A First Manual of Composition (Barnes & Noble Digital Library)

A FIRST MANUAL OF COMPOSITION

EDWIN HERBERT LEWIS

This 2012 edition published by Barnes & Noble, Inc.

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ISBN: 978-1-4114-5462-0

PREFACE

THIS edition is a revised and rearranged version. The arrangement of the former book was adapted to the theory that the student should be led to find all his own mistakes. There can be little doubt that a student should learn to be his own critic, but experience shows that he must have more aid in the first year of the high school than he was allowed in the original plan of this book. The directions for revising themes are therefore much modified, the study of punctuation is massed, and a considerable number of exercises is added to each chapter.

The new version has six chapters. Thus it provides one chapter a quarter for two years. The book is best adapted to the first two years of the high school; but any such book is available in the last year of a first-class grammar school. The subjects of the six chapters are: (1) Composition in general; (2) Punctuation and sentence-structure; (3) Correctness in the sentence; (4) Description; (5) Narration; (6) Exposition and argument.

In the first chapter the student is introduced to the general purpose of the study, and is drilled in reproduction, summary, and letter-writing. In the second he studies sentence-structure in so far as it bears on punctuation; and he applies his new knowledge in short themes. Here is introduced a method which is believed to be new. Instead of correcting faulty punctuation, the student learns by heart forty typical sentences, with their punctuation. These he applies as touchstones to many similar sentences, and ever thereafter to his own work. For example, he learns the sentence "Take therefore no thought for the morrow, for the morrow will take thought for the things of itself." This fixes in his mind the difference between the preposition for and the conjunction for, with their bearing on punctuation. In the third chapter he reviews the practical side of his grammar studies, and learns something about idiom. Not all of this chapter will be needed by every pupil. The experienced teacher, now familiar with his students, will give to each some systematic drill suited to his need. This important oral work ends the first year, no themes being required in the later weeks.

The last three chapters constitute the second year's work. They deal in an elementary way with the types of discourse, and the principles of unity, sequence, and contrast as they affect each type. In the chapter on description free use is made of pictures.

A chapter on spelling is added for systematic study. A short lesson in this subject should be given as often as twice a week throughout the two years. Some systems of teaching spelling are doubtless better based in psychology than others. But after all the important thing is to teach the subject as a subject. Ten minutes of attention fixed on ten words is worth hours of theorizing. The spelling lesson should, of course, always include the use of the words in sentences. When Mrs. Malaprop spoke of ingenuity and artifice, she exactly hit off the method by which such sentences must come into existence.

The period of life for which such books as this are designed is important beyond words, and most difficult to instruct. Neither child nor adolescent, the student lives in the most significant of mental moments, the transition from the irresponsible, sensory child to the responsible and rational youth. To interest and yet to discipline, to stir the imagination and yet educate the will—these are the difficult and disparate tasks of the teacher who works in the lower grades of the secondary school. The present writer does not pretend to make any large contribution to the solution of the general problem. But in the last six years he has known personally a thousand of these younger boys and girls, has spent many a happy and anxious hour with them in their studies, and now wishes god-speed to every teacher who tries to get nearer the heart and mind of this age.

The author is grateful to several friends for criticism in the work of revision: especially to his colleagues Messrs. P. B. Kohlsaat and Lewis Gustafson, and to Mr. Alfred M. Hitchcock of Hartford. He must further thank Mr. Gustafson for adapting to their present use several of the selections quoted in the first chapter. To Professor Frederick Starr and to Dr. G. W. Post he is obliged for permission to reproduce certain photographs.

CONTENTS

PREFACE

CHAPTER I

COMPOSITION IN GENERAL

CHAPTER II

PUNCTUATION AND SENTENCE-STRUCTURE

CHAPTER III

CORRECTNESS IN THE SENTENCE

CHAPTER IV

DESCRIPTION

CHAPTER V

NARRATION

CHAPTER VI

EXPOSITION AND ARGUMENT

EXERCISES IN SPELLING

CHAPTER I

COMPOSITION IN GENERAL

1. The simplest meaning of composition is placing together. The type-setter is called a compositor because he sets types together skilfully. From such a point of view we are all composers, for when we talk we place words together in sentences. Such compositions are sometimes very effective. The little composition Haste makes waste will live when we have long been dust. A little one like You lie is not soon forgotten by the person to whom it is addressed.

2. But when we speak of a composition, we usually mean more than one sentence. The pupil who sits in his place and answers Yes or No is not exactly a composer. He does not become one till he takes the floor and talks to the class for several minutes. Then he has to get together all his thoughts about a given subject, arrange them in good order, and express them in words that his hearers can understand.

3. Now what is it that a person does when he talks for several minutes? He tells a story, or describes something, or explains something, or tries to prove something. His composition is chiefly narration, or description, or explanation, or argument. A composition usually contains something of all these four kinds, but it is chiefly a story, a description, an explanation, or an argument. English composition is the art of narrating, describing, explaining, or arguing, by the use of English words.

4. If the study of English composition can help us to tell stories more interestingly, describe things more vividly, explain principles more clearly, and prove statements more forcibly, it is certainly worth our while. There are people who can tell a story so well as to hold the hearers breathless. Some persons can describe a given man so cleverly that an artist could straightway draw his picture. Some can explain a hard rule so that it is clear as day. Some can almost prove to you that black is white, or persuade you to give them all your money. There are other persons who seem able to do none of these things. Every one of us wishes to be a good storyteller, a good describer, a good explainer, a good debater. The study of English composition helps us to accomplish these ends.

5. There is perhaps no part of his school work that a beginner likes less than writing compositions. Usually he can't think of anything to say, and when he does find something to say he discovers that using pen and ink is a slow and difficult way of saying it. Yet the same student can talk freely enough to his mates; very likely he is fond of talking to them. Suppose that he goes away on a trip, and that two or three of his intimate friends make him promise to write them letters. If he has had no practise in composition, one of two things is sure to happen: either he will not write at all, and consequently will offend those to whom he gave his word, or else he will write so stiffly and badly that his letters will seem not to come from him. The clever and hearty good fellow of yesterday will sound stupid and cold in his messages of today. On the other hand, if he has really accustomed himself to express his thoughts on paper, he will be able to say his say in a straightforward fashion. His correspondent will laugh as he reads, and will remark, That sounds just like him. In short, the trained student learns to be himself even when he takes his pen in hand, and there are few things more valuable than the power of being one's self.

6. Also he learns to write in such a way as not to be misunderstood. When we talk we depend not only on words, but on gesture and the expression of the face; but when we write we have to rely wholly on words; we have no means of communication except black marks on the paper—cold, unsympathetic black marks. The tone of a man's voice tells you whether he is joking or not; he may say very reckless things if he says them with a kindly look. Think how hard it is, even in conversation, to avoid being misunderstood; then see how much harder it is in writing to avoid the same mishap.

7. Being one's self and being understood are values that increase with increasing years. It is extraordinarily important that men should understand each other's statements. The builder, the engineer, the merchant, the lawyer, not to mention the journalist and the preacher, must be able to describe and narrate and explain in a trustworthy fashion. Business transactions, no matter how shrewd in conception, are very dependent on this art of saying exactly what one means, and saying it in written words. Business today is largely carried on by correspondence. When an order is given, it is given in writing, and if it can be misunderstood somebody may lose a great deal of money. It is said that a misplaced comma recently cost a western merchant a thousand dollars.¹

8. In society, misunderstandings are often caused by carelessly worded notes. Even if this misfortune does not happen to the lady who writes in an uneducated way, a misfortune hardly less unpleasant does befall her; she is to a certain extent shut out from the respect of cultivated women.

9. There is a literary streak in everybody. Every person has some special gift for writing or speaking. Usually he does not know this. He may even think that he cannot write compositions at all. But in every school paragraphs are now and then written which would do credit to many a famous author. Whatever is most characteristic of each student, as different from other people; whatever gift is his, of imagination, or reasoning power, or feeling, or humor, all will find some expression in his writing. Every human being is particularly interested in something, is peculiarly apt in something. To find out and express the best that is in us is to know a keen pleasure. It is more. It is to be of some use to one's fellows.

10. Rhetoric, or the study of composition, teaches us how to speak and write with effect. It aims at effectiveness. Suppose you are to tell an amusing story. In order to do it effectively you must pay attention to many things. First you must choose a good subject. Then you must develop it. You must not tell the point too soon, but must lead up to it, so that your hearer will be on tiptoe to know how the story is coming out. You make sure that everything is clearly understood as you go along, or else the point will be missed. Then out you come with the point of the story, and there you stop. You do not babble on. You let your audience laugh.

11. This is only one example of what is meant by effectiveness. In order to produce the right effect it is necessary to take pains with many things: the choice of subject, the development of the subject by parts, the structure of the sentences, the choice of words. If we take too much time in getting started, we tire the reader. If we make long, rambling sentences, again we tire him. If we choose words that he does not understand, or use words in a wrong sense, or descend to language that offends his taste, we mislead or confuse or disgust him.

12. To be effective we must study models; we must see how writers and speakers produce their effects. We find that we must follow certain ways of doing things. In writing a formal business letter it will not do to begin with Dear Friend. Such letters begin with Dear Sir, or Dear Sirs, or Gentlemen. It will not do to use ain't for isn't, or lay for lie, or set for sit. It will not do to write several pages of manuscript as if there were no parts, or paragraphs, in what we have to say. In all these matters we must be governed by good usage. Good usage is the practise of reputable writers in the choice of words and the forming of sentences and paragraphs.

13. We must not expect to learn all the secrets of composition quickly. We shall begin by imitating the compositions of other people. After we have learned to retell such pieces, and to punctuate them properly, we shall begin to write pieces of our own. Then we shall have to do no small amount of thinking, but we shall be ready for it. And at every turn in the work we shall find use for all the carefulness we can muster. One secret of good writing is care.

14. All boys and girls are by nature careless. It is a fact, and parents and teachers sometimes mention it. But care is much more easily learned than some other things. Not every boy can learn to be a Daniel Webster or a Henry Longfellow, but any boy can learn to be careful.

15. To be sure, it is impossible to be careful about everything all at once. When you are aiming a gun you cannot stop to see if your necktie is straight. When you write a composition you should think about the story you are telling, the object you are describing, or the thought you are explaining. Your aim is to get it down on paper, and in its proper parts. But every composition should be read over two or three times after it is written. On reading it the first time, see whether it says exactly what you want it to say. If it does not, change it till it does. On reading it the second time, see if the sentences and punctuation can be improved. On the third reading, see if any word is misspelled. Then copy it neatly, in black ink, paying attention to the handwriting. Every letter should be unmistakable. Your handwriting may be a boyish scrawl, but you can make n's different from u's. You can dot your i's and cross your t's. You may be sure that your teacher will insist on dotted i's and crossed t's. He will treat an undotted i as an e, and an uncrossed t as an l. After you have been misunderstood a few times, you will yourself be anxious about these small matters. You will not merely dot every i, but will see to it that the dot stands directly over the i. In eastern languages, the presence or absence of a dot may be a matter of life and death. It is said that a Shah of Persia once sent a message ordering his son's tutor to send the prince home. Now the Persian word meaning to send home is just like a word meaning to kill, except for the position of a single dot. A secretary misplaced the dot. The tutor thought the order demanded the prince's death, and he had the dreadful deed committed.

16. The instructor will give special instructions as to how the course is to be conducted. He will tell you what kind of paper to use, and whether you should leave a margin on both sides or on one only. He will tell you how many mistakes in spelling will make a paper fail to pass. It will often happen that a well-written, strong, interesting composition will fail to pass because of errors in spelling. That will be unfortunate, but of course it will not prevent the paper from being praised and enjoyed in other respects. Your instructor will tell you whether to fold and indorse your manuscript, or whether to leave it flat. If you leave it flat, your name should appear in the upper right-hand corner of each page. In either case every page, including the first, should be numbered in that corner. And when the manuscript is handed in the pages should always be in their proper order. Nothing annoys the reader more than to take up a paper and find that he is expected to read it backwards. Every paper should have a title, which should be underscored three times.

17. Compositions are usually called themes. A theme may consist of one paragraph or of more than one. When it is only a page long it is not usually divided into paragraphs. A paragraph is marked in manuscript by leaving an inch or two blank at the beginning of it. This blank is called the indention, and should appear before each paragraph, including the first. In printing, indentions are not deep, as you can see by looking at those of this chapter. They are the little blanks left before the section numbers. It is not necessary to number the paragraphs, but it is necessary to have the manuscript indentions deep. In the examples which follow in section 19, the first eleven consist of one paragraph each. But numbers twelve and fourteen consist of more than one paragraph. As our work proceeds we shall learn more about paragraphs.

18. Before we begin to reproduce the examples of section 19, a word about independent studying and writing is in order. In studying spelling, one student can be of great service to another by hearing him recite what he has learned. Of course all such assistance must stop as soon as the pupil begins to recite. It is dishonest to give assistance in a recitation, and it does the person who receives it a great injury. The only means by which a teacher can help a student is by knowing just what matters he needs to be drilled in. When it comes to writing themes, a student should never give or receive assistance. If he is reproducing a theme from the book, he should tell or write exactly what he remembers, nothing more. Honesty in this matter will not only do him a world of good morally, but will enable the teacher to help him where he needs help. Keep the teacher informed of the real state of your knowledge. He is your guide. If you are writing an original theme, you will usually need no assistance from friends or books, for usually you will be telling what you yourself have done or seen. But if it is necessary to use books, always add to your manuscript a statement of these Sources. Stealing is stealing. Literary stealing is called plagiarism. In many schools it is punished by expulsion, or by posting the names of the offenders where the school can see them.

19. The following pieces are taken from various sources. Two or three were written in school by students. A number appeared in The Youth's Companion, where you may have seen them already. Nearly all of these have been rewritten or shortened for use in this book.

Each piece should be studied first as a whole, then in its parts. Try to remember the paragraphing, when the theme contains more than one paragraph. Try to remember how the sentences are formed. Fix in mind the important words. Remember the spelling of all words that end in ing or ed, or have a double letter.

When the piece has been studied, several members of the class should give it orally. Then it should be written from memory, and revised as directed in 15. The written revision will usually be a little shorter than the original.

When the teacher has corrected it,² the whole should be copied neatly.

1. THE DEATH OF THE BEAR

The bear was coming on; he had in fact come on. I judged that he could see the whites of my eyes. All my subsequent reflections were confused. I raised the gun, covered the bear's breast with the sight, and let drive. Then I turned, and ran like a deer. I did not hear the bear pursuing. I looked back. The bear had stopped. He was lying down. I then remembered that the best thing to do after having fired your gun is to reload it. I slipped in a charge, keeping my eyes on the bear. He never stirred. I walked back suspiciously. There was a quiver in the hind-legs, but no other motion. Still, he might be shamming—bears often sham. To make sure, I approached, and put a ball into his head. He didn't mind it now—he