-based IPSs is degraded by many factors including shadowing, absorption, and interference caused by obstacles, human mobility, and body loss. Moreover, the use of various smartphones and different orientations of the very same smartphone can limit its positioning accuracy as well. As Wi-Fi fingerprinting is based on Received Signal Strength (RSS) vector, it is prone to dynamic intrinsic limitations of radio propagation, including changes over time, and far away locations having similar RSS vector. This article presents a Wi-Fi fingerprinting approach that exploits Wi-Fi Access Points (APs) coverage area and does not utilize the RSS vector. Using the concepts of APs coverage area uniqueness and coverage area overlap, the proposed approach calculates the user’s current position with the help of APs’ intersection area. The experimental results demonstrate that the device dependency can be mitigated by making the fingerprinting database with the proposed approach. The experiments performed at a public place proves that positioning accuracy can also be increased because the proposed approach performs well in dynamic environments with human mobility. The impact of human body loss is studied as well. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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18 pages, 6586 KiB

Open AccessArticle

INSPEX: Optimize Range Sensors for Environment Perception as a Portable System

by Julie Foucault, Suzanne Lesecq, Gabriela Dudnik, Marc Correvon, Rosemary O’Keeffe, Vincenza Di Palma, Marco Passoni, Fabio Quaglia, Laurent Ouvry, Steven Buckley, Jean Herveg, Andrea di Matteo, Tiana Rakotovao, Olivier Debicki, Nicolas Mareau, John Barrett, Susan Rea, Alan McGibney, François Birot, Hugues de Chaumont, Richard Banach, Joseph Razavi and Cian Ó’Murchú Show full author list Hide full author list

Sensors 2019, 19(19), 4350; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19194350 - 8 Oct 2019

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4892

Abstract

Environment perception is crucial for the safe navigation of vehicles and robots to detect obstacles in their surroundings. It is also of paramount interest for navigation of human beings in reduced visibility conditions. Obstacle avoidance systems typically combine multiple sensing technologies (i.e., LiDAR, [...] Read more.

Environment perception is crucial for the safe navigation of vehicles and robots to detect obstacles in their surroundings. It is also of paramount interest for navigation of human beings in reduced visibility conditions. Obstacle avoidance systems typically combine multiple sensing technologies (i.e., LiDAR, radar, ultrasound and visual) to detect various types of obstacles under different lighting and weather conditions, with the drawbacks of a given technology being offset by others. These systems require powerful computational capability to fuse the mass of data, which limits their use to high-end vehicles and robots. INSPEX delivers a low-power, small-size and lightweight environment perception system that is compatible with portable and/or wearable applications. This requires miniaturizing and optimizing existing range sensors of different technologies to meet the user’s requirements in terms of obstacle detection capabilities. These sensors consist of a LiDAR, a time-of-flight sensor, an ultrasound and an ultra-wideband radar with measurement ranges respectively of 10 m, 4 m, 2 m and 10 m. Integration of a data fusion technique is also required to build a model of the user’s surroundings and provide feedback about the localization of harmful obstacles. As primary demonstrator, the INSPEX device will be fixed on a white cane. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wearable Sensors and Devices for Healthcare Applications)

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20 pages, 4835 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Beehive-Inspired Information Gathering with a Swarm of Autonomous Drones

by Alberto Viseras, Thomas Wiedemann, Christoph Manss, Valentina Karolj, Dmitriy Shutin and Juan Marchal

Sensors 2019, 19(19), 4349; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19194349 - 8 Oct 2019

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 5463

Abstract

This paper presents a beehive-inspired multi-agent drone system for autonomous information collection to support the needs of first responders and emergency teams. The proposed system is designed to be simple, cost-efficient, yet robust and scalable at the same time. It includes several unmanned [...] Read more.

This paper presents a beehive-inspired multi-agent drone system for autonomous information collection to support the needs of first responders and emergency teams. The proposed system is designed to be simple, cost-efficient, yet robust and scalable at the same time. It includes several unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) that can be tasked with data collection, and a single control station that acts as a data accumulation and visualization unit. The system also provides a local communication access point for the UAVs to exchange information and coordinate the data collection routes. By avoiding peer-to-peer communication and using proactive collision avoidance and path-planning, the payload weight and per-drone costs can be significantly reduced; the whole concept can be implemented using inexpensive off-the-shelf components. Moreover, the proposed concept can be used with different sensors and types of UAVs. As such, it is suited for local-area operations, but also for large-scale information-gathering scenarios. The paper outlines the details of the system hardware and software design, and discusses experimental results for collecting image information with a set of 4 multirotor UAVs at a small experimental area. The obtained results validate the concept and demonstrate robustness and scalability of the system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Deployment and Navigation of Aerial Drones for Surveillance and Monitoring)

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19 pages, 1571 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Machine Learning for LTE Energy Detection Performance Improvement

by Małgorzata Wasilewska and Hanna Bogucka

Sensors 2019, 19(19), 4348; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19194348 - 8 Oct 2019

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 4085

Abstract

The growing number of radio communication devices and limited spectrum resources are drivers for the development of new techniques of dynamic spectrum access and spectrum sharing. In order to make use of the spectrum opportunistically, the concept of cognitive radio was proposed, where [...] Read more.

The growing number of radio communication devices and limited spectrum resources are drivers for the development of new techniques of dynamic spectrum access and spectrum sharing. In order to make use of the spectrum opportunistically, the concept of cognitive radio was proposed, where intelligent decisions on transmission opportunities are based on spectrum sensing. In this paper, two Machine Learning (ML) algorithms, namely k-Nearest Neighbours and Random Forest, have been proposed to increase spectrum sensing performance. These algorithms have been applied to Energy Detection (ED) and Energy Vector-based data (EV) to detect the presence of a Fourth Generation (4G) Long-Term Evolution (LTE) signal for the purpose of utilizing the available resource blocks by a 5G new radio system. The algorithms capitalize on time, frequency and spatial dependencies in daily communication traffic. Research results show that the ML methods used can significantly improve the spectrum sensing performance if the input training data set is carefully chosen. The input data sets with ED decisions and energy values have been examined, and advantages and disadvantages of their real-life application have been analyzed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Sensor Signal in Machine Learning)

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14 pages, 9063 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improving the GRACE Kinematic Precise Orbit Determination Through Modified Clock Estimating

by Xingyu Zhou, Weiping Jiang, Hua Chen, Zhao Li and Xuexi Liu

Sensors 2019, 19(19), 4347; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19194347 - 8 Oct 2019

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3594

Abstract

Utilizing global positioning system (GPS) to determine the precise kinematic orbits for the twin satellites of the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) plays a very important role in the earth’s gravitational and other scientific fields. However, the orbit quality is highly depended [...] Read more.

Utilizing global positioning system (GPS) to determine the precise kinematic orbits for the twin satellites of the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) plays a very important role in the earth’s gravitational and other scientific fields. However, the orbit quality is highly depended on the geometry of observed GPS satellites. In this study, we propose a kinematic orbit determination method for improving the GRACE orbit quality especially when the geometry of observed GPS satellites is weak, where an appropriate random walk clock constraint between adjacent epochs is recommended according to the stability of on-board GPS receiver clocks. GRACE data over one month were adopted in the experimental validation. Results show that the proposed method could improve the root mean square (RMS) by 20–40% in radial component and 5–20% in along and cross components. For those epochs with position dilution of precision (PDOP) larger than 4, the orbits were improved by 50–70% in radial component and 17–50% in along and cross components. Meanwhile, the Allan deviation of clock estimates in the proposed method was much closer to the reported Allan deviation of GRACE on-board oscillator. All the results confirmed the improvement of the proposed method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue GNSS Data Processing and Navigation)

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7 pages, 1677 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improved Optical Waveguide Microcantilever for Integrated Nanomechanical Sensor

by Yachao Jing, Guofang Fan, Rongwei Wang, Zeping Zhang, Xiaoyu Cai, Jiasi Wei, Xin Chen, Hongyu Li and Yuan Li

Sensors 2019, 19(19), 4346; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19194346 - 8 Oct 2019

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2880

Abstract

This paper reports on an improved optical waveguide microcantilever sensor with high sensitivity. To improve the sensitivity, a buffer was introduced into the connection of the input waveguide and optical waveguide cantilever by extending the input waveguide to reduce the coupling loss of [...] Read more.

This paper reports on an improved optical waveguide microcantilever sensor with high sensitivity. To improve the sensitivity, a buffer was introduced into the connection of the input waveguide and optical waveguide cantilever by extending the input waveguide to reduce the coupling loss of the junction. The buffer-associated optical losses were examined for different cantilever thicknesses. The optimum length of the buffer was found to be 0.97 μm for a cantilever thickness of 300 nm. With this configuration, the optical loss was reduced to about 40%, and the maximum sensitivity was more than twice that of the conventional structure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nanomechanical Sensors)

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10 pages, 2820 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Gold-Film-Thickness Dependent SPR Refractive Index and Temperature Sensing with Hetero-Core Optical Fiber Structure

by Rui Zhang, Shengli Pu and Xinjie Li

Sensors 2019, 19(19), 4345; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19194345 - 8 Oct 2019

Cited by 58 | Viewed by 6113

Abstract

A simple hetero-core optical fiber (MMF-NCF-MMF) surface plasmon resonance (SPR) sensing structure was proposed. The SPR spectral sensitivity, full width of half peak (FWHM), valley depth (VD), and figure of merit (FOM) were defined to evaluate the sensing performance comprehensively. The effect of [...] Read more.

A simple hetero-core optical fiber (MMF-NCF-MMF) surface plasmon resonance (SPR) sensing structure was proposed. The SPR spectral sensitivity, full width of half peak (FWHM), valley depth (VD), and figure of merit (FOM) were defined to evaluate the sensing performance comprehensively. The effect of gold film thickness on the refractive index and temperature sensing performance was studied experimentally. The optimum gold film thickness was found. The maximum sensitivities for refractive index and temperature measurement were obtained to be 2933.25 nm/RIU and −0.91973 nm/°C, respectively. The experimental results are helpful to design the SPR structure with improved sensing performance. The proposed SPR sensing structure has the advantages of simple structure, easy implementation, and good robustness, which implies a broad application prospect. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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Figure 1
(a) Schematic of the proposed sensor; (b) Picture of the as-fabricated structure coated with gold film. Full article ">Figure 2
(a) Typical screenshot of the step profiler for measuring the gold film thickness with sputtering time of 90 s; (b) Gold film thickness as a function of sputtering time. Full article ">Figure 3
Experimental setup for investigating the sensing properties of the simple hetero-core optical fiber (MMF-NCF-MMF) structure. Full article ">Figure 4
Transmission spectra of the sensing structure at different surrounding refractive indices (a) and ambient temperatures (b). The thickness of the gold film is 25.753 nm. Full article ">Figure 5
Resonance wavelength as a function of surrounding refractive index (a) and ambient temperature (b) at different gold film thicknesses. Full article ">Figure 6
Refractive index and temperature sensitivities as functions of gold film thickness. Full article ">Figure 7
Gold film thickness dependence of (a) full width of half peak (FWHM), (b) valley depth (VD), and (c) figure of merit (FOM) during refractive index measurement. Full article ">Figure 8
Gold film thickness dependence of FOM during temperature measurement. Full article ">

17 pages, 5350 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Unsupervised Moving Object Segmentation from Stationary or Moving Camera Based on Multi-frame Homography Constraints

by Zhigao Cui, Ke Jiang and Tao Wang

Sensors 2019, 19(19), 4344; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19194344 - 8 Oct 2019

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4067

Abstract

Moving object segmentation is the most fundamental task for many vision-based applications. In the past decade, it has been performed on the stationary camera, or moving camera, respectively. In this paper, we show that the moving object segmentation can be addressed in a [...] Read more.

Moving object segmentation is the most fundamental task for many vision-based applications. In the past decade, it has been performed on the stationary camera, or moving camera, respectively. In this paper, we show that the moving object segmentation can be addressed in a unified framework for both type of cameras. The proposed method consists of two stages: (1) In the first stage, a novel multi-frame homography model is generated to describe the background motion. Then, the inliers and outliers of that model are classified as background trajectories and moving object trajectories by the designed cumulative acknowledgment strategy. (2) In the second stage, a super-pixel-based Markov Random Fields model is used to refine the spatial accuracy of initial segmentation and obtain final pixel level labeling, which has integrated trajectory classification information, a dynamic appearance model, and spatial temporal cues. The proposed method overcomes the limitations of existing object segmentation algorithms and resolves the difference between stationary and moving cameras. The algorithm is tested on several challenging open datasets. Experiments show that the proposed method presents significant performance improvement over state-of-the-art techniques quantitatively and qualitatively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Intelligent Sensors)

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Graphical abstract

Graphical abstract
Full article ">Figure 1
The framework. Our method takes a raw video as input, and produces a binary labeling as the output. Two major steps are initial multi-frame homography model for trajectories classification (left) and final Markov random fields model for foreground background labeling (right). Full article ">Figure 2
Illustration for the temporally partition of the input video. Full article ">Figure 3
Example of initial trajectory classification and final pixel labeling. The selected image is from cars 2 video sequence of Hopkins 155 [<a href="#B40-sensors-19-04344" class="html-bibr">40</a>] dataset. (a) Example of initial trajectory classification. (b) Example of final pixel level labeling. Full article ">Figure 4
Trajectory classification results on the cars 1 (column 1), cars 5 (column 2), people 2 (column 3), vperson (column 4), backyard (column 5), and highway (column 6) sequences using our method (row 2) and Sheikh et al. [<a href="#B22-sensors-19-04344" class="html-bibr">22</a>] (row 3). For visualization purposes, the foreground and background trajectories are shown by the purple, and blue colors, respectively. Full article ">Figure 5
Experimental results of final pixel level labeling on the cars 3 (row 1), cars 4 (row 2), people 1 (row 3), people 2 (row 4), and pets 2006 (row 5) sequences. (Column 1) Input image. (Column 2) Ground truth. (Column 3) Sheikh et al. [<a href="#B22-sensors-19-04344" class="html-bibr">22</a>]. (Column 4) Zhu et al. [<a href="#B26-sensors-19-04344" class="html-bibr">26</a>]. (Column 5) Chiranjoy et al. [<a href="#B31-sensors-19-04344" class="html-bibr">31</a>]. (Column 6) Our algorithm. Full article ">Figure 5 Cont.
Experimental results of final pixel level labeling on the cars 3 (row 1), cars 4 (row 2), people 1 (row 3), people 2 (row 4), and pets 2006 (row 5) sequences. (Column 1) Input image. (Column 2) Ground truth. (Column 3) Sheikh et al. [<a href="#B22-sensors-19-04344" class="html-bibr">22</a>]. (Column 4) Zhu et al. [<a href="#B26-sensors-19-04344" class="html-bibr">26</a>]. (Column 5) Chiranjoy et al. [<a href="#B31-sensors-19-04344" class="html-bibr">31</a>]. (Column 6) Our algorithm. Full article ">

17 pages, 1507 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Amplifier-Less Acquisition Chain for Power Measurements in Series Resonant Inverters

by Jorge Villa, José I. Artigas, Luis A. Barragán and Denis Navarro

Sensors 2019, 19(19), 4343; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19194343 - 8 Oct 2019

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2856

Abstract

Successive approximation register (SAR) analog-to-digital converter (ADC) manufacturers recommend the use of a driver amplifier to achieve the best performance. When a driver amplifier is not used, the conversion speed is severely penalized because of the need to meet the settling time constraint. [...] Read more.

Successive approximation register (SAR) analog-to-digital converter (ADC) manufacturers recommend the use of a driver amplifier to achieve the best performance. When a driver amplifier is not used, the conversion speed is severely penalized because of the need to meet the settling time constraint. This paper proposes a simple digital correction method to raise the performance (conversion speed and/or accuracy) when the acquisition chain lacks a driver amplifier. It is intended to reduce the cost, size and power consumption of the conditioning circuit while maintaining acceptable performance. The method is applied to the measurement of the output power delivered by a series resonant inverter for domestic induction heating. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electronic Interfaces for Sensors)

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17 pages, 4811 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Prediction of Motor Failure Time Using An Artificial Neural Network

by Gustavo Scalabrini Sampaio, Arnaldo Rabello de Aguiar Vallim Filho, Leilton Santos da Silva and Leandro Augusto da Silva

Sensors 2019, 19(19), 4342; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19194342 - 8 Oct 2019

Cited by 54 | Viewed by 14275

Abstract

Industry is constantly seeking ways to avoid corrective maintenance so as to reduce costs. Performing regular scheduled maintenance can help to mitigate this problem, but not necessarily in the most efficient way. In the context of condition-based maintenance, the main contributions of this [...] Read more.

Industry is constantly seeking ways to avoid corrective maintenance so as to reduce costs. Performing regular scheduled maintenance can help to mitigate this problem, but not necessarily in the most efficient way. In the context of condition-based maintenance, the main contributions of this work were to propose a methodology to treat and transform the collected data from a vibration system that simulated a motor and to build a dataset to train and test an Artificial Neural Network capable of predicting the future condition of the equipment, pointing out when a failure can happen. To achieve this goal, a device model was built to simulate typical motor vibrations, consisting of a computer cooler fan and several magnets. Measurements were made using an accelerometer, and the data were collected and processed to produce a structured dataset. The neural network training with this dataset converged quickly and stably, while the tests performed, k-fold cross-validation and model generalization, presented excellent performance. The same tests were performed with other machine learning techniques, to demonstrate the effectiveness of neural networks mainly in their generalizability. The results of the work confirm that it is possible to use neural networks to perform predictive tasks in relation to the conditions of industrial equipment. This is an important area of study that helps to support the growth of smart industries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensor Technologies for Smart Industry and Smart Infrastructure)

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20 pages, 2795 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Structural Damage Identification Based on AR Model with Additive Noises Using an Improved TLS Solution

by Cai Wu, Shujin Li and Yuanjin Zhang

Sensors 2019, 19(19), 4341; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19194341 - 8 Oct 2019

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2945

Abstract

Structural damage is inevitable due to the structural aging and disastrous external excitation. The auto-regressive (AR) based method is one of the most widely used methods for structural damage identification. In this regard, the classical least-squares algorithm is often utilized to solve the [...] Read more.

Structural damage is inevitable due to the structural aging and disastrous external excitation. The auto-regressive (AR) based method is one of the most widely used methods for structural damage identification. In this regard, the classical least-squares algorithm is often utilized to solve the AR model. However, this algorithm generally could not take all the observed noises into account. In this study, a partial errors-in-variables (EIV) model is used so that both the current and prior observation errors are considered. Accordingly, a total least-squares (TLS_E) solution is introduced to solve the partial EIV model. The solution estimates and accounts for the correlations between the current observed data and the design matrix. An effective damage indicator is chosen to count for damage levels of the structures. Both mathematical and finite element simulation results show that the proposed TLS_E method yields better accuracy than the classical LS method and the AR model. Finally, the response data of a high-rise building shaking table test is used for demonstrating the effectiveness of the proposed method in identifying the location and damage degree of a model structure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensor and Embedded System Applications in Structural Engineering and Engineering Seismology)

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22 pages, 5916 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design and Fabrication of CMOS Microstructures to Locally Synthesize Carbon Nanotubes for Gas Sensing

by Avisek Roy, Mehdi Azadmehr, Bao Q. Ta, Philipp Häfliger and Knut E. Aasmundtveit

Sensors 2019, 19(19), 4340; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19194340 - 8 Oct 2019

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3762

Abstract

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) can be grown locally on custom-designed CMOS microstructures to use them as a sensing material for manufacturing low-cost gas sensors, where CMOS readout circuits are directly integrated. Such a local CNT synthesis process using thermal chemical vapor deposition (CVD) requires [...] Read more.

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) can be grown locally on custom-designed CMOS microstructures to use them as a sensing material for manufacturing low-cost gas sensors, where CMOS readout circuits are directly integrated. Such a local CNT synthesis process using thermal chemical vapor deposition (CVD) requires temperatures near 900 °C, which is destructive for CMOS circuits. Therefore, it is necessary to ensure a high thermal gradient around the CNT growth structures to maintain CMOS-compatible temperature (below 300 °C) on the bulk part of the chip, where readout circuits are placed. This paper presents several promising designs of CNT growth microstructures and their thermomechanical analyses (by ANSYS Multiphysics software) to check the feasibility of local CNT synthesis in CMOS. Standard CMOS processes have several conductive interconnecting metal and polysilicon layers, both being suitable to serve as microheaters for local resistive heating to achieve the CNT growth temperature. Most of these microheaters need to be partially or fully suspended to produce the required thermal isolation for CMOS compatibility. Necessary CMOS post-processing steps to realize CNT growth structures are discussed. Layout designs of the microstructures, along with some of the microstructures fabricated in a standard AMS 350 nm CMOS process, are also presented in this paper. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Nanomaterials based Gas Sensors)

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23 pages, 3432 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Distributed Hybrid Two-Stage Multi-Sensor Fusion for Cooperative Modulation Classification in Large-Scale Wireless Sensor Networks

by Goran B. Markovic, Vlada S. Sokolovic and Miroslav L. Dukic

Sensors 2019, 19(19), 4339; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19194339 - 8 Oct 2019

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2934

Abstract

Recent studies showed that the performance of the modulation classification (MC) is considerably improved by using multiple sensors deployed in a cooperative manner. Such cooperative MC solutions are based on the centralized fusion of independent features or decisions made at sensors. Essentially, the [...] Read more.

Recent studies showed that the performance of the modulation classification (MC) is considerably improved by using multiple sensors deployed in a cooperative manner. Such cooperative MC solutions are based on the centralized fusion of independent features or decisions made at sensors. Essentially, the cooperative MC employs multiple uncorrelated observations of the unknown signal to gather more complete information, compared to the single sensor reception, which is used in the fusion process to refine the MC decision. However, the non-cooperative nature of MC inherently induces large loss in cooperative MC performance due to the unreliable measure of quality for the MC results obtained at individual sensors (which causes the partial information loss while performing centralized fusion). In this paper, the distributed two-stage fusion concept for the cooperative MC using multiple sensors is proposed. It is shown that the proposed distributed fusion, which combines feature (cumulant) fusion and decision fusion, facilitate preservation of information during the fusion process and thus considerably improve the MC performance. The clustered architecture is employed, with the influence of mismatched references restricted to the intra-cluster data fusion in the first stage. The adopted distributed concept represents a flexible and scalable solution that is suitable for implementation of large-scale networks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)

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19 pages, 753 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Long-Term Glucose Forecasting Using a Physiological Model and Deconvolution of the Continuous Glucose Monitoring Signal

by Chengyuan Liu, Josep Vehí, Parizad Avari, Monika Reddy, Nick Oliver, Pantelis Georgiou and Pau Herrero

Sensors 2019, 19(19), 4338; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19194338 - 8 Oct 2019

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 5990

Abstract

(1) Objective: Blood glucose forecasting in type 1 diabetes (T1D) management is a maturing field with numerous algorithms being published and a few of them having reached the commercialisation stage. However, accurate long-term glucose predictions (e.g., >60 min), which are usually needed in [...] Read more.

(1) Objective: Blood glucose forecasting in type 1 diabetes (T1D) management is a maturing field with numerous algorithms being published and a few of them having reached the commercialisation stage. However, accurate long-term glucose predictions (e.g., >60 min), which are usually needed in applications such as precision insulin dosing (e.g., an artificial pancreas), still remain a challenge. In this paper, we present a novel glucose forecasting algorithm that is well-suited for long-term prediction horizons. The proposed algorithm is currently being used as the core component of a modular safety system for an insulin dose recommender developed within the EU-funded PEPPER (Patient Empowerment through Predictive PERsonalised decision support) project. (2) Methods: The proposed blood glucose forecasting algorithm is based on a compartmental composite model of glucose–insulin dynamics, which uses a deconvolution technique applied to the continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) signal for state estimation. In addition to commonly employed inputs by glucose forecasting methods (i.e., CGM data, insulin, carbohydrates), the proposed algorithm allows the optional input of meal absorption information to enhance prediction accuracy. Clinical data corresponding to 10 adult subjects with T1D were used for evaluation purposes. In addition, in silico data obtained with a modified version of the UVa-Padova simulator was used to further evaluate the impact of accounting for meal absorption information on prediction accuracy. Finally, a comparison with two well-established glucose forecasting algorithms, the autoregressive exogenous (ARX) model and the latent variable-based statistical (LVX) model, was carried out. (3) Results: For prediction horizons beyond 60 min, the performance of the proposed physiological model-based (PM) algorithm is superior to that of the LVX and ARX algorithms. When comparing the performance of PM against the secondly ranked method (ARX) on a 120 min prediction horizon, the percentage improvement on prediction accuracy measured with the root mean square error, A-region of error grid analysis (EGA), and hypoglycaemia prediction calculated by the Matthews correlation coefficient, was

18.8 %

,

17.9 %

, and

80.9 %

, respectively. Although showing a trend towards improvement, the addition of meal absorption information did not provide clinically significant improvements. (4) Conclusion: The proposed glucose forecasting algorithm is potentially well-suited for T1D management applications which require long-term glucose predictions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biomedical Sensors)

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Average <math display="inline"><semantics> <msub> <mi>R</mi> <mi>a</mi> </msub> </semantics></math> profiles corresponding to the fast, slow and medium meals from the UVa-Padova simulator for a 60 g intake of carbohydrates. Full article ">Figure 2
Block diagram corresponding to the proposed glucose forecasting algorithm. The whole diagram is executed every time a glucose value (<math display="inline"><semantics> <msub> <mi>G</mi> <mrow> <mi>C</mi> <mi>G</mi> <mi>M</mi> </mrow> </msub> </semantics></math>) (continuous glucose monitoring (CGM)) is received. Then, the physiological model represented by the green blocks is evaluated over the prediction horizon (PH) to obtain the forecasted glucose (<math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>G</mi> <mo>(</mo> <mi>k</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>P</mi> <mi>H</mi> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math>). Full article ">Figure 3
Average percentage of improvement against prediction horizon for three of the evaluated metrics (RMSE, A-region of EGA, and MCC) when comparing the proposed method <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>P</mi> <msub> <mi>M</mi> <mrow> <mi>M</mi> <mi>A</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math> versus the <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>A</mi> <mi>R</mi> <mi>X</mi> </mrow> </semantics></math> model on the 10-adult real cohort. Full article ">Figure 4
Example of 24 h period close up for a representative real individual showing the prediction results for the three evaluated forecasting methods with a prediction horizon of 120 min. The continuous glucose measurements is represented by the dashed black line, the prediction by the proposed PM method is displayed in solid-red line, results for the LVX and ARX methods are showed in dotted green line and dash-dotted blue line respectively. Vertical pink bars indicate carbohydrate intakes (grams) and vertical light blue bars indicate insulin boluses (units). Full article ">Figure A1
Gastrointestinal model fitting of the 16 estimated <math display="inline"><semantics> <msub> <mi>R</mi> <mi>a</mi> </msub> </semantics></math> profiles. Green solid line represents the reference <math display="inline"><semantics> <msub> <mi>R</mi> <mi>a</mi> </msub> </semantics></math> and the red dashed line the model fitting. Full article ">

14 pages, 5409 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Drag Model-LIDAR-IMU Fault-Tolerance Fusion Method for Quadrotors

by Pin Lyu, Bingqing Wang, Jizhou Lai, Shichao Liu and Zhimin Li

Sensors 2019, 19(19), 4337; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19194337 - 8 Oct 2019

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3622

Abstract

In this paper, a drag model-aided fault-tolerant state estimation method is presented for quadrotors. Firstly, the drag model accuracy was improved by modeling an angular rate related item and an angular acceleration related item, which are related with flight maneuver. Then the drag [...] Read more.

In this paper, a drag model-aided fault-tolerant state estimation method is presented for quadrotors. Firstly, the drag model accuracy was improved by modeling an angular rate related item and an angular acceleration related item, which are related with flight maneuver. Then the drag model, light detection and ranging (LIDAR), and inertial measurement unit (IMU) were fused based on the Federal Kalman filter frame. In the filter, the LIDAR estimation fault was detected and isolated, and the disturbance to the drag model was estimated and compensated. Some experiments were carried out, showing that the velocity and position estimation were improved compared with the traditional LIDAR/IMU fusion scheme. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Intelligent Sensors)

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15 pages, 5298 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design and Fabrication of a High-Frequency Single-Directional Planar Underwater Ultrasound Transducer

by Qiguo Huang, Hongwei Wang, Shaohua Hao, Chao Zhong and Likun Wang

Sensors 2019, 19(19), 4336; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19194336 - 8 Oct 2019

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 5615

Abstract

This paper describes the fabrication of 1-3 piezoelectric composites by using PZT5-A pure piezoelectric ceramics and the preparation of a high-frequency single-directional planar underwater ultrasound transducer by using the developed composites. First, three material models of the same size were designed and simulated [...] Read more.

This paper describes the fabrication of 1-3 piezoelectric composites by using PZT5-A pure piezoelectric ceramics and the preparation of a high-frequency single-directional planar underwater ultrasound transducer by using the developed composites. First, three material models of the same size were designed and simulated by ANSYS finite element simulation software. Next, based on the simulation results, the 1-3 piezoelectric composites were developed. Finally, a high-frequency single-directional planar underwater ultrasound transducer was fabricated by encapsulating and gluing the 1-3 piezoelectric composites. The performance of the transducer was tested, and results showed that the device was characterized by single-mode operation in the working frequency band, a high transmitting voltage response, and single directivity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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24 pages, 16646 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Looking Through Paintings by Combining Hyper-Spectral Imaging and Pulse-Compression Thermography

by Stefano Laureti, Hamed Malekmohammadi, Muhammad Khalid Rizwan, Pietro Burrascano, Stefano Sfarra, Miranda Mostacci and Marco Ricci

Sensors 2019, 19(19), 4335; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19194335 - 8 Oct 2019

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 4336

Abstract

The use of different spectral bands in the inspection of artworks is highly recommended to identify the maximum number of defects/anomalies (i.e., the targets), whose presence ought to be known before any possible restoration action. Although an artwork cannot be considered as a [...] Read more.

The use of different spectral bands in the inspection of artworks is highly recommended to identify the maximum number of defects/anomalies (i.e., the targets), whose presence ought to be known before any possible restoration action. Although an artwork cannot be considered as a composite material in which the zero-defect theory is usually followed by scientists, it is possible to state that the preservation of a multi-layered structure fabricated by the artist’s hands is based on a methodological analysis, where the use of non-destructive testing methods is highly desirable. In this paper, the infrared thermography and hyperspectral imaging methods were applied to identify both fabricated and non-fabricated targets in a canvas painting mocking up the famous character “Venus” by Botticelli. The pulse-compression thermography technique was used to retrieve info about the inner structure of the sample and low power light-emitting diode (LED) chips, whose emission was modulated via a pseudo-noise sequence, were exploited as the heat source for minimizing the heat radiated on the sample surface. Hyper-spectral imaging was employed to detect surface and subsurface features such as pentimenti and facial contours. The results demonstrate how the application of statistical algorithms (i.e., principal component and independent component analyses) maximized the number of targets retrieved during the post-acquisition steps for both the employed techniques. Finally, the best results obtained by both techniques and post-processing methods were fused together, resulting in a clear targets map, in which both the surface, subsurface and deeper information are all shown at a glance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Infrared Thermography and Additional Non-Destructive Testing for Building, Structure and Material Inspections)

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13 pages, 3712 KiB

Open AccessArticle

2D Ultrasonic Antenna System for Imaging in Liquid Sodium

by Léonard Le Jeune, Raphaële Raillon, Gwénaël Toullelan, François Baqué and Laura Taupin

Sensors 2019, 19(19), 4334; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19194334 - 8 Oct 2019

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3363

Abstract

Ultrasonic techniques are developed at CEA (French Alternative Energies and Nuclear Energy Commission) for in-service inspection of sodium-cooled reactors (SFRs). Among them, an ultrasound imaging system made up of two orthogonal antennas and originally based on an underwater imaging system is studied for [...] Read more.

Ultrasonic techniques are developed at CEA (French Alternative Energies and Nuclear Energy Commission) for in-service inspection of sodium-cooled reactors (SFRs). Among them, an ultrasound imaging system made up of two orthogonal antennas and originally based on an underwater imaging system is studied for long-distance vision in the liquid sodium of the reactor’s primary circuit. After a description of the imaging principle of this system, some results of a simulation study performed with the software CIVA in order to optimize the antenna parameters are presented. Then, experimental measurements carried out in a water tank illustrate the system capabilities. Finally, the limitations of the imaging performances and the ongoing search of solutions to address them are discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Ultrasonic NDT in Harsh Environments)

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15 pages, 19883 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fabrication of a Monolithic Lab-on-a-Chip Platform with Integrated Hydrogel Waveguides for Chemical Sensing

by Maria Leilani Torres-Mapa, Manmeet Singh, Olga Simon, Jose Louise Mapa, Manan Machida, Axel Günther, Bernhard Roth, Dag Heinemann, Mitsuhiro Terakawa and Alexander Heisterkamp

Sensors 2019, 19(19), 4333; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19194333 - 8 Oct 2019

Cited by 35 | Viewed by 6085

Abstract

Hydrogel waveguides have found increased use for variety of applications where biocompatibility and flexibility are important. In this work, we demonstrate the use of polyethylene glycol diacrylate (PEGDA) waveguides to realize a monolithic lab-on-a-chip device. We performed a comprehensive study on the swelling [...] Read more.

Hydrogel waveguides have found increased use for variety of applications where biocompatibility and flexibility are important. In this work, we demonstrate the use of polyethylene glycol diacrylate (PEGDA) waveguides to realize a monolithic lab-on-a-chip device. We performed a comprehensive study on the swelling and optical properties for different chain lengths and concentrations in order to realize an integrated biocompatible waveguide in a microfluidic device for chemical sensing. Waveguiding properties of PEGDA hydrogel were used to guide excitation light into a microfluidic channel to measure the fluorescence emission profile of rhodamine 6G as well as collect the fluorescence signal from the same device. Overall, this work shows the potential of hydrogel waveguides to facilitate delivery and collection of optical signals for potential use in wearable and implantable lab-on-a-chip devices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Photonic Sensors)

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Swelling ratio as a function of time for (a) 250 Da; (b) 700 Da; (c) 6000 Da and (d) blend of 700 Da and 6000 Da. At t = 0, swelling ratio is determined by the weight of the hydrogel directly after fabrication with respect to the dried weight of the hydrogel. Full article ">Figure 2
(a) Equilibrium swelling ratio and water content for different molecular weight and concentration; (b) Calculated water-induced volume swelling of polyethylene glycol diacrylate (PEGDA) for different concentration and molecular weight. Full article ">Figure 3
(a) Transparency of the hydrogels for different molecular weight and concentration; (b) Optical transmission of PEGDA 700 hydrogels for different concentrations. Full article ">Figure 4
(a) Refractive indices of PEGDA hydrogels at different molecular weights and concentrations; (b) Refractive index of PEGDA 700, 90% left in air over time. Each data point is an average measurement of n = 3 hydrogels. Full article ">Figure 5
(a) Photograph of the PEGDA waveguides embedded in polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS). Three PEGDA 700, 90% waveguides with different radii were embedded in a single PDMS block for waveguiding tests and cut-back measurements; (b) Photo of the cross-section of the waveguide. Scale bar is 20 mm; (c) Representative photos of a fabricated 10 cm straight waveguide in a PDMS cladding with the 532 nm laser guided along the PEGDA 700, 90% core. The focused laser is incident to the waveguide marked by the arrow. Scale bar is 25 mm; (d) Microscope images of the fibers fabricated by filling the PDMS channels with PEGDA 700, 90% with different radii. Scale bar is 300 <math display="inline"><semantics> <mi mathvariant="sans-serif">μ</mi> </semantics></math>m. Full article ">Figure 6
(a) A photo of a waveguide splitter with PEGDA 700, 90% waveguide and radius of 300 <math display="inline"><semantics> <mi mathvariant="sans-serif">μ</mi> </semantics></math>m Scale bar is 0.5 cm; (b) Plot is the line profile of the beam output showing the light distribution at the two distal ends of the y-splitter. Top image shows the beam output from the y-splitter. Scale bar is 0.5 cm; (c) (Top) A photo of a fabricated 1 × 4 waveguide splitter with waveguide radius of 300 <math display="inline"><semantics> <mi mathvariant="sans-serif">μ</mi> </semantics></math>m; (Bottom) A photo of the 1 × 4 waveguide splitter showing four intense light output at the distal ends. Scale bar is 1.0 cm; (d) Top image shows the four points as imaged in the CCD camera. Scale bar is 0.5 cm. Plot shown is the line profile of the 4 spots from the 1 × 4 splitter. For plots in (b,d) blue curve is the normalized gray scale value and red curve is a Savitzky-Golay fit with order 2 and frame length 17. Full article ">Figure 7
(a) Schematic diagram of the optical setup and a photo of the microfluidic chip with an integrated hydrogel waveguide. Laser is focused at the entrance of a PEGDA waveguide and a second PEGDA waveguide was used to collect the laser-induced fluorescence signal generated at the microfluidic channel. Top image shows a photo of the chip with the 532 nm laser guided to the microfluidic channel. Bottom shows a photo taken with a bandpass filter to allow only the fluorescence emission to be captured by the camera. Dotted lines indicate the location of the PEGDA waveguides. Scale bar is 0.5 cm; (b) Representative spectral profiles of laser induced fluorescence of rhodamine for different concentrations; (c) Normalized intensity of the rhodamine emission signal as a function of concentration for 570, 590 and 610 nm. Inset graph shows the curve between 0 to 0.1 mg/mL. Data shown is an average measurements from three different microfluidic chips. Full article ">

27 pages, 7294 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Airborne Visual Detection and Tracking of Cooperative UAVs Exploiting Deep Learning

by Roberto Opromolla, Giuseppe Inchingolo and Giancarmine Fasano

Sensors 2019, 19(19), 4332; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19194332 - 7 Oct 2019

Cited by 46 | Viewed by 7444

Abstract

The performance achievable by using Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) for a large variety of civil and military applications, as well as the extent of applicable mission scenarios, can significantly benefit from the exploitation of formations of vehicles able to fly in a coordinated [...] Read more.

The performance achievable by using Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) for a large variety of civil and military applications, as well as the extent of applicable mission scenarios, can significantly benefit from the exploitation of formations of vehicles able to fly in a coordinated manner (swarms). In this respect, visual cameras represent a key instrument to enable coordination by giving each UAV the capability to visually monitor the other members of the formation. Hence, a related technological challenge is the development of robust solutions to detect and track cooperative targets through a sequence of frames. In this framework, this paper proposes an innovative approach to carry out this task based on deep learning. Specifically, the You Only Look Once (YOLO) object detection system is integrated within an original processing architecture in which the machine-vision algorithms are aided by navigation hints available thanks to the cooperative nature of the formation. An experimental flight test campaign, involving formations of two multirotor UAVs, is conducted to collect a database of images suitable to assess the performance of the proposed approach. Results demonstrate high-level accuracy, and robustness against challenging conditions in terms of illumination, background and target-range variability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue UAV or Drones for Remote Sensing Applications in GPS/GNSS Enabled and GPS/GNSS Denied Environments)

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18 pages, 4944 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Digital Magnetic Compass Integration with Stationary, Land-Based Electro-Optical Multi-Sensor Surveillance System

by Branko Livada, Saša Vujić, Dragan Radić, Tomislav Unkašević and Zoran Banjac

Sensors 2019, 19(19), 4331; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19194331 - 7 Oct 2019

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 9332

Abstract

Multi-sensor imaging systems using the global navigation satellite system (GNSS) and digital magnetic compass (DMC) for geo-referencing have an important role and wide application in long-range surveillance systems. To achieve the required system heading accuracy, the specific magnetic compass calibration and compensation procedures, [...] Read more.

Multi-sensor imaging systems using the global navigation satellite system (GNSS) and digital magnetic compass (DMC) for geo-referencing have an important role and wide application in long-range surveillance systems. To achieve the required system heading accuracy, the specific magnetic compass calibration and compensation procedures, which highly depend on the application conditions, should be applied. The DMC compensation technique suitable for the operation environment is described and different technical solutions are studied. The application of the swinging procedure was shown as a good solution for DMC compensation in a given application. The selected DMC was built into a system to be experimentally evaluated, both under laboratory and field conditions. The implementation of the compensation procedure and magnetic sensor integration in systems is described. The heading accuracy measurement results show that DMC could be successfully integrated and used in long-range surveillance systems providing required geo-referencing data. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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17 pages, 4765 KiB

Open AccessReview

AR Enabled IoT for a Smart and Interactive Environment: A Survey and Future Directions

by Dongsik Jo and Gerard Jounghyun Kim

Sensors 2019, 19(19), 4330; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19194330 - 7 Oct 2019

Cited by 65 | Viewed by 12522

Abstract

Accompanying the advent of wireless networking and the Internet of Things (IoT), traditional augmented reality (AR) systems to visualize virtual 3D models of the real world are evolving into smart and interactive AR related to the context of things for physical objects. We [...] Read more.

Accompanying the advent of wireless networking and the Internet of Things (IoT), traditional augmented reality (AR) systems to visualize virtual 3D models of the real world are evolving into smart and interactive AR related to the context of things for physical objects. We propose the integration of AR and IoT in a complementary way, making AR scalable to cover objects everywhere with an acceptable level of performance and interacting with IoT in a more intuitive manner. We identify three key components for realizing such a synergistic integration: (1) distributed and object-centric data management (including for AR services); (2) IoT object-guided tracking; (3) seamless interaction and content interoperability. We survey the current state of these respective areas and herein discuss research on issues about realizing a future smart and interactive living environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Intelligent Sensors)

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17 pages, 10370 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial Aggregation Net: Point Cloud Semantic Segmentation Based on Multi-Directional Convolution

by Guorong Cai, Zuning Jiang, Zongyue Wang, Shangfeng Huang, Kai Chen, Xuyang Ge and Yundong Wu

Sensors 2019, 19(19), 4329; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19194329 - 7 Oct 2019

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4142

Abstract

Semantic segmentation of 3D point clouds plays a vital role in autonomous driving, 3D maps, and smart cities, etc. Recent work such as PointSIFT shows that spatial structure information can improve the performance of semantic segmentation. Motivated by this phenomenon, we propose Spatial [...] Read more.

Semantic segmentation of 3D point clouds plays a vital role in autonomous driving, 3D maps, and smart cities, etc. Recent work such as PointSIFT shows that spatial structure information can improve the performance of semantic segmentation. Motivated by this phenomenon, we propose Spatial Aggregation Net (SAN) for point cloud semantic segmentation. SAN is based on multi-directional convolution scheme that utilizes the spatial structure information of point cloud. Firstly, Octant-Search is employed to capture the neighboring points around each sampled point. Secondly, we use multi-directional convolution to extract information from different directions of sampled points. Finally, max-pooling is used to aggregate information from different directions. The experimental results conducted on ScanNet database show that the proposed SAN has comparable results with state-of-the-art algorithms such as PointNet, PointNet++, and PointSIFT, etc. In particular, our method has better performance on flat, small objects, and the edge areas that connect objects. Moreover, our model has good trade-off in segmentation accuracy and time complexity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mobile Laser Scanning Systems)

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11 pages, 1947 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Virtual Pressure and Force Sensor for Safety Evaluation in Collaboration Robot Application

by Heonseop Shin, Sanghoon Kim, Kwang Seo and and Sungsoo Rhim

Sensors 2019, 19(19), 4328; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19194328 - 7 Oct 2019

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4463

Abstract

Recent developments in robotics have resulted in implementations that have drastically increased collaborative interactions between robots and humans. As robots have the potential to collide intentionally and/or unexpectedly with a human during the collaboration, effective measures to ensure human safety must be devised. [...] Read more.

Recent developments in robotics have resulted in implementations that have drastically increased collaborative interactions between robots and humans. As robots have the potential to collide intentionally and/or unexpectedly with a human during the collaboration, effective measures to ensure human safety must be devised. In order to estimate the collision safety of a robot, this study proposes a virtual sensor based on an analytical contact model that accurately estimates the peak collision force and pressure as the robot moves along a pre-defined path, even before the occurrence of a collision event, with a short computation time. The estimated physical interaction values that would be caused by the (hypothetical) collision were compared to the collision safety thresholds provided within ISO/TS 15066 to evaluate the safety of the operation. In this virtual collision sensor model, the nonlinear physical characteristics and the effect of the contact surface shape were included to assure the reliability of the prediction. To verify the effectiveness of the virtual sensor model, the force and pressure estimated by the model were compared with various experimental results and the numerical results obtained from a finite element simulation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from the 5th Workshop on Collaboration of Humans, Agents, Robots, Machines and Sensors (CHARMS 2019))

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Schematic description of the proposed one-layered contact model: impactor and human-skin contact model (a), cylinder-flat contact (b), cylinder-sphere contact (c). Full article ">Figure 2
FE model of cylindrical impactor type. Full article ">Figure 3
Indentation of silicone rubber: experimental test configuration (a), experiment (b), FE simulation (c). Full article ">Figure 4
Comparison of mathematical model, FE model and experiment: contact force (a) and peak pressure (b). Full article ">Figure 5
Simulation results: trajectory of the robot: <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>γ</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math> (a), <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>γ</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>0.5</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math> (b), <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>γ</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math> (c). Full article ">Figure 6
Simulation results for evaluation collision safety of UR5 robot: (a) effective mass, (b) normal direction velocity to contact surface, (c) estimated collision force, (d) estimated collision pressure. Full article ">

14 pages, 6417 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Passive Wireless Crack Sensor Based on Patch Antenna with Overlapping Sub-Patch

by Songtao Xue, Zhuoran Yi, Liyu Xie, Guochun Wan and Tao Ding

Sensors 2019, 19(19), 4327; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19194327 - 7 Oct 2019

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 4220

Abstract

Monolithic patch antennas for deformation measurements are designed to be stressed. To avoid the issues of incomplete strain transfer ratio and insufficient bonding strength of stressed antennas, this paper presents a passive wireless crack sensor based on an unstressed patch antenna. The rectangular [...] Read more.

Monolithic patch antennas for deformation measurements are designed to be stressed. To avoid the issues of incomplete strain transfer ratio and insufficient bonding strength of stressed antennas, this paper presents a passive wireless crack sensor based on an unstressed patch antenna. The rectangular radiation patch of the proposed sensor is partially covered by a radiation sub-patch, and the overlapped length between them will induce the resonate frequency shift representing the crack width. First, the cavity model theory is adopted to show how the resonant frequencies of the crack sensor are related to the overlapped length between the patch antenna and the sub-patch. This phenomenon is further verified by numerical simulation using the Ansoft high-frequency structure simulator (HFSS), and results show a sensitivity of 120.24 MHz/mm on average within an effective measuring range of 1.5 mm. One prototype of proposed sensor was fabricated. The experiments validated that the resonant frequency shifts are linearly proportional to the applied crack width, and the resolution is suitable for crack width measuring. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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22 pages, 3740 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Arbitrary Microphone Array Optimization Method Based on TDOA for Specific Localization Scenarios

by Haitao Liu, Thia Kirubarajan and Qian Xiao

Sensors 2019, 19(19), 4326; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19194326 - 7 Oct 2019

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4670

Abstract

Various microphone array geometries (e.g., linear, circular, square, cubic, spherical, etc.) have been used to improve the positioning accuracy of sound source localization. However, whether these array structures are optimal for various specific localization scenarios is still a subject of debate. This paper [...] Read more.

Various microphone array geometries (e.g., linear, circular, square, cubic, spherical, etc.) have been used to improve the positioning accuracy of sound source localization. However, whether these array structures are optimal for various specific localization scenarios is still a subject of debate. This paper addresses a microphone array optimization method for sound source localization based on TDOA (time difference of arrival). The geometric structure of the microphone array is established in parametric form. A triangulation method with TDOA was used to build the spatial sound source location model, which consists of a group of nonlinear multivariate equations. Through reasonable transformation, the nonlinear multivariate equations can be converted to a group of linear equations that can be approximately solved by the weighted least square method. Then, an optimization model based on particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm was constructed to optimize the geometric parameters of the microphone array under different localization scenarios combined with the spatial sound source localization model. In the optimization model, a reasonable fitness evaluation function is established which can comprehensively consider the positioning accuracy and robustness of the microphone array. In order to verify the array optimization method, two specific localization scenarios and two array optimization strategies for each localization scenario were constructed. The optimal array structure parameters were obtained through numerical iteration simulation. The localization performance of the optimal array structures obtained by the method proposed in this paper was compared with the optimal structures proposed in the literature as well as with random array structures. The simulation results show that the optimized array structure gave better positioning accuracy and robustness under both specific localization scenarios. The optimization model proposed could solve the problem of array geometric structure design based on TDOA and could achieve the customization of microphone array structures under different specific localization scenarios. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Acoustic Wave Sensors for Gaseous and Liquid Environments)

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18 pages, 1221 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Developing a Neural–Kalman Filtering Approach for Estimating Traffic Stream Density Using Probe Vehicle Data

by Mohammad A. Aljamal, Hossam M. Abdelghaffar and Hesham A. Rakha

Sensors 2019, 19(19), 4325; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19194325 - 7 Oct 2019

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 4459

Abstract

This paper presents a novel model for estimating the number of vehicles along signalized approaches. The proposed estimation algorithm utilizes the adaptive Kalman filter (AKF) to produce reliable traffic vehicle count estimates, considering real-time estimates of the system noise characteristics. The AKF utilizes [...] Read more.

This paper presents a novel model for estimating the number of vehicles along signalized approaches. The proposed estimation algorithm utilizes the adaptive Kalman filter (AKF) to produce reliable traffic vehicle count estimates, considering real-time estimates of the system noise characteristics. The AKF utilizes only real-time probe vehicle data. The AKF is demonstrated to outperform the traditional Kalman filter, reducing the prediction error by up to 29%. In addition, the paper introduces a novel approach that combines the AKF with a neural network (AKFNN) to enhance the vehicle count estimates, where the neural network is employed to estimate the probe vehicles’ market penetration rate. Results indicate that the accuracy of vehicle count estimates is significantly improved using the AKFNN approach (by up to 26%) over the AKF. Moreover, the paper investigates the sensitivity of the proposed AKF model to the initial conditions, such as the initial estimate of vehicle counts, initial mean estimate of the state system, and the initial covariance of the state estimate. The results demonstrate that the AKF is sensitive to the initial conditions. More accurate estimates could be achieved if the initial conditions are appropriately selected. In conclusion, the proposed AKF is more accurate than the traditional Kalman filter. Finally, the AKFNN approach is more accurate than the AKF and the traditional Kalman filter since the AKFNN uses more accurate values of the probe vehicle market penetration rate. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Transportation Related Complex Systems and Sensors)

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Tested link. Full article ">Figure 2
Flowchart for adaptive Kalman filter with a neural network (AKFNN) approach. Full article ">Figure 3
Error histogram for the training, validation, and testing data set. Full article ">Figure 4
Actual and estimated values of <math display="inline"><semantics> <msub> <mi>ρ</mi> <mrow> <mi>o</mi> <mi>u</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msub> </semantics></math> for different level of market penetration (LMP) scenarios: (a) 10%, (b) 20%, (c) 30%, (d) 40%, (e) 50%, (f) 60%, (g) 70%, (h) 80%, and (i) 90% LMP. Full article ">Figure 5
Actual and estimated vehicle counts over estimation intervals for different LMP scenarios: (a) 10%, (b) 20%, (c) 30%, (d) 40%, (e) 50%, (f) 60%, (g) 70%, (h) 80%, and (i) 90% LMP. Full article ">Figure 5 Cont.
Actual and estimated vehicle counts over estimation intervals for different LMP scenarios: (a) 10%, (b) 20%, (c) 30%, (d) 40%, (e) 50%, (f) 60%, (g) 70%, (h) 80%, and (i) 90% LMP. Full article ">Figure 6
Impact of the initial conditions on the AKF model: (a) Initial estimate values <math display="inline"><semantics> <msub> <mi>N</mi> <mi>i</mi> </msub> </semantics></math>, (b) Initial mean estimate values <math display="inline"><semantics> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mi>i</mi> </msub> </semantics></math>, and (c) Initial covariance estimate values <math display="inline"><semantics> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mi>i</mi> </msub> </semantics></math>. Full article ">

11 pages, 3805 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of a New Embedded Dynamometer for the Measurement of Forces and Torques at the Ski-Binding Interface

by Frédéric Meyer, Alain Prenleloup and Alain Schorderet

Sensors 2019, 19(19), 4324; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19194324 - 7 Oct 2019

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5381

Abstract

In alpine skiing, understanding the interaction between skiers and snow is of primary importance for both injury prevention as well as performance analysis. Risk of injuries is directly linked to constraints undergone by the skier. A force platform placed as an interface between [...] Read more.

In alpine skiing, understanding the interaction between skiers and snow is of primary importance for both injury prevention as well as performance analysis. Risk of injuries is directly linked to constraints undergone by the skier. A force platform placed as an interface between the ski and the skier should allow a better understanding of these constraints to be obtained to thereby develop a more reliable release system of binding. It should also provide useful information to allow for better physical condition training of athletes and non-professional skiers to reduce the risk of injury. Force and torque measurements also allow for a better understanding of the skiers’ technique (i.e., load evolution during turns, force distribution between left and right leg…). Therefore, the aim of this project was to develop a new embedded force platform that could be placed between the ski boot and the binding. First, the physical specifications of the dynamometer are listed as well as the measurement scope. Then, several iterations were performed on parametric 3D modeling and finite element analysis to obtain an optimal design. Two platforms were then machined and equipped with strain gauges. Finally, the calibration was performed on a dedicated test bench. The accuracy of the system was between 1.3 and 12.8% of the applied load. These results show a very good linearity of the system, which indicate a great outcome of the design. Field tests also highlighted the ease of use and reliability. This new dynamometer will allow skiers to wear their own equipment while measuring force and torque in real skiing conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Biomechanics Application)

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Figure 1
(A) First iteration of the design. (B) Second iteration of the design with two sensors fixed to a rigid bed. (C) Final iteration with an integrated bed and ski binding interface. Sensors were placed on the front and back of the plate. Colors represent the von Mises values (blue: no deformation; red: maximal deformation). Full article ">Figure 2
(A) The two manufactured forces platforms with sensors position marked in red. (B) Schematic view of the sensor, composed of two stages. The upper part allows the Fy and Mz components to be measured, while the lower part aims to measure Fz, Mx, and My. Φ indicates the different recorded signals. Full article ">Figure 3
Setup used to calibrate torque around the X axis. The load was applied in pulling up the horizontal iron bar. On the left side of the platform, the load was directly applied in the upper direction, while on the right hand side, the load transited through a mechanical system that transferred the load in the top–down direction. (A) Setup with the ski. Green arrows indicate the load transmission. (B) Same setup but without the ski. Full article ">Figure 4
The three different fastening situations for the fifth test condition. The ski could bend between the two fastening elements (in green): (A) Distance of 0.5 m. (B) 0.9 m. (C) 1.3 m. Full article ">Figure 5
An athlete in the giant slalom equipped with the platforms and the backpack. The referential of the right force platform is also represented. Full article ">Figure 6
Mean Fy (A), Fz (B), Mx (C), My (D), and Mz (E) of three skiers and two runs for both skis during a turn cycle, with the 95% limit of agreement (grey area). Full article ">Figure 7
Mean Fy (A), Fz (B) Mx (C), and My (D) load distribution between the external and internal ski along the turn cycle of three skiers and two runs for both skis during a turn cycle. Full article ">

14 pages, 1488 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Are Existing Monocular Computer Vision-Based 3D Motion Capture Approaches Ready for Deployment? A Methodological Study on the Example of Alpine Skiing

by Mirela Ostrek, Helge Rhodin, Pascal Fua, Erich Müller and Jörg Spörri

Sensors 2019, 19(19), 4323; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19194323 - 6 Oct 2019

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 8784

Abstract

In this study, we compared a monocular computer vision (MCV)-based approach with the golden standard for collecting kinematic data on ski tracks (i.e., video-based stereophotogrammetry) and assessed its deployment readiness for answering applied research questions in the context of alpine skiing. The investigated [...] Read more.

In this study, we compared a monocular computer vision (MCV)-based approach with the golden standard for collecting kinematic data on ski tracks (i.e., video-based stereophotogrammetry) and assessed its deployment readiness for answering applied research questions in the context of alpine skiing. The investigated MCV-based approach predicted the three-dimensional human pose and ski orientation based on the image data from a single camera. The data set used for training and testing the underlying deep nets originated from a field experiment with six competitive alpine skiers. The normalized mean per joint position error of the MVC-based approach was found to be 0.08 ± 0.01 m. Knee flexion showed an accuracy and precision (in parenthesis) of 0.4 ± 7.1° (7.2 ± 1.5°) for the outside leg, and −0.2 ± 5.0° (6.7 ± 1.1°) for the inside leg. For hip flexion, the corresponding values were −0.4 ± 6.1° (4.4° ± 1.5°) and −0.7 ± 4.7° (3.7 ± 1.0°), respectively. The accuracy and precision of skiing-related metrics were revealed to be 0.03 ± 0.01 m (0.01 ± 0.00 m) for relative center of mass position, −0.1 ± 3.8° (3.4 ± 0.9) for lean angle, 0.01 ± 0.03 m (0.02 ± 0.01 m) for center of mass to outside ankle distance, 0.01 ± 0.05 m (0.03 ± 0.01 m) for fore/aft position, and 0.00 ± 0.01 m² (0.01 ± 0.00 m²) for drag area. Such magnitudes can be considered acceptable for detecting relevant differences in the context of alpine skiing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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