Dictionary of Flavors

Table of Contents

Cover

Title Page

Introduction

Non‐Text and Numerical Abbreviations

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

K

L

M

N

O

P

Q

R

S

T

U

V

W

X

Y

Z

Flavor Ingredient and Miscellaneous Charts

Appendix I: Abbreviations and Acronyms (Regulatory Issues and Organizations)

Appendix II: Nutraceuticals Overview

Appendix III: List of Chemicals

Appendix IV: Natural Flavoring Complexes and other Miscellaneous Charts

Appendix V: List of Figures

References

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Both

Chart 2 Acetals

Chart 3 Acetoacetates

Chart 4 Acids All Types

Chart 5 Acids – Unsaturated Aliphatic

Chart 6 Acidulants

Chart 7 Alcohols – Aliphatic Alcohols

Chart 8 Alcohols – Aliphatic Cyclic Alcohols

Chart 9 Alcohols – Aromatic Alcohols

Chart 10 Alcohols – Unsaturated Non‐Aromatic

Chart 11 Alcohols – Aromatic and Unsaturated

Chart 12 So‐called Aldehydes

Chart 13 Aldehydes Aliphatic & Keto Aldehydes & Cyclic Ald

Chart 14 Aldehydes – Unsaturated

Chart 15 Aromatic Aldehydes

Chart 16 Alfalfa

Chart 17 Alkaloids

Chart 18 Hydrocarbons – Alkyl Non Aromatic

Chart 19 Allergens

Chart 20 Allyl Compounds

Chart 21 Bitter Almond

Chart 22 Aloe

Chart 23 Althea Root

Chart 24 Ambergris

Chart 25 Ambrette Seed

Chart 26 Amides

Chart 27 Amines

Chart 28 Amino Acids – Groups

Chart 29 Amino Acids

Chart 30 Amyl Cinnamyl Compounds

Chart 31 Anise – Aniseed

Chart 32 Angelica

Chart 33 Angostura

Chart 34 Anisyl Esters and Anisates

Chart 35 Anthranilates

Chart 36 Anticaking Agents

Chart 37 Antifoaming Agents

Chart 38 Antioxidants

Chart 39 Aromatic

Chart 40 Aryl Compounds

Chart 41 Yeast Products

Chart 42 TTB Restrictions Chart

Chart 43 Benzoates and Benzyl Esters

Chart 44 BHA and BHT

Chart 45 Bornyl Esters

Chart 46 Anise – Star

Chart 47 Apricot Kernel Oil

Chart 48 Arnica

Chart 49 Artemesia

Chart 50 Artichoke

Chart 51 Colloids

Chart 52 Asafoetida

Chart 53 Ash Bark

Chart 54 Balm

Chart 55 Basil

Chart 56 Bay

Chart 57 Beechnut and Beech Creosote

Chart 58 Beeswax

Chart 59 Beet

Chart 60 Benzoin

Chart 61 Bergamot

Chart 62 Birch – Sweet Birch

Chart 63 Blackberry

Chart 64 Bois De Rose

Chart 65 Boldo Leaves

Chart 66 Boronia

Chart 67 Bryonia

Chart 68 Buchu

Chart 69 Buck Bean

Chart 70 Temperature Chart

Chart 71 Cocoa

Chart 72 Cajeput

Chart 73 Calumba

Chart 74 Camomile

Chart 75 Camphor

Chart 76 Cananga

Chart 77 Capers

Chart 78 Capsicum

Chart 79 Caraway

Chart 80 Cardamom

Chart 81 Carnuba

Chart 82 Carob

Chart 83 Carrot

Chart 84 Cascara

Chart 85 Cascarilla

Chart 86 Carvyl Esters

Chart 87 Cassie

Chart 88 Castor Oil

Chart 89 Castoreum

Chart 90 Catechu

Chart 91 Cedar

Chart 92 Celery

Chart 93 Centaur

Chart 94 Cherry Bark

Chart 95 Cherry Laurel

Chart 96 Cherry Pits

Chart 97 Chervil

Chart 98 Chestnut

Chart 99 Chicory

Chart 100 Chili Pepper

Chart 101 Chinchona Bark

Chart 102 Chirata

Chart 103 Chives

Chart 104 Cinnamon

Chart 105 Citronella

Chart 106 Citrus Peel

Chart 107 Civet

Chart 108 Clary Sage

Chart 109 Cloves

Chart 110 Clover

Chart 111 Cocoa Leaf

Chart 112 Coffee

Chart 113 Cinnamates and Cinnamyl Compounds

Chart 114 Coffee Varieties

Chart 115 Colorings

Chart 116 Comparative Chemical Groups

Chart 117 Coumarin Derivatives

Chart 118 Coumarin Replacers

Chart 119 Cyclohexyl Compounds

Chart 120 Cognac Oil

Chart 121 Copaiba

Chart 122 Coriander

Chart 123 Corn Silk

Chart 124 Costmary

Chart 125 Costus

Chart 126 Cottonseed Oil

Chart 127 Cubeb

Chart 128 Cumin

Chart 129 Curacao

Chart 130 Currants

Chart 131 Deli Meats

Chart 132 Delisted Items

Chart 133 DE Rating

Chart 134 Distillates

Chart 135 Dodecyl Esters

Chart 136 Damiana

Chart 137 Dandelion

Chart 138 Davana

Chart 140 Dittany and Dittany of Crete

Chart 141 Doggrass

Chart 142 Dragon's Blood

Chart 139 Dill

Chart 143 Emulsifying Agents

Chart 144 Enhancers

Chart 145 Essences and Distillates

Chart 146 Alkyl Esters ‐ Grouped by Alcohol Moiety

Chart 147 Ethers

Chart 148 Ethylene Oxide

Chart 149 Eugenyl Esters

Chart 150 Extracts

Chart 151 Elder Flowers

Chart 152 Elecampane

Chart 153 Elemi

Chart 154 Erigeron

Chart 155 Eucalyptus

Chart 156 Fennel

Chart 157 Foenugreek

Chart 158 Fir Balsam

Chart 159 Fir Pine

Chart 160 Fusel Oil

Chart 161 Glyceryl Compounds

Chart 162 Glycidates

Chart 163 Guaiacyl Esters

Chart 164 Gums and Thickeners

Chart 165 Galanga Root

Chart 166 Galbanum

Chart 168 Garlic

Chart 167 Gambia

Chart 169 Genet

Chart 170 Gentian

Chart 171 Geranium

Chart 172 Germander and Golden Germander

Chart 173 Ginger

Chart 174 Glycerrhiza

Chart 175 Grains of Paradise

Chart 176 Grapefruit

Chart 177 Guaiac Wood

Chart 178 Guarana

Chart 179 Guava

Chart 180 Hexenyl Esters

Chart 181 Inorganic Ingredients

Chart 182 Ionones

Chart 183 Jasmones and Jasmonates

Chart 184 Juice and Juice Concentrates

Chart 185 Keto and Hydroxy Esters

Chart 186 Ketones ‐ Aliphatic

Chart 187 Ketones ‐ Aromatic

Chart 188 Lactate Esters

Chart 189 Lactones

Chart 190 Leavening Agents

Chart 191 Levulinates

Chart 192 Maillard Reaction

Chart 193 Malonates

Chart 194 Maltol and Related Products

Chart 195 Massoia Bark

Chart 196 Menthol Menthone Derivatives and Coolants

Chart 197 Musks

Chart 198 Indoles and Skatole

Chart 199 Haw Bark Extract

Chart 200 Hemlock

Chart 201 Hickory Bark

Chart 202 Hops

Chart 203 Horehound

Chart 204 Horsemint

Chart 205 Horseradish

Chart 206 Hyacinth

Chart 207 Hyssop

Chart 208 Iceland Moss

Chart 209 Immortelle

Chart 210 Imperatoria

Chart 211 Iva

Chart 212 Jambu

Chart 213 Jasmine

Chart 214 Juniper Berry

Chart 215 Kola Nut

Chart 216 Labdanum

Chart 217 Lavandin

Chart 218 Lavender

Chart 219 Lavender ‐ Spike

Chart 220 Leek

Chart 221 Lemon

Chart 222 Lemongrass

Chart 223 Lemon Verbena

Chart 224 Lime

Chart 225 Linaloe Wood

Chart 226 Linden Flowers

Chart 227 Liquid Smoke

Chart 228 Lovage

Chart 229 Lungmoss

Chart 230 Mace

Chart 231 Maidenhair Fern

Chart 232 Malt

Chart 233 Mandarin

Chart 234 Mountain Maple

Chart 235 Marigold

Chart 236 Marjoram

Chart 237 Mate

Chart 238 Extraction Solvents for Flavorings

Chart 239 Mimosa

Chart 240 Molasses

Chart 241 Mullein

Chart 242 Musk Tonquin

Chart 243 Mustard

Chart 244 Myrrh

Chart 245 Myrtle

Chart 246 Naphthyl Compunds

Chart 247 Non Flavoring Ingredients

Chart 248 Nucleic Acids and Related Compounds

Chart 249 Nutrient Claims

Chart 250 Nutritional Additives

Chart 251 Nutritional Requirements ‐ Minimum Daily Require

Chart 252 Oleoresins

Chart 253 Pathogenic Organisms

Chart 254 Phenyl Ethyl Compounds and Phenylacetates

Chart 255 Phenyl Propyl and Phenyl Butyl Esters

Chart 256 Phosphates

Chart 257 Phthalides

Chart 258 Piperonyl Esters

Chart 259 Polysorbates and Sorbitan Esters

Chart 260 Propenyl Guaethol

Chart 261 Proposition 65

Chart 262 Propylene Glycol Derivatives

Chart 263 Pulegyl Esters

Chart 264 Pyrazines

Chart 265 Nitrogen Containing ‐ Non Pyrazine

Chart 266 Pyrimidines etc

Chart 267 Pyruvate

Chart 268 Nutmeg

Chart 269 Oak Quercus Alba and Robur

Chart 270 Oak Moss

Chart 271 Olibanum

Chart 272 Onion

Chart 273 Opopanax

Chart 274 Orange Flower

Chart 275 Orange Sweet

Chart 276 Oregano

Chart 277 Orris

Chart 278 Osmanthus

Chart 279 Palmarosa

Chart 280 Pansy

Chart 281 Parrafin Wax

Chart 282 Parsley

Chart 283 Passionflower

Chart 284 Passionfruit

Chart 285 Patchouli

Chart 286 Peach

Chart 287 Peanut

Chart 288 Pear

Chart 289 Pennyroyal

Chart 290 Pepper Black and White

Chart 291 Pepper Sweet Bell Types

Chart 292 Peppermint

Chart 293 Peru Balsam

Chart 294 Petitgrain

Chart 295 Pimento

Chart 296 Pine

Chart 297 Pipsissewa

Chart 298 Plum

Chart 299 Pomegranate

Chart 300 Poplar

Chart 301 Poppy Seed

Chart 302 Pyroligneous Acid

Chart 303 Priorities Chart

Chart 304 Quinine Compounds

Chart 305 RDI

Chart 306 Rhodinyl Esters

Chart 307 Salicylates

Chart 308 Salicylic Aldehyde

Chart 309 Salts

Chart 310 Santalyl Esters

Chart 311 Sebacates

Chart 312 Sequestrants

Chart 313 Silica and Silicates

Chart 314 Solvents

Chart 315 Sorbates

Chart 316 Chart 316 Spectrum Attribute Scale®

Chart 317 Starter Cultures

Chart 318 Structural Character Predominance

Chart 319 Succinates

Chart 320 Sweetener Regulatory Status

Chart 321 Sugar Esters

Chart 322 Sulfur Containing Compounds

Chart 323 Sulfur Containing Esters

Chart 324 Sulfur Containing Furans

Chart 325 Sulfur Containing Vitamins

Chart 326 Tartrates

Chart 327 Terpenes and Related Compounds

Chart 328 Terpenes ‐ Oxegynated etc

Chart 329 Thiazoles

Chart 330 Tiglates

Chart 331 Tolyl Esters

Chart 333 Unsaturated Esters – Aliphatic

Chart 334 Unsaturated Esters – Aromatic

Chart 335 Vanillyl Compounds

Chart 336 Vitamins

Chart 337 Zingerone

Chart 338 Theaspirane and Related Compunds

Chart 339 Quassia

Chart 340 Quebracho

Chart 341 Quillaia

Chart 342 Quince

Chart 343 Raisin

Chart 344 Raspberry

Chart 345 Rhatany Root

Chart 346 Rhubarb

Chart 347 Rose

Chart 348 Roselle

Chart 349 Rosemary

Chart 350 Rue

Chart 351 Rum

Chart 352 Rum Ether

Chart 353 Rye

Chart 354 Saffron

Chart 355 Sage

Chart 356 Saigon Cassia

Chart 357 St. John's Wort

Chart 358 Salsify

Chart 359 Sandalwood

Chart 360 Sandarac

Chart 361 Sarsaparilla

Chart 362 Sassafras

Chart 363 Sauterne

Chart 364 Savory

Chart 365 Schinus Mole

Chart 366 Senna

Chart 367 Snakeroot and Virginia Snakeroot ‐ Serpentaria

Chart 368 Sesame

Chart 369 Shallots

Chart 370 Simaruba

Chart 371 Sloe Berry

Chart 372 Smoke Flavor

Chart 373 Non‐Nutrative Sweeteners

Chart 374 Spearmint and Varieties

Chart 375 Spikenard

Chart 376 Starter Distillate

Chart 377 Storax

Chart 378 Strawberry

Chart 379 Sugar Beet Extract

Chart 380 Tagettes

Chart 381 Tamarind

Chart 382 Tangelo

Chart 383 Tansy

Chart 384 Tarragon

Chart 385 Tea

Chart 386 Thistle, Blessed

Chart 387 Thyme

Chart 388 Tolu Balsam

Chart 389 Tomato

Chart 390 Tuberose

Chart 391 Turkey

Chart 392 Turmeric

Chart 393 Turpentine

Chart 394 Valerian Root

Chart 395 Vanilla

Chart 396 Vegetable Oil

Chart 397 Vegetable Protein

Chart 398 Veronica

Chart 399 Vervain

Chart 400 Vetiver

Chart 401 Violet

Chart 402 Walnut

Chart 403 West Indian Sandalwood Oil

Chart 404 Wintergreen

Chart 405 Woodruff

Chart 406 Yarrow

Chart 407 Yeast

Chart 408 Yerba Santa

Chart 409 Ylang Ylang

Chart 410 Yucca

Chart 411 Alkanet Root

Chart 412 Furyl Esters

Chart 413 Furyl and other Oxygenated Compounds

Chart 414 Enzyme Derived Chemicals

Chart 415 Floral Terpene Esters and Ethers

Chart 416 Edible Flowers

Chart 417 Fruit Juice Concentrates

Chart 418 Flavor Reactions

Chart 419 Foaming Agents

Chart 420 Angola Weed

Chart 422 Butter Derivatives

Chart 423 Pepeppermint by Regions

Chart 424 Casein Caseinates

Chart 425 Chemical Diversion Act List – DEA List

Chart 426 Cinnamyl Anthranilate

Chart 427 Cork Oak

Chart 428 Masa Harina

Chart 429 Crab Extract

Chart 430 Deertongue Extract

Chart 431 Dimethyl Poly Siloxane

Chart 432 Enzyme Modified Milk

Chart 433 Glucose Pentaacetate

Chart 434 Enocianinna

Chart 435 Ho Oil

Chart 437 Persic Oil

Chart 438 Prune Juice Concentrate

Chart 439 Listing of Industries within the Food Industry

Chart 440 Internet Sites of Interest

Chart 441 IUPAC

Chart 442 Leaves and Wrappings

Chart 443 Lettuce

Chart 444 Linseed

Chart 445 GM Products

Chart 446 Lipolyzed Butter Oil and Cream

Chart 447 Lobster

Chart 448 Longoza

Chart 449 Mango

Chart 450 Maltodextrin

Chart 451 Masking Flavors

Chart 452 Melon

Chart 453 Millet

Chart 454 Modified Food Starch

Chart 455 Mollusks

Chart 456 Mono and Diglycerides

Chart 457 Mushroom Extract

Chart 458 Non‐Potability

Chart 459 Nutrient Content

Chart 460 Ethyl Oenenthate

Chart 461 Pineapple

Chart 462 Polycyclic Heterocyclic Amines

Chart 463 Rosin

Chart 465 Tea Tree

Chart 466 Perilla Oil

Chart 467 Litsea Cubeba

Chart 468 Grape Seed Extract

Chart 469 Daidai Peel Oil

Chart 470 Mentha Arvensis

Chart 471 Tomato Lycopene

Chart 472 Ester Gum

Chart 473 Sodium Diacetate

Chart 474 Sarcodactylus Oil

Chart 475 Heliopsis

Chart 476 Mesquite Wood Extract

Chart 477 Isoquercitrin Enzymatically Modified

Chart 478 Adenosine Derivatives

Chart 479 Piperitenone Oxide

Chart 480 Succinamides – Dimethyl Menthyl Succinamide

Chart 481 Food Doneness Chart

Chart 482 Mint Varieties

Chart 483 Wine Varieties

Chart 484 Worldwide GM Labeling Status In Progress

Chart 485 Cheeses

Chart 486 FEMA GRAS Lists – Numbers Included

Chart 488 Piper longum

Chart 489 EU Labeling Changes

Chart 490 Gluten Free Grain Status

Chart 491 DHS Chemicals of Interest

Chart 492 Adipates

Chart 493 Ketals

Chart 494 Cyclotene Derivatives

Chart 495 Stevia and Stevia Derivatives

Chart 496 Acai

Chart 497 Chrysanthemum

Chart 498 Honeysuckle

Chart 499 Luo Han Guo

Chart 500 Chinese Coriander

Chart 501 Amacha Leaves Extract

Chart 502 Szechuan Pepper

Chart 503 Mountain Pepper

Chart 504 Mangosteen

Chart 505 Chinese Sweet Leaf

Chart 506 Olive

Chart 507 Sugar Cane

Chart 508 Enhancers and Flavors with Modifying Properties

List of Illustrations

chapter-A

Figure 1

Figure 2

Figure 3

Figure 4

Figure 5

chapter-B

Figure 6

Figure 7

chapter-C

Figure 8

Figure 9

Figure 10

Figure 11

Figure 12

Figure 13

Figure 14

Figure 15

Figure 16

chapter-D

Figure 17

Figure 18

chapter-E

Figure 19

chapter-F

Figure 20

chapter-G

Figure 21

chapter-H

Figure 22

chapter-L

Figure 23

chapter-M

Figure 24

chapter-O

Figure 25

Figure 26

Figure 27

chapter-P

Figure 28

chapter-S

Figure 29

chapter-T

Figure 30

Figure 31

Figure 32

Figure 33

Figure 34

Dictionary of Flavors

Third Edition

Dolf De Rovira, Sr.

President and CEO of Flavor Dynamics, Inc.

South Plainfield

New Jersey

This edition first published 2017 © 2017 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd

2nd Edition first published 2008 by Blackwell Publishing

Registered Office

John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK

Editorial Offices

9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UK

The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK

111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030‐5774, USA

For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at www.wiley.com/wiley‐blackwell.

The right of Dolf De Rovira, Sr. to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher.

Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book.

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author(s) have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services and neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for damages arising herefrom. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought.

Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication data applied for

ISBN: 9781118856413

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books.

Cover Design: Wiley

Cover Image: © twomeows/Gettyimages

Introduction

This dictionary book has more charts which are placed at the end of book for the readers to refer.

Since the last publication of the ‘Dictionary of Flavors’, the industry has gone through a monumental change. This author cannot remember as many accomplishments in the science, as many regulation changes or as many challenges, day to day pressures and concerns that have occurred as in the last few years. Tremendous strides have occurred in identifying nerve receptors for flavor chemicals to the point where receptors are being linked to specific chemical structures. Culinary considerations and their effect on flavor creation continue to explode. Regulatory concerns for food safety and worker safety are on the minds of every successful flavorist today. Marketing concerns such as ‘Gluten‐Free’, ‘All Natural’, ‘GMO Free’, ‘Clean Label’ and on and on drive project decisions and flavor creation techniques. FSMA, HACCP, SDS, BRC, SQF are acronyms now part of the flavorist's everyday life. We live in a time when technology is exploding and the successful flavorist must meet these challenges head on. I hope that some of the additional citations made in this third edition of the ‘Dictionary of Flavors’ will help make this happen and aid in the future flavorist of tomorrow.

I have said many times that sometime in the future someone will look back and exclaim ‘Those were truly exciting times during the early new Millennium, I wonder what it would have been like to be part of all that excitement’. Enjoy!

Non‐Text and Numerical Abbreviations

Non‐Alphabetic Symbols

0 – Symbol meaning nil or no sensory stimulus )( – Symbol meaning threshold sensory stimulus

Numerical Items

2‐AFC – Two Alternate Forced Choices – A sensory evaluation technique that evaluates two choices wherein the attribute and direction is known. It is randomized as AB and BA and alternatively a third choice of ‘neither’ is also allowed. See Sensory Evaluation, Discrimination Tests. 3‐AFC – Three Alternate Forced Choices – Considered being more powerful than the triangle test, although the reasons for that increased power are debated. The design of the test is: one item (A) is the target character item and two items (B) are the ones in question. The design is ABB, BAB and BBA. Unlike the triangle which would have AAB, ABA and BAA, the target appears only once. The question is posed: which of these is more ‘x’? See Sensory Evaluation, Discrimination Tests.

A

Abaisse – A sheet of rolled out pastry. A’ blanc – Food that is cooked or partially cooked, but not browned. Abbreviations and Acronyms – See Appendix 1 . Absinthe – An alcoholic beverage made from wormwood, having a characteristically astringent bitter flavor. Thujone, the active narcotic ingredient present in this beverage, was found to be responsible for toxic side effects. Upon this discovery, France banned the drink in 1915. See Artemesia – Wormwood, Bitter. Absolute – The alcoholic extract of a concrete, otherwise known as the absolute d’concrete. A concrete is the oil base extractive of a botanical, usually a floral, a herb, or a spice. Due to the cost of most absolutes, they usually are used at lower levels in flavors. Absolutes, therefore, are found in formulations where they lend themselves to fine nuances and backgrounds. It is also typical that these characteristics are not characterizing, but which contribute a differential nuance to the flavor blend. For listing, see under individual botanical listings. See Concrete, Extraction, Extract, Extrait, Extractant, Differential Ingredients. Absolute Oil – The subsequent steam distillation of the essential oil from an absolute. See Essential Oil, Absolute, Concrete. Absolute Zero – The lowest temperature possible, equivalent to 273 degrees below 0 °C. Absorption – Absorption is the process describing either:

A liquid or a solid taking in a gas in the form of aromas, or

A substance taking up energy in the form of heat, light, or X‐rays. See Adsorption.

Acacia Gum – See Arabic Gum. Acai (Euterpe Oleracea) – The Acai Palm is a tall and slender plant whose clusters of new leaves are eaten as hearts of palm. This is also called the cabbage of the plant. It produces a very dark edible berry high in essential fatty acids (omega 3, 6, and 9 fatty acids) as well as high concentrations of anthocyanin, a phytochemical found in other dark berries that have antioxidant properties. It grows mainly in South America. The açai palm is related to Euterpe edulis juçara known for hearts of palm. Purported high levels of anthocyanins considered good for promoting health benefits as an antioxidant and is usually on the top ten list when people ask for a grouping of ‘superfruits’. See Chart 496 Acai, Superfruits. See LDL, Anthocyanins, Phytochemical, Palm, and Appendix 2 – Nutraceuticals Overview. Acaricide – A chemical that kills or controls mites or ticks. See Herbicide, Pesticide. Accelerated Shelf‐Life Testing – See Accelerated Storage Stability Testing. Accelerated Storage Conditions – Conditions such as moisture, temperature, light (usually ultraviolet), and atmosphere (usually oxygen) have a tendency to decrease the shelf life of a product. Accelerated storage conditions are designed to enhance, accelerate, and simulate changes that will occur at ambient conditions over a longer period of time. See Accelerated Storage Stability Testing, Ambient Conditions, Shelf Life. Accelerated Storage Stability Testing – A method by which a product is exposed to elevated temperatures simulating what would happen over longer periods on the shelf. This technique is usually conducted at ambient temperatures and conditions. Increased temperatures accelerate those chemical reactions which occur normally at lower rates at lower temperatures. A rule of thumb is for every increase in temperature of 10 °C, the reaction rate doubles. There are some exceptions to this rule, however, and reaction dynamics are not always linear. For example, some reactions do not take place until a certain threshold reaction temperature is reached. (Below this temperature, the action rate is insignificant.) Some general guidelines have been established as follows: A product kept 4 months at 100 °F is equivalent to 6 months at 70 °F. See Attribute Tests, Storage Stability, Shelf Life. Acceptance – A sensory term meaning the approval of or positive attitude toward a food or flavor or the state of being whereupon a substance is described as being within expected or desired parameters within a specified range. Acceptance can also be directly proportional to a rating on a Hedonic scale. See Hedonic (Rating) Scale, Attribute, Sensory Evaluation. Acceptance Number – Otherwise designated as the C factor, relating to the number of ‘out‐of‐specification’ data versus the ‘within specification’ data in a given study. See Sensory Evaluation. Acceptance Quality Level – See AQL. Accord – When two or more flavor substances are so finely balanced that they take on an aroma character unlike either of the individual substances. An example is a blend of citrus and spices with brown notes blended in such a way as to be reminiscent of a cola beverage. See Balance. Acerola (Malpighia punicifolia L.) or Barbados Cherry and Wild Crapemyrtle – See Appendix 2 . Acetaldehyde – The second simplest of aliphatic aldehydes (formaldehyde, of course is the simplest) that is found in many natural flavor systems. Due to its extreme volatility, it is often an important, yet fleeting contributor toward the top note of many products, including the fresh juicy character of orange juice and other citrus juices, as well as many other fruits and vegetables. For this reason, a patented spray‐dried form is used in a popular orange‐type powdered drink mix. Acetaldehyde has been shown to have adverse feeding study data, and California has regulated its use it that state according to Proposition 65. See Aldehydes Aliphatic, Keto Aldehydes, and Cyclic Aldehydes; Juicy, Freshness. Acetals – Formed through the action of aldehydes and alcohols. Because solvents such as glycerine, alcohol, and propylene glycol contain a hydroxyl moiety, and as these solvents are used in most flavors, acetals are formed upon standing with most flavor systems. Acetals have very limited flavor use per se, as most acetals have little or no odor due to their higher molecular weight. Often acetals have off flavor like the floral character of benzaldehyde P.G. acetal, or the harsh flavor of valeraldehyde P.G. acetal. Acetals revert in slightly acid pH aqueous systems, so in most cases, when used in a final food product like an acidified food or beverage, acetals will revert back to the starting aldehyde. It is likely that the inclusion of acetals on the GRAS lists is not necessarily for their flavor characteristics, as they are not generally useful as such. However, the inclusion of chemicals and their acetals onto the GRAS list was more likely done preemptively. As a flavor sits, many reactions occur. Acetal formation is just one of these. At the time, a few companies’ regulatory departments felt that all of the myriad of acetals might have to be accounted for. As this line of thinking went on, many began to realize that an insurmountable task was at hand. When we age wine, do we need to consider all of the reactions that went into the aging process? The answer is obvious. This expanded concept has never come to fruition. See Glycerine, Propylene Glycol and Derivatives, Valeraldehyde, Benzaldehyde, Aqueous, Harsh, Floral, Beverage, Acid, Hydroxyl, Alcohol, Moiety, Dioxolanes, Dioxanes (Glyceryl Acetals), Hemiacetals, Ketals, Chart 2 – Acetals, and Figure 1.

Figure 1

Acetic – The olfactory property in which a substance is reminiscent of acetic acid. See Descriptive Terminology, Acid, Fatty Acids. Acetic Acid – The volatile acid that is reminiscent of and the active ingredient of vinegar. It occurs in lower levels as a by‐product of fermentation. Acetic acid is found in cheese products, other dairy systems, ripened fruits, and many other natural flavor systems. Acetic acid is formed from the oxidation of the alcohol contained in spirits. Microorganisms such as Acetobacteria aceti are ones that could be responsible for this change. Before these microorganisms were identified, it was thought that the turning of alcohol to vinegar was due to contamination by a fly subsequently named a vinegar fly. Acetic acid is a classic example of an aroma compound that also affects a taste (by lowering the pH and adding a sour character). See Oxidation, Vinegar, Fermentation, Partitioning. Acetoacetates – Chart 3 – Acetoacetates are compound ketone‐containing esters. Some of them occur in nature (ethyl acetoacetate in baked products). They may have questionable stability in a finished flavor and have been observed to give off carbon dioxide upon standing in acidic conditions. See Ketones (Aliphatic), Stability, Keto and Hydroxy Esters, and Chart 3 – Acetoacetates. Acetoin Acetyl Methyl Carbinol – Although many claim it has a faint aroma and taste, it seems more likely that trace quantities of oxidized diacetyl are responsible for its apparent odor characteristics. It seems to have more of an effect on the trigeminal and taste receptors than the olfactory senses. See Oxidation, Reduction, Diacetyl, Butter, Buttery, Ketones (Aliphatic). Acetyl Propionyl – A chemical which has been reported by RIFM not to have the same biological effect and transference into the bronchioles as diacetyl, but nonetheless has been linked together with diacetyl by the government as a potential cause of bronchilitis obliterans. See Diacetyl, Bronchiolitis Obliterans, Popcorn Lung. ACF – Quote from the website: The American Culinary Federation, Inc. (ACF) is the premier professional chefs’ organization in North America, with more than 240 chapters nationwide and 18,000 members. ACF offers culinarians of all ages, skill levels, and specialties the opportunity to further their careers, as well as enhance their lives. Achene – The yellow seeds of a strawberry fruit or the seedy fruits inside a fig receptacle. Achillea – See Yarrow Herb. Achilleic Acid – See Acidulant(s), Aconitic Acid. Acid –

In flavors, the nonvolatile acids that are important are those GRAS substances that affect the pH of a food product, and can be therefore tasted via taste buds located on the tongue.

In flavors, the organic acids, some of which can have both appreciable vapor pressure and aroma type, so as to be perceived as an aroma can have the above effect on pH as to be both tasted and smelt (acetic acid, propionic acid, butyric acid). Therefore, it is important to distinguish between the aroma called acidic aroma and the taste called the acid or sour taste. Acid aromas range from pungent to cheesy to waxy. Some of the higher molecular weight branch chained isomers tend to be gamey and meaty. See Acetic Acid; Butyric Acid; Pungent; Taste; Aroma; Sour; Branched Chain Molecule; Gamey; Meaty; Acids, Chart 4 – Acids All Types, Chart 5 – Acids Unsaturated Aliphatic, Chart 6 – Acidulants.

Acid Hydrolysis – The process of breaking down of more complex, usually water‐insoluble substances, like proteins, into simpler, more water‐soluble components like amino acids. Acid hydrolyzed proteinaceous substances, commonly called HVPs contribute taste enhancement, as well as trace aroma components. HVPs are usually used in savory‐type applications. Acid hydrolyzed products can also be used as sources for amino acids combined with reducing sugars as ingredients to be used in a Maillard Reaction. See Hydrolyzed Plant Protein, Autolysis, Autolyzed Yeast, Tastant, Taste, Maillard Reaction, Reducing Sugar, Non‐Enzymatic Browning, Enzymatic Browning, Enzyme Hydrolysis. Acidified Foods – An acidified food is one where the pH is reduced for the purpose of enhanced microbial stability and shelf life. To prevent the growth of harmful bacteria, such as Clostridium botulinum and other pathogenic organisms, foods may have acid added to them to a final equilibrium pH level of 4.6 or lower. It is also recommended that the water activity of the food system be greater than 0.85 for the acidification to be most effective. Acidification of dairy products can denature or granulate the milk proteins and therefore, one would need to add phosphates to help retard this effect. Disodium phosphate, tetra sodium phosphate, and sodium hexa meta phosphate seem to work best in this regard. Flavor changes can also occur at low pH, and both the effect on flavor and the pH effect on the base product that in turn can affect the flavor becomes a synergy, which must be addressed in these types of products. See pH, Acidity, Microbiological Stability, Processing, Processing Conditions, Production Issues. Acidity –

The quantity of hydronium ions.

The lowness of the pH (less than 7.0).

The sharpness on the tongue as perceived by the taste buds that are sensitive to pH.

The overall acid character of a flavor profile.

The sourness of a flavor. The degree acidity is the amount of pH units below a pH of 7.0, or neutrality.

In wine, an essential characteristic.

The proper balance of acidity and sweetness usually makes for a mouth‐watering flavor profile. See pH, Acid, Acidulant(s). Acidophilic Microorganisms – Microorganisms that grow well in acid conditions. See Microbiology. Acidophilus bacterium – See Starter Cultures. Acidophilus Milk – Milk fermented by the Lactobacillus. Acidulant(s) – Acidulants are flavor compounds that contribute to taste only and do not have any aroma. Therefore, citric acid is an acidulant; acetic acid is not, even though the addition of either one in a food system will affect a downward result (more acid) on the pH. See Acids, Chart 6 – Acidulants. Aciduric – A description of the types of organisms that can grow in high acid foods. This is synonymous with acidophilic. See Microbiology. Acitrónes – Candied prickly pear cactus leaves (Mexican). Aconitates – Esters of the singly unsaturated version of glycerine (Propenetriol). See Glyceryl Esters. Aconitic Acid – See Acidulant(s). Acrid – A characteristic both biting and stinging to the mucosa (an effect on the trigeminal and touch sensing nerves) as well as an unpleasant acidic, pungent odor. Acridity is usually a negative attribute. See Trigeminal Nerves. Acrylamide – Formed from the reaction of sugars and amino acids (Maillard Reaction). Acrylamide has been found to be a carcinogen at higher levels as well as a compound that could do damage to the nervous system. Recent studies such as the one conducted at University Public Health Schools show that the cancer correlation cannot be confirmed. However, because acrylamide is a genotoxic or DNA damaging chemical, future indications are less clear cut. See Maillard Reaction, Carcinogen, Genotoxin. Actinase – See Enzymes. Actionable Process Step – The part of a Food Defense Plan that describes a point at which a Focused Mitigation Strategy can be employed to address a significant vulnerability. This step is designed to avoid and protect against purposeful adulteration of the food supply. This is similar in concept to the Critical Control Point of a HACCP Plan. See Food Defense Plan, Focused Mitigation Strategy, Significant Vulnerability, Purposeful Adulteration, HACCP, HACCP Plan, Critical Control Point. Active Oxygen Method – See AOM. Acuity – The degree of sensitivity. Flavor, taste, or organoleptic acuity means the degree a person can perceive those corresponding sensations. See Supertasters, Taste, Tongue, Olfaction, Sensation. Acyl – The term for the fatty acid portion of an ester. Example: Ethyl laurate is ethyl alcohol and lauric (dodecanoic) acid. The fatty acid portion or acyl group is lauric acid. See IUPAC, Aryl, Fatty Acids, and Chart 146 – Alkyl Esters – Grouped by Alcohol Moiety, Alkyl Esters, Grouped by Alcohol Moiety. Adaptation – The decrease in the sensitivity to change due to continued exposure to sensory stimuli. Also known as fatigue, saturation, and satiation. See Saturated (Satiated). Adaptogen – A term first described by mid‐twentieth century by the Soviet scientist Nicolai Lazarev. An adaptogen is a substance that maintains health by increasing the body’s ability to adapt to environmental and to internal stress. By definition, an adaptogen causes no side effects and can treat a wide variety of illnesses. An adaptogen helps an organism come into balance or homeostasis, despite the reason for the imbalance. See Nutraceuticals. Addiction – An excess craving for something. It has been said that flavor make food addictive. This is preposterous. Flavors make food processed for safety whose flavor is lost or depreciated much more palatable, enjoyable and therefore beneficial. See Aversion. Additives (Food Additives) – Substances that are added to foods for their improved benefit, be it flavor, shelf life, texture improvement, color, or other improvements to the physical, chemical, or sensory attributes. See Regulations. Adenosine – Adenosine monophosphate, monosodium, or disodium adenylate – A nutraceutical that has been studied for its use in healing wounds, its treatment of diabetes mellitus, and its ability to lessen the effects of some instances of tachycardia (rapid heart racing, whose long lasting severity can cause death). It is a nucleotide found in RNA. Linguagen Corp. has patented its use as a bitter blocker. See Appendix 2 – Nutraceuticals Overview and Chart 29 – Amino Acids. Adhesion Starch – A modified food starch, which allows a batter to stick more efficiently to a food. See Batter, Standard Breading Procedure. Adjuvant – An ingredient that affects the food product and/or aids in the perception of the flavor. These are the non‐flavoring ingredients that are also non‐foods. See Regulations, Code of Federal Regulations. Adsorption – The action of taking up of a gas by a liquid or by a solid, or the taking up of energy (heat, light, or X‐rays) on the surface of a food. See Absorption. Aduki Bean – See Adzuki Bean. Adulteration –

The criminal offense of adding a non‐food grade product to a food‐grade product.

The illegal addition of a synthetic flavor and calling it a natural flavor.

The illegal and generally unethical practice of adding non‐indigenous ingredients to another product, and not declaring the addition. Note: This is especially true with adulteration of essential oils, where the final product is still declared as natural, and should not be under our regulations. Example: The addition of trace amounts of synthetic citral to a field distillation of lemon oil to boost the natural citral content of the oil, and not declaring the citral. Unfortunately, some crop reports available indicate some natural products’ available world or regional supply far exceeds the expected source potential. It is suspected that essential oils of this nature are extended by use of clever techniques, like adulteration. Unfortunately, it is very difficult to isolate these instances and prove that this is occurring, especially when the oil or other so‐called natural product has passed through many hands, and the original source might be a Third World country whose fields might be difficult to access. One newer development is the analysis by isotopic abundance. Lately some very interesting research has also been done on chiral configuration. There are some problems concerning this method, including cost of analysis and sample size. The best way to avoid overpaying for what should be a legitimate product, but is not, is to know your supplier very well, and do gas chromatographic analyses and organoleptic evaluations from time to time, comparing with other sources, and also to check your gas chromatographic breakdowns with those found in the literature.

See Natural (Flavors); Artificial, Synthetic, or Not Natural; Sophistication; Cut (Cutting); Coupage; Isotopic Analysis (Isotopic Ratio); Carbon 13; Carbon 14; Half‐Life; Chirality; Optical Rotation. Adverse Event Reporting System – AERS –

As cited in one report by the Food and Drug Administration, "The Adverse Event Reporting System (AERS) is a computerized information database designed to support the FDA's post‐marketing safety surveillance program for all approved drug and therapeutic biologic products. The ultimate goal of AERS is to improve the public health by providing the best available tools for storing and analyzing safety reports.’

It goes on further to say: ‘The reports in AERS are evaluated by clinical reviewers in the Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER) and the Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research (CBER) to detect safety signals and – to monitor drug safety. They form the basis for further epidemiological studies when appropriate. As a result, the FDA may take regulatory actions to improve product safety and protect the public health, such as updating a product's labeling information, sending out a Dear Health Care Professional letter, or re‐evaluating an approval decision.’ See FDA, Food Safety, Reportable Food Registry.

Adzuki Bean (Phaseolus angularis or Vigna angularis) – Also called aduki bean. Ranks second in importance to the soybean. Usually brown with a long white hilum, but comes in other colors like pale yellow, gray, green, or black. In China the bean is considered to bring good luck. Recently a popular food for macrobiotic diets as a good source of needed essential amino acids. See Legumes, Beans, Broad Bean, Buck Bean. AEDA – Aroma Extract Dilution Analysis. The process of diluting the flavorant until the odorant is no longer perceptible. See Charm Analysis. Aerating Agents – See Foaming Agents. Aeration – The addition usually by beating, bubbling, or high speed mixing of air into a product. See Foam, Foaming Agents. Aerobic – An adjective meaning in the presence of air. Aerobic Organisms – AO, Otherwise called aerobes, these are organisms that thrive only in the presence of air. See Anaerobic Organisms. AERS – See Adverse Effect Reporting System AFA or aphanizomenon flos aquae – See Appendix 2 – Nutraceuticals Overview. AFC – See Alternate Forced Choice, Sensory Evaluation. Affective (Methods) – Sensory methods that are either qualitative or quantitative analyses done by consumers as opposed to analytical methods that are discrimination or descriptive panels of trained or semi‐trained panelists. See Sensory Evaluation, Consumer Testing. Aflatoxin – Organic substance(s) that are generated by molds such as Aspergillus flavus or A. parasiticus. Typically, they are found as contaminants in food products such as peanut, grains, etc. Aflatoxin has been seen to be a potent carcinogen and has been extensively studied in that regard. See Pathogenic (Pathological) Organisms. Agar (Agar Agar) – A seaweed‐based gelatinous colloid that is used as a thickener or stabilizer for food systems. Nutrient agar is an agar blend where nutrients are added to agar to provide an environment that accelerates microbial growth for the purpose of bacterial testing in a petri dish. See Microbiological Assay, Nutrient Agar, Petri Dish. Agaricus Blazei Murrell or Hime‐Matsutake Mushroom – See Appendix 2 – Nutraceuticals Overview. Ageusia – Lack or impairment of the sense of taste. See Agustia. Agglomeration – The forming of a larger mass by causing a substance like a liquid to combine with another ingredient like a powder. Agglomeration is used for many reasons, such as instantization, particulate formation, bulk density adjustment, physical appearance, etc. See Spray Drying, Dehydration, Hygroscopic or Hygroscopicity. Aging –

The process of mellowing over a period of time. The aging of wine, mints, and cheese means the process of continually reacting ingredients, which lead to a more complex number of flavoring materials lending to a more rounded profile. These reactions can include enzymatic reactions, oxidations, Schiff base formation, transesterification, rancidification, Maillard Reaction, interesterification, polymerization, saponification, etc.

The simulation of the aging process on the shelf (in the stores, refrigerator, etc.) so as to predict the changes developing upon storage.

The process of maturation of a person. This is a complex system that is currently being researched. There is a disease where the aging process is accelerated. This rare disease is called progeria. It is postulated that if a condition or circumstances can accelerate the aging process there might be other conditions or circumstances that can decelerate the process as well. Some believe that telomeres, a region of repetitive nucleotide sequences at each end of a chromatid have also to do with the aging process. See Transesterification; Enzymes; Schiff Base; Rancidification; Interesterification; Polymer, Polymerization; Saponification, Accelerated Shelf‐Life Testing, Oxidation, Senescence, Ripening, Chromatid, Chromosomes, DNA, Oak Barrel Aging.

Agitating Cookers – Retorts or other cooking machinery that provide a mixing or agitation during the cooking process. Aglycone – The chemical tied up in a glycoside. The chemical expressed usually through enzymatic reaction of a glycosidase on a glycoside. The glycoside amygdalin has amygdalase breakdown products of glucose, cyanide, and benzaldehyde. See Enzymes; Almond, Bitter; Benzaldehyde, Amygdalin. Agropyrum – See Dog Grass. Agustia – The inability to discern taste components via the taste buds of the tongue. There is a condition known as partial agustia wherein the ability to taste is either significantly reduced in intensity or absent for certain ingredients. See Anosmia, Gustation, Olfaction, Temporary Agustia. AIB Food Safety Audits – Established in 1919, the American Institute of Baking has conducted training and audit based certification for many years. Although it is not necessarily recognized by the GFSI protocols of the United Nations perhaps because it is made up of the individual companies it is meant to audit, it is an audit protocol used by many companies in the United States in response to the Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA). See FSMA, GFSI, UN, Third Party Audits. Aioli – A garlic flavored mayonnaise. Similar to a Rouille without the coloring. See Rouille, Culinary Arts. Ajowan – It is a relative of the caraway and cumin plants. The essential oil contains thymol. The botanical is also called ajwain, bishop’s weed, omam, and omum. See Caraway, Cumin. A La – A French phrase used often in recipes, which means a food is cooked in a certain style or manner. See Culinary Arts. A La King – A cooked chicken dish with mushrooms, bell peppers, which is cooked in a velouté sauce. See Culinary Arts. A La Minute – A culinary term literally meaning ‘in a minute’ and more broadly meaning the dishes cooked to order rather than for production, shipping, distribution, and storage in the food processing industry. Describing the on the spot cooking style used in restaurants. It is the a la minute style that provides for the use of fresh herbs and the finest of flavors. A La Minute versus Industrial Scale Production – When translating the a la minute developed ‘Gold Standard’ to a practical form for industrial production, many compromises need to be taken into account, such as:

Availability of the product – Example: fresh herbs and spices are not available in industrial settings. IQF (Instantly Quick Frozen) items can suffice, but they bring other attributes as well. Very large volume companies might use a product that there is just not enough in the world to provide.

Cost – Costly items can be absorbed in a menu setting at a restaurant but oftentimes contribute too high a raw material cost in an industrial environment.

Quality – Some items are just not available in the finest grades in larger quantities.

Processing Changes – As the food undergoes changes during the processing – necessary for microbiological stability and product safety – many component food characteristics can be altered often resulting in less than a Gold Standard Profile. One issue is the lowered boiling point in higher altitudes. Temperatures might not be reached to fully cook starches or reach food safety temperatures adequately.

Processing Requirements – For example, the pH must be lowered in a canning environment in order to assure for protection against clostridium botulinum. Hot packing also needs lower pHs and can curdle cheese and other proteins. Pump pressures must be developed, therefore gums or other thickeners need to be used to build up pump pressures. This often affects flavor quality.

Technique Inappropriateness – The development of a roux, often used to thicken in culinary applications, is infeasible in large‐scale production.

Marketing Position – The position of the product, be it low fat, organic, or other type of claim might make the source of ingredients difficult, if not impossible, to find. Use of salt replacers; fat mimetics; starches, gums, or other thickeners can affect flavor release and mouthfeel and often introduces off characters and undesirable flavor characters of their own. Marketing considerations might also include religious consideration such as Halal and Kosher. Nutrient additives can also introduce undesirable characteristics.

Storage and Shipping – Shipping, storage, and packaging might also have a significant effect on the product’s quality. Hot climate can degrade quality significantly. Using antioxidants, preservatives, and other similar additives can affect flavor quality.

A La Mode – Similar to the simpler phrase ‘a la,’ but in a special way as in pie a la mode, meaning with ice cream on top. See Culinary Arts. Albedo – Whiteness, referring to the inside pulpy layer of the citrus rind, which contains alkaloids such as naringin, which is a bittering principle. See Flavedo. Albumen – The white portion of the egg, which contains albumin. See Albumin. Albumin – A protein, which is soluble in salt‐free water at a pH of 7. Most albumins come from animal products. Plants usually contain less than 1% albumins. Albumins also include glucoproteins. Egg albumin, which is found in the white portion of the egg, otherwise known as the albumen. Albumen, for example contains 2 moles of glucosamine and 4 moles of mannose. Albumin is synthesized by the liver using proteins that we consume. Its presence in blood plasma creates a cellular pressure (osmotic force) that helps develop a cellular equilibrium. Albumin, therefore, is a good indicator of health. A low albumin level in a blood test is a sign of poor health. See Protein, Globulin. Alcohol – Also known as ethyl alcohol as is commonly used. See Solvent. Alcoholic Beverages – Drinks, drink mixes, and related products that are produced using ethyl alcohol for the purposes of intoxication. These products include dry bar mixes, cordials, wines, beer(s), spirits, distilled spirits (hard liquor), liqueurs, and wine coolers and many more. It does not include products that albeit contain appreciable amounts of alcohol and are not purchased for the express purpose of intoxication including medicinal preparations, mouthwashes, or similar items. See Alcohol, TTB, Limited Use Ingredients. Alcohol Industry – The Beverage Industry segment that produces alcoholic beverages. See Alcoholic Beverages, TTB. Alcohols (Saturated) – A group of chemicals that correspond to the presence of a hydroxyl group (hydrogen plus oxygen). When the hydroxyl group is associated with a benzyl group (aromatic compound), it is a phenol. When it is a non‐aromatic compound, it is an aliphatic alcohol. Simple phenols are associated with burned, tar‐like, and oxidized odors; complex phenolic compounds like vanillin tend to be sweet, warm, and brown. It is important to note that the lower molecular weight alcohols are used as solvent in flavors. See Hydroxyl, Benzyl Esters, Phenol, Aromatic, Aliphatic, Tar‐like, Tarry; Burnt or Burned, Vanillin, Warm, Brown, Glycerides, Terpenes – Oxygenated and Other Related Compounds, Chart 7 – Alcohols – Aliphatic Alcohols, and Chart 8 – Alcohols – Aliphatic Cyclic Alcohols. See also Figure 2 and Figure 3.

Figure 2

Figure 3

Alcohols (Aliphatic Cyclic) – These compounds can have a saturated or non‐aromatic cyclic structure. Compounds that have at least one double bond in the ring structure are listed here. These compounds could also fall into the class of terpene alcohols. See Chart 8 – Alcohols – Aliphatic Cyclic Alcohols. Alcohols (Aromatic) – A complex group of compounds that includes simple phenols having a tar‐like aroma and taste. Eugenol is the characteristic clove flavorant. Vanillin is chemically a combination of an ether, aldehyde, and alcohol. It has the aroma of vanilla, is used in the standard of identity of chocolate, and is widely used in most of the sweet flavor types for its ability to round out the profile, and reduce harsh notes. Phenyl ethanol, and its esters, range from floral to honey like. See Phenol; Eugenol; Clove; Vanillin; Chocolate; Harsh; Esters (Aliphatic) and Ester Chart; Honey; Floral; Ethers; Aldehyde; Alcohol; Alcohols (Unsaturated, Aromatic) Chart 10 – Alcohols – Unsaturated Non‐Aromatic, Chart 13 – Aldehydes Aliphatic & Keto Aldehydes & Cyclic Ald, Chart 146 – Alkyl Esters Grouped by Alcohol Moiety. Alcohols (Unsaturated, Non‐Aromatic) – Aliphatic alcohols with one or more double‐ or triple‐bond sites often possess varying degrees of green flavor. One of the most popular is cis 3 hexenol or leaf alcohol. Compounds with a trans unsaturation are usually harsher than their cis counterparts. Double bonds are usually less pungent than triple bonds, and multiple bonding increases the strength and pungency as well. An example of increased pungency would be cis 3 hexenol, trans 2 hexenal, hexadienol, and hexadienal. The sterically hindered cis forms are usually chemically more instable than their trans counterparts with more molecular room to breathe. An example of the conversion from cis to trans isomerism is found in fresh tomato juice, which has a prevalence of the cis hexenol that changes form through the cooking into tomato sauce (which then has a higher ratio of trans hexenal). Triple‐bonded alcohols like methyl heptine carbonate are very green and have a watermelon rind‐like character. Unsaturated cyclic compounds like cycloalkenes, etc., are also included here, as are hydroxy furanones and heterocyclic compounds with the enol group. However, this class of compounds tends not to be green but is quite brown, nutty, and roasted in flavor profile. See Aliphatic; Double Bond; Triple Bond; Alcohol; Cis (Isomerism); Trans (Isomerism); Isomer; Dienal; Dienol; Steric Hindrance; Ionones, Methyl Ionones, Irones, Pseudo Ionones, and Ionols; and Chart 10 – Alcohols – Unsaturated Non‐Aromatic. Alcohols (Unsaturated, Aromatic) – These compounds have a benzene structure and also an unsaturated side group. They possess a varied odor profile from resinous or floral, to vanillic (propenyl guaethol) and pungent/phenolic. Aldehydes (Aliphatic, Keto Aldehydes, and Cyclic Aldehydes) – A group of chemicals that corresponds to the presence of a terminal carbonyl group. (C=O) Aldehydes are generally stronger and harsher than their corresponding alcohol counterpart. Example: Hexanal is harsher and stronger than hexanol. When there is a presence of a double bond, the difference is usually exaggerated, and when there are two or more double bonds, as in the case of dienals, the differences are compounded further still. As with most of the esters, these compounds show a similarity of flavor profile within carbon number. Therefore, butyl butenal is similar to octenal. From one double bond to an aldehyde dienal counterpart, the flavor attribute within the same carbon number is roughly similar, although a lot stronger in the two double bond counterparts. See Chart 16 – Alfalfa. Aldehydes (Aromatic) – Aromatic aldehydes generally range from harsh and pungent to sweet and heavy. Some of the better‐known aromatic aldehydes are benzaldehyde, the almond/cherry compound, vanillin, ethyl vanillin, and heliotropine. Benzaldehyde is used in cherry‐type cough drops, and is useful in many fruit flavors as a sweet berry note, and the last three being commonly used in flavors for their contribution to the warm sweet background of a flavor profile. Profiles are extremely variable in character and intensity. Specific flavor identity for these compounds has more to do with other structures present and less to the fact that they are aromatic aldehydes. The aldehyde heliotropine (aka piperonal or methylene dioxy benzaldehyde), which is found in nature, including vanilla extract, yields a sweet cloying vanilla note and can be used in vanilla flavors and many other flavors for its sweet sugary contribution. See Vanillin, Ethyl Vanillin, Benzaldehyde, Harsh, Pungent, Sweet, Heavy, Aromatic, Aldehyde, Fruit, Berry (Like), Background, Top Note, Middle Ground, Flavor Profile, Intensity, Structure, Heliotropine, Piperonal (Heliotropine), Vanilla (Extract), Sugary, and Chart 15 – Aromatic Aldehydes. Aldehydes (So‐called) – When aroma chemicals were first being researched and identified, it was erroneously thought that the aldehydes were the main aroma compounds, that is, citral, decanal, benzaldehyde, heliotropine (piperonal), octanal, acetaldehyde, tolyl aldehyde, vanillin (hydroxy methoxy benzaldehyde), etc. In fact, in 1899, over 20 aldehydes were either found or used in food products. Some are no longer approved for use in foods. For example, Aldehydes C‐7 and C‐8 were derived from castor oil at this time for use in flavors. The abundance in flavor‐characterizing compounds falling into the chemical aldehyde category leads to the false conclusion that all aroma compounds should fall into this category. The advent of modern structural chemistry of course proves that concept to be mistaken. See Dienal, Alcohol, Pungent, Unsaturated (Bond), Double Bond, Comparative Flavor Chemistry, Esters, Fatty/Green. These chemicals are listed in Chart 12 – So‐called Aldehydes. Aldehydes (Unsaturated Alkenals, Alkadienals, Alkynals, and Cyclic Non‐Aromatic Aldehydes) – As with most of the alkyl esters, these compounds show a similarity of flavor profile within carbon number. Therefore, butyl butenal is similar to octenal. From one double bond to an aldehyde dienal counterpart, the flavor attribute within the same carbon number is roughly similar, although a lot stronger in the two double bond counterparts. See Esters, Green, Fatty/Green, and Chart 11 – Alcohols – Aromatic and Unsaturated. Aldehydic – Reminiscent of aldehydes, specifically, aliphatic aldehydes of the C8 to C12 carbon number. See Flavor Description. Al Dente – Literally ‘to the tooth’. A degree of cooking (usually grains and pasta, not beans) that gives a little bit of resistance to the chew and is not mushy. See Culinary Arts. Alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) – Usually eaten as sprouted seeds that develop greater flavor and are also easier to digest. The natural extract containing xanthophyllic colorants (lutein dipalmitate, etc.) are used as coloring additives for grains so that poultry egg yolks will obtain a bright desirable yellow coloration. See Grains, Chart 16 – Alfalfa, and Appendix 2 – Nutraceuticals Overview. Alfredo – A sauce or style made with butter, garlic, cream, Italian cheese (typically Parmesan or Romano), with black pepper. Alfredo sauce is usually served with a pasta called fettuccini. See Culinary Arts. Algae – The group of simple plants that contain chlorophyll, but do not have a vascular system, that is, roots, stem, etc. These plants include the seaweeds. The body of the seaweed or algae is called the thallus. Out of the more than 20,000 species of seaweed, only 40 to 50 have a pleasant taste. Four different types of algae are listed. Brown algae (Pheophyceae) is the most common. The yellow and brown xanthophyllic compounds actually cover up the green from the chlorophyll in the plant. Edible types include arame (Eisenia bicyclis), hijiki (Hizikia fusiforme), wakame (Undaria pinnatifida), and kombu (Laminiaria spp.), which is high in glutamic acid. Red algae (Rhodophyceae) is colored by a natural pigment called phycoerthrin. The pigment covers up the green of the chlorophyll in the algae. The red variety of algae is usually used to derive most algal thickeners. Dulse (Palmaria palmata) with a strong flavor, nori (Porphyra spp., asuki nori [P. tenera]), of which sheets are made to serve the sushi trade, carrageenan (Chondrus crispus), also known as Irish moss, and agar agar (Gelidium spp.) are included here. Galactose is usually the sugar that combines with polysaccharide to form viscous polysaccharides. Green algae (Chlorophyceae) are devoid of other pigments, and include kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera), sea lettuce (Ulva latuca and Ulva fascia), and sea grapes (Caulerpa spp.). Both latter varieties have a green vegetable taste like lettuce. Glasswort is included here as a seaweed as it grows in marshes throughout the world. Blue‐green algae (Cyanophyceae) are usually microscopic plants. Included in this group is spirulina, an algae‐based health food. Eaten by ancient people of Africa and the Aztecs, it is formed into a sweet pancake called a dihe, or added to millet or vegetables with a thick tomato sauce like chillimolli. See Gums and Thickeners. Algae, Green Blue – See AFA and Appendix 2 – Nutraceuticals Overview, Nutraceuticals Overview. Alginates – Ammonium, calcium, potassium, and sodium alginates. See Gums and Thickeners. Algorithm – A set of rules and sequence of events or parameters that set the stage for the next sequence of events designed to solve a problem. Usually having to do with computer programming. The quality of the computer algorithm dictates the accuracy of computerized interpretation of GC or MS data. See Gas Chromatography (GC), Internal Standards. Aliphatic – As opposed to aromatic, a chemical compound that does not contain a benzene ring. These include straight‐chained, branch‐chained, and non‐aromatic cyclized compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (also called cyclic aliphatic structures). See Aromatic, Benzene Ring, and Appendix 2 – Nutraceuticals Overview. Alkali – A substance which, when added to water, raises the pH above 7.0. See Acid, Alkaline. Alkaline – A chemical state in which an abundance of hydroxyl ions (OH) is present in an aqueous system. To be alkaline is to have a pH greater than 7.0. See Acid. Alkaloids – GRAS ingredients that fall into this category, like caffeine and theo‐bromine, must be used sparingly. By definition, alkaloids are very complex compounds that can have a biological effect on the user. The term alkaloid derived from alkali‐like refers specifically to the presence of nitrogen in the molecule. Theobromine (demethylated caffeine) is found in chocolate. Caffeine (methyl theobromine) is found in many items including chocolate, coffee, tea, and some common extracts. Some alkaloids are highly toxic. See Caffeine, Theobromine, and Chart 17 – Alkaloids. Alkanet Root (Anchusa officinalis) – Dye and Nutraceutical. See Nutraceuticals, Chart 411 – Alkanet Root, and Appendix 2 – Nutraceuticals Overvie. Alkekengi (Physalis alkekengi) – Also known as a Chinese lantern or Cape Gooseberry. It is a fruit with a thin membranous covering resembling a Chinese lantern called a calyx. The flavor is acidic, very juicy, and has an astringent aftertaste. The seeds are also edible. See Gooseberry. Alkyl – Non‐Aromatic Hydrocarbons – As opposed to aromatic compounds, that is, chemical compounds which contain at least one or more benzene rings. 1,3,5 undecatriene is found in many natural products, and has a very green and piney flavor. It has been isolated from apple, celery, kiwi, mandarin, parsley, passion fruit, pear, peach, pineapple, peppermint, and galbanum, and is therefore an important component for flavors. See Benzene Ring, Aromatic, Hydrocarbons, Cyclic Compounds, Terpenes, and Chart 18 – Hydrocarbons ‐ Alkyl Non Aromatic. Alkyl Esters – Esters made up of an alcohol or acid, one of which at least is an alkyl compound. See Chart 146 – Alkyl Esters Grouped by Alcohol Moiety and the general ester charts for all alkyl esters. See Esters, Alcohol, Acid, Methyl Esters, Ethyl Esters, Propyl Esters, Butyl Esters, Amyl Esters, Hexyl Esters, Cyclohexyl Esters, Heptyl Esters, Octyl Esters, Nonyl Esters, Decyl Esters, Allyl Esters, Hexenyl Esters, Floral Esters, Floral Terpene Esters, Linalyl Esters, Geranyl Esters, Citronellyl Esters, Terpinyl Esters, Alkyl Esters. Allergens – Food allergens are often confused with food intolerances, or food sensitivities. Food intolerance is the body’s difficulty to metabolize certain substances. These include lactose and other substances. Intolerance to an ingredient usually is due to a lack of a certain enzyme or a reduction of that substance in the body to a point where it is no longer effective. Lactose is digested by the enzyme lactase. Sensitivities such as chemical sensitivities, sulfite sensitivity, and sensitivity to monosodium glutamate can have varying degrees of severity and are much harder to identify. Sulfite sensitivities have proven to be fatal in rare instances. However, common food allergies, that is, those that elicit production