HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies
ISSN: (Online) 2072-8050, (Print) 0259-9422
Page 1 of 10
Original Research
Trajectory of Islamic psychology in Southeast Asia:
Problems and prospects
Authors:
Septi Gumiandari1,2
Subandi Subandi3
Abd. Madjid1
Ilman Nafi’a2
Safii Safii4
Fatah Syukur5
Wanda Listiani6
Affiliations:
1
Department of Islamic
Educational Psychology,
Postgraduate Program of
Islamic Education,
Universitas Muhammadiyah
Yogyakarta, Yogyakarta,
Indonesia
Department of Islamic
Education, Faculty of Tarbiyah
and Teacher Training, Institut
Agama Islam Negeri Syekh
Nurjati, Cirebon, Indonesia
2
Faculty of Psychology,
Universitas Gajah Mada,
Yogyakarta, Indonesia
This study aims to answer the following research question: what are the problems and prospects
of the development of Islamic psychology studies in Southeast Asia? This study used descriptive
qualitative research and employs data triangulation during data collection. Documentation
study, in-depth interviews and focus group discussions were used to obtain the data. Data were
analysed using patterns of data collection, data reduction, data presentation and conclusion
drawing. It can be concluded that Islamic psychology presents many problems and prospects for
those who are concerned about the development of Islamic science. The finding strengthens the
perspective that there are three problems of developmental studies of Islamic psychology in
Southeast Asia: (1) the discussion on the issue still focuses on theoretical integration and
philosophical levels rather than on applicative ones; (2) methodological problems; and (3)
polarisation of the capacity of Muslim psychologists. Apart from the problems, the development
of Islamic psychology studies has good prospects. This indication can be seen from the following
transformations: (1) from the formulation phase towards the research phase, (2) from comparative
study patterns towards developing concepts of psychology based on Islam and (3) from a
normative-cognitive approach towards the substantive-Sufistic approach.
Contribution: Through this study, it is hoped that strategic attempts will be made by Muslim
psychologists to collaborate and develop networks on designing more targeted studies in
solving the various problems that arise around the integration of psychology and Islam at the
ontological, epistemological or axiological levels.
3
Department of Islamic
Theology and Philosophy,
Faculty of Ushuluddin and
Humaniora, Universitas Islam
Negeri (UIN) Walisongo,
Semarang, Indonesia
Keywords: Islamic psychology; Southeast Asia; normative-cognitive approach; Sufistic
approach; polarisation.
4
Department of Islamic
Education Management,
Faculty of Education and
Teacher Training, Universitas
Islam Negeri (UIN) Walisongo,
Semarang, Indonesia
5
Department of Craft, Faculty
of Fine Arts and Design,
Institut Seni Budaya Indonesia
Bandung, Bandung, Indonesia
6
Corresponding author:
Septi Gumiandari,
septigumiandari@
syekhnurjati.ac.id
Dates:
Received: 20 Mar. 2022
Accepted: 31 May 2022
Published: 07 Sept. 2022
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Introduction
Psychology has become inseparable from the discourse surrounding the issues of the Islamisation
of science. As one of the scientific disciplines, psychology is considered to represent an empiricalrealistic science which can only be analysed through an objective approach. Its objective nature
keeps it away from religious disciplines. Some psychologists such as Haque (1998), Nashori
(2002) and Edis (2010) believe that religion contributes to scientific stagnation. However, in the
last 25 years, there has been an awareness amongst Muslim psychologists regarding the
limitations of science in providing solutions to various problems regarding the spiritual crisis of
modern humans (Badri 2018; Razak & Hisyam 2012; Skinner 2010, 2019) This awareness invokes
a scientific spirit to transplant Eastern psychological values in reconstructing contemporary
psychology, as well as calls for developing psychology with an Islamic perspective (Haque 1998,
2004; Razak & Hisyam 2012).
In several parts of Islamic countries, especially Southeast Asia, new concepts concerning the
integration of psychology and Islam began to emerge (Haque & Masuan 2002; Shahabi &
Sharbaf 2015). The development of Islamic psychology studies is increasingly being preached in
various forms of study: discussions, seminars and national and international scientific meetings.
Some international organisations have also been formed under the International Association of
Muslim Psychologists (Nashori 2002). Likewise, the publication of books and scientific journals
with the themes of Islamic psychology has begun to be widely discussed (Al-Afify 2018; Arifin 2016;
Bonab & Koohsar 2011; Diana 2015; Hasanah 2018; Istiningtyas 2013, 2014; Khasan 2017; Masroom
& Abd Rahman 2015; Rothman & Coyle 2018), as well as efforts to include the discipline of Islamic
psychology as part of compulsory or elective courses in several universities’ curricula (Mujib 2005b;
Saifuddin 2018; Sham 2016).
How to cite this article: Gumiandari, S., Subandi, S., Madjid, A., Nafi’a, I., Safii, S., Syukur, F. et al., 2022, ‘Trajectory of Islamic psychology in
Southeast Asia: Problems and prospects’, HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies 78(4), a7548. https://doi.org/10.4102/hts.v78i4.7548
Copyright: © 2022. The Authors. Licensee: AOSIS. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution License.
http://www.hts.org.za
Open Access
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Although there is optimism for the birth of Islamic psychology
as a new discipline, its development is considered to be a bit
slower than the Islamisation of other sciences. It has been more
than 25 years since Islamic psychology was established, and
this study seems to be rotating at the level of normative issues
rather than applicative ones. Responding to this condition,
some experts sneered at the growing development of this
science, as well as the scientific standards of Islamic psychology
which are considered not scientifically verifiable (Al-Karam
2018; Nashori 2005; Zaharuddin 2013). The negative response
that was expressed was that the existence of Islamic psychology
and the presence of Islamic psychological figures were because
they were benefited from ‘opportunities’. Some argued that
Muslim intellectuals in the field of psychology are not yet very
capable, seem fragile and tend towards easy justifications
when they discuss the basic concepts of Islam which are used
for the theory of Islamic psychology (Abu-Raiya & Pargament
2011; Nurhayani 2016; Zaharuddin 2013).
Regardless of the pros and cons of the existence of Islamic
psychology, it remains a never-ending issue for intellectual
ijtihad. It is the responsibility of all Islamic intellectuals to
present more complete studies in order to contribute positive
input in the fight to create Islamic psychology as a solid
scientific subject in the future. In other words, Islamic
psychology remains one of the urgent disciplines to study
because of the following arguments: (1) the increasing problems
of modern life have implications for the growing number of
people who have mental disorders and are mentally unhealthy,
easily upset and stressed, who demand the presence and
contribution of religion as a psychiatric therapy through Islamic
psychology and psychotherapy; (2) modern psychology has
not been significantly successful in dealing with the drought of
modern human spirituality – the presence of Islamic psychology
is required to overcome this psychiatric crisis; and (3) the
increase of universities in Muslim countries interested in
opening Islamic psychology study programmes. Therefore,
discussing the development of Islamic psychology studies,
including its problems and prospects, becomes important.
Previous studies have attempted to explain the link between
psychology and Islam. Still, none has provided a
comprehensive study about the problems and prospects that
arise around the integration of psychology and Islam at
ontological, epistemological or axiological levels in Southeast
Asia. This is where the significance of this scientific research
is put forward. This research attempted to examine the issues
and the potential of Islamic psychology studies in Southeast
Asia. Through this study, it is hoped that there will be a
strategic effort from Muslim psychologists to collaborate and
build networks to design more targeted studies in solving the
various problems that arise around the integration of
psychology and Islam at ontological, epistemological or
axiological levels.
Literature review
A review of several publications using the words ‘Islamic
psychology’ in the title demonstrates that the term is defined
in a variety of ways. Islamic psychology, according to
http://www.hts.org.za
Original Research
Siddiqui and Malek (2021) in their book chapter ‘Islamic
Psychology: Definition and Scope’, is ‘the study of humans
who have complete surrender and submission and obey the
rules of God’. Islamic psychology, as defined by Vahab (1996)
in his book An Introduction to Islamic Psychology, is the study
of God’s manifestation in nature as reflected in the
behavioural patterns of all living and non-living things in all
aspects of life, utilising Islamic paradigms. Islamic psychology
is defined by Iqbal and Skinner (2021) as one of the religionbased viewpoints that respects human beings’ spiritual
essence and their spiritual needs. From those definitions,
Islamic psychology, in conclusion, is the study of all human
behaviour and personality based on the Islamic worldview.
Islamic psychology has a different task from that of Western
psychology. Western psychology explains, predicts and
controls human behaviour. Islamic psychology in general is
meant to empower humans so that their quality of life will
increase. Islamic psychology will warn humans that humans
are multi-dimensional (Nashori 2005). In Islamic psychology,
humans are social and spiritual beings as well as physical
beings. Therefore, Islamic psychology explains, predicts and
controls, directing humans to get blessings from Allah. The
main purpose of Islam is to save humans and guide them to
return to Allah. Islamic psychology is based on the Qur’an
and hadiths. In the discussion of human personality, for
example, the Qur’an reveals two conflicting human potentials
caused by conflicts between three kinds of nafs: nafs ammarah
bi as-suu’ [souls who always tell to ugliness] (al-Quran Surah
[QS]. Joseph: 53), nafs lawwamah [unstable soul] (QS. alQiyamah: 1–2) and nafs muthma’’innah [a peaceful soul] (QS.
al-Fajr: 27–30). The conception of the three nafs is several
different conditions that become the nature of a soul during a
psychological struggle between the material aspect and the
spiritual aspect. Likewise, in a hadith, Hudzaifah said that
the Prophet (SAW) once said: ‘Do not be dislodged’.
‘You say, if men do good, we also do good, and if men do dholim,
we also do dholim; But stick to your stance. If people do good, do
you good, and if people do evil, do not do evil.’ (Hadith narrated
by Turmudzi, hadith expert, theologian)
The two main references above are passed down not only for
Muslims but also for the good of humankind. Therefore, the
development of the study of Islamic psychology is not only a
demand for Muslim scientists but also the results of research
from non-Muslim scientists. This is in line with the statement
of a figure of modern psychology, Erich Fromm, who revealed
that modern humans face the fact that they feel the emptiness
of spirituality. They manage to achieve material feats, but
their lives are unsettled (prone to stress, depression and
feelings of being alienated) (Purnamasari 2019).
Looking at the limitations of the current mainstream
psychology paradigm, Islamic psychology has a good chance
of becoming the next paradigm in psychological science
growth. One of the reasons that might be made is that Islamic
psychology restores religion’s place in human life. Islamic
psychology could be one of the initiatives to reconstruct
human civilisation and develop the concept of faith-based
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human behaviour (Saryono 2016). It is provided to
supplement the fundamental notions of human behaviour
and to represent the religious aspects of human life that are
believed to be capable of sustaining moral elements in
modern science applications.
Methodology
This study used a descriptive qualitative research, a research
that involves data that were collected and expressed in the
form of words and images and words arranged in sentences,
such as the result of interviews between researchers and
informants (Ridder 2014). The presence of the researchers is a
measure of success or understanding in several cases. The
researcher acted, with the help of other people, as the main
instrument in collecting data from people. As stated by
Creswell and Baez (2020), the instruments in qualitative
research refer to the researchers as a data collection tool.
The techniques for the data collection were data triangulation,
which involves combining various methods of data collection
and in this case included (1) documentation study, (2) in-depth
interviews and (3) focus group discussion. Documentation
study was conducted by examining published documents
related to the issue, whilst in-depth interviews and focus
group discussions were conducted with research informants
using semistructured interview guidelines. The participants
(informants) in this study were selected using an expert
sampling technique, a type of purposive sampling method
that does selection based on knowledge and experience to
Original Research
provide valuable insights related to the study objectives
(ed. Frey 2018). Some experts from Islamic higher institutions
(Universitas Islam Negeri [UIN]) Yogyakarta, Malang and
Jakarta were chosen as informants representing Indonesia,
whilst the International Islamic University Malaysia, Kolej
Universiti Islam Antarbangsa Selangor and Universiti Sains
Islam Malaysia were chosen representing Malaysia.
The data analysis involved organising data and sorting them
into manageable units that could be managed, synthesised
and searched to find out what was important and valuable to
convey. Instead of that, as for understanding the views and
ideas that were objective data obtained, content analysis and
descriptive analysis techniques were used (Neuendorf &
Kumar 2015). Data analysis was carried out since the
researcher was out in the field during data collection and
after completion of data collection in the field. In simple
terms, data were analysed using patterns of data collection,
data reduction, data presentation and conclusion drawing
(Mezmir 2020). Based on the data processing, the researchers
summarised the interview results in Table 1.
Results and discussion
The development of Islamic psychology studies
in Southeast Asia
Islamic psychology has the same historical roots in
Southeast Asia as it does in other Muslim countries. It
arose as a result of Muslims’ efforts to Islamise knowledge
TABLE 1: Matrix of interview results.
A. The development of Islamic psychology
1.
‘Islamic psychology is undergoing many significant developments. Various universities in Malaysia have warmly accepted Islamic psychology. The indicators show that there
are many seminars, webinars, conferences discussing about this issue, besides increasing numbers of scientific studies, researches and publications talking about the
integration of psychology and Islam’ (Interview translated by DR).
2.
‘Efforts to make greater space for the study of psychology and Islam are increasingly visible when this study is included in the curriculum set by the college. Some
universities in Indonesia have offered Islamic psychology courses, even starting to open interests in Islamic psychology studies, so inevitably, the discussion of the
curriculum and patterns of integration of psychology and Islam became the main topic’ (Interview translated by DR).
B. Problems in the development of Islamic psychology
1.
‘So far, the development of Islamic psychology, which is considered a new school of psychology, is still circling in theoretical concepts, rather than concrete and applicable
ones. This should be a challenge for experts to further socialise and ground Islamic psychology in real life’ (Interview translated by DR).
2.
‘Islamic psychology has not yet reached the idealised level. The discussion of Islamic psychology has only touched a philosophical level and has not yet entered the level of
its application. If this discourse stagnates in the philosophical debate, it is difficult to expect practical benefits. For this reason, the younger generation needs to be more
involved to be able to play a role in supporting the development of Islamic psychology, so that it can become an alternative approach in the psychological environment,
both at the national and international levels’ (Interview translated by DR).
3.
‘Among the problems that are stumbling to the development of Islamic psychology is the polarisation of the ability of human resources who pursue Islamic psychology
studies because of their background study. Those with a purely psychological educational background are generally very expert in the fields of psychological theories and
are very experienced in their practice, but they do not have a strong religious knowledge base. Despite the fact that they tend to start touching, conversing and researching
Islamic psychological topics, they still use the existing modern psychology as a tool for analysis, but they include Islamic views on psychology. As a result, their analysis of
Islam is less in-depth when they comment on or make judgments regarding material components of Islam’ (Interview translated by DR).
4.
‘Around Malaysian universities, there appears to be a significant separation between Kolej Universiti Islam Antarabangsa Selangor (KUIS) psychology scientists and other
universities, such as the University of Kuala Lumpur (UKM), and the University of Malaya (UM). Psychology lecturers at KUIS are considered to have a conservative,
normative mindset, including within the scope of the integration of psychology and Islam. Meanwhile, those from UKM and UM are seen as more scientific and
non-conservative. They do not want the integration model that is applied in KUIS’ (Interview translated by DR).
5.
‘Muslim scholar sometimes faced obstacles in integration between theories of Western psychology and Islam. They hesitated to use methods outside the scientific method
that have been manifested so far. This can be demonstrated in the fields of psychological study and diagnosis. Because of lack of confidence when making the research
instrument, they finally returned to download the results of previous research using Western psychology instruments that were considered permanent, so that the
Islamic-oriented theoretical frameworks had no connection with the research instruments taken’ (Interview translated by DR).
C. Prospects in the development of Islamic psychology
1.
‘There has been a lot of progress in the study of Islamic psychology. Muslim psychologists have begun to move from the phase of criticism to the formulation and a more
intense research phase. They have come out of the discourse of criticism of theory and methodology leading to the initial formulation of Islamic psychology; meaning, why
this perspective is essential to raise, who implements the application of Islamic psychology and the Muslim psychologists themselves and how to reconstruct the theory’
(Interview translated by DR).
2.
‘Muslim psychologists seem to have moved from research activities that try to compare the concepts of modern psychology and Islam to research activities that try to
build the concept of psychology based on Islam. This pattern focuses its discussion on trying to present a new perspective in understanding humans psychologically,
including efforts to formulate the concepts of human, fitrah, etc.’ (Interview translated by DR).
3.
‘The approaches used by Muslim psychologists began to vary, not only using normative-cognitive approaches through rationalisation and filtering of modern psychological
concepts through Islamic religious norms that are full of psychological aspects, but also using a Sufistic-substantive approach. Islamisation of psychology is not only done
by giving religious legitimacy to the theory of psychology, which is considered suitable with the Islamic perspective, but also the concept of psychology must depart from
the various Islamic treasures: the Qur’an and hadith’ (Interview translated by DR).
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in various parts of the world (Ancok 2011; Siddiqi 2011).
Three major trends in the Islamic world inspired the
concept of Islamisation of psychology: (1) the awakening
of Islam, (2) criticism of science and (3) the aridity of
modern human spirituality because of the dehumanisation
of knowledge (Nashori 2002).
Since the 15th century hijriyah, Muslims have strengthened
their enthusiasm to return to Islamic teachings, because the
moral-spiritual parts of humanity have not prospered in
modern society, which is dominated by the West. The spirit of
Islamic revival, amongst others, is marked by the Islamisation
of science. Figures such as Ismail Raji al-Faruqi, Syed
Muhammad Naquib al-Attas and Sayyed Hossein Nasr tried
to build Islam as the basis of science in particular and life in
general, whilst making sharp criticisms of modern Western
thought and civilisation. As a result, there emerged the
Islamisation of scientific disciplines such as Islamic
anthropology, Islamic economics, Islamic sociology and
others, including Islamic psychology.
One of the sharp criticisms of modern science is the tendency
of modern science to understand reality empirically, whereas
reality is not merely something empirical but there are also
non-empirical realities (Ancok 2011). Therefore, modern
science has failed to understand the non-sensory reality and
the reality of the spirit world or the unconceivable area. The
scientific method’s usage in psychology has aggravated the
dehumanisation process (humans are only experimental
objects that can be controlled). The mainstream psychologists’
process of analysis and synthesis of the conception of the
entire human personality has been constrained, if not
completely eliminated, by the scientific framework.
Human behaviour can only be observed through visible
experimentation (objective-empirical), whereas things that
are not visible (metaphysical) are regarded as unscientific and
not a reflection of their knowledge. As a result, it is unavoidable
that psychology, which holds the status of ‘one of the sources
of authority’ for human activity because of its concern with
human psychological problems, suffers from conceptual
incoherence and alienation from the mainstream of culture.
Psychology with Islamic values returns the position of
religion in human life to prominence, which in the history of
the development of science is tug of war, perfecting the
concept of human behaviour and bringing back the divine
(spiritual) factor in human life, and it is believed to be able to
become a moral element in the application. The criticism
levelled at contemporary theories in the discipline of
psychology greatly opens the possibility of a progressive
attitude to make initiation efforts to build alternative
psychological paradigms or theories that are more in line
with the context and beliefs of the community (Siddiqi 2011).
Therefore, psychology with spiritual values (Islamic
psychology) becomes necessary as the next paradigm in the
development of psychology.
The two major trends in the Islamic world discussed above
interacted and led to the establishment of the International
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Original Research
Symposium on Psychology and Islam in 1978 at the
University of Riyadh, Saudi Arabia (Nashori 2002). A year
later, 1979, a very monumental booklet was published in
England entitled The Dilemma of Muslim Psychologists by
Badri (1979), a psychologist from Sudan. This book had
received tremendous response and became a trigger for the
rise of the discipline of Islamic psychology in Southeast Asia.
In Malaysia and Indonesia, Islamic psychology is increasingly
developing in line with the spirit of Islamisation of science in
various higher education institutions in Malaysia and all
Indonesian Islamic universities, through the policies of the
Ministry of Religious Affairs (Bastaman 2011; Bin Baba et al.
2018; Hafizallah 2019; Haque & Masuan 2002). Efforts to
provide more space for the study of Islamic psychology are
increasingly visible when this study enters the curriculum
established by public or Islamic-affiliated universities
offering Islamic psychology courses (Abdullah & Riyanto
2014; Abidin 2017; Ali 2020; Embong & Hashim 2013; Fanani,
Sholihan & Karnadi 2014; Saifuddin 2018; Sham 2016).
Recognition of the existence of Islamic psychology is also
manifested in scientific works, researches and books on
psychology and Islam. There are around 50 more books
that have been published to show the increasing interest of
scientists and academics who are concerned about using
Islamic psychology material as objects in their research, as
well as the increasing number of journal articles, theses
and even dissertations in state and private universities
(Zaharuddin 2013; Zarkasih et al. 2019; Zulkarnain &
Herdianti 2019). The academic discourse struggle above
actually shows the existence of formal recognition of
Islamic psychology in Southeast Asian universities
(Haque et al. 2016).
Efforts to provide greater space for the study of psychology
and Islam are becoming more concrete now that this study is
included in the curriculum set by various universities.
Because several universities have offered Islamic psychology
courses and have even begun to open specialisations in
Islamic psychology studies, inevitably, discussions about the
curriculum and patterns of integration of psychology and
Islam are the main topics. For the sake of the above interests,
both national and international seminars or conferences
began to emerge. Several seminars and conferences discussed
the inclusion of Islamic psychology studies into the
curriculum and focused on several topics: (1) formal
recognition of Islamic psychology discourse, (2) the
occurrence of intensive dissemination of Islamic psychology
thought so that it will give birth to enthusiasts or new
thinkers of Islamic psychology and (3) the recognition of
certain institutions that will facilitate obtaining support from
other institutions for the discourse of Islamic psychology
(Zarkasih et al. 2019).
However, the debate that arises in getting the pattern of
integration of Islamic psychology in the curriculum is about
whether to create separate courses or include them in
existing courses. The first pattern is by forming their courses.
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The advantage of this method is the awareness of placing
Islam as a paradigm. By making Islam a paradigm, all
concepts presented to students are based on the Qur’an and
the Sunnah of the Prophet. This method will get optimal
results if the discussion is mature (Haque et al. 2016). The
second pattern is by incorporating Islamic views into certain
courses. This means that the view of Islam is inserted as a
small part of an advantage, namely the existence of an Islamic
perspective on various aspects of human life. However, this
method is difficult to realise, because it uses the paradigm of
modern science, not the Islamic paradigm. If this happens,
there will be substantial confusion regarding the Islamic
perspective. The debate above is still going on today. Seasoned
Indonesian psychologists still have different opinions in
determining which pattern is more effective in internalising
Islamic psychology into the teaching curriculum in higher
education institutions (Zulkarnain & Herdianti 2019).
Problems of the developmental studies of
Islamic psychology
Original Research
and academic culture, whilst others, such as UIN Bandung,
Jakarta and Makasar, have stopped at the normativephilosophical level.
A director of the Islamic Science Institute of the Universiti
Sains Islam Malaysia (USIM) agreed with this fact, as did an
expert and professor in the Islamic psychology integration.
He emphasised the challenges that arise when Islamic
knowledge is put into practice. According to him:
‘Even though so far Islamic psychology is undergoing many
significant developments, it has not yet reached the idealised
level. The discussion of Islamic psychology has only touched
a philosophical level and has not yet entered the level of its
application. If this discourse stagnates in the philosophical
debate, it is difficult to expect practical benefits. For this
reason, the younger generation needs to be more involved to
be able to play a role in supporting the development of Islamic
psychology, so that it can become an alternative approach in
the psychological environment, both at the national and
international levels.’ (Interview translated by DR)
Some problems hinder the expansion of Islamic psychology
studies in Southeast Asia. Some of them are (1) theoretical
integration rather than applicable, (2) methodological problems
and (3) polarisation of the ability of Muslim psychologists. The
explanation for each problem is presented next.
Some of the statements above indicate that whilst the topic of
Islamic psychology studies in Malaysia and Indonesia has
progressed in terms of academic discourse, nothing has been
done in terms of practical application.
Theoretical integration rather than applicable integration
Methodological problems
Efforts to make Islamic psychology as rahmatan lil alamin,
of course, require a lengthy procedure involving both
hard and clever work. As with the Islamisation of other
sciences, Islamic psychology must have a good theoretical
concept and be useful in creating a better human life. But
the question then is, ‘has Islamic psychology gone out of
these theoretical matters into an action that has a real
impact?’
One of the big problems in the study of Islamic psychology
is the methodology used by Muslim psychologists in
formulating theories (Abu-Raiya & Pargament 2011; Anas
et al. 2013; Bastaman 2011). This problem is important to
discuss because according to modern psychologists, one of
the requirements for building science is the accuracy of its
methodology. A theory will be tested for reliability if the
reality on the ground supports it. Unfortunately, Islamic
psychology is seen as still struggling with the use of test
kits adapted from Western theories, without questioning
the validity of the theories behind them. If Islamic
psychology is considered a practical science, then the
position of the test tool becomes the benchmark for its
existence. Ironically, Islamic psychology does not yet have
a unique test tool in measuring certain criteria. Islamic
psychology has not been able to construct its own truly
Islamic test kits (Amiq 2008; Anas et al. 2013; Ismail &
Anwar 2017; Nashori 2005).
The preceding question is particularly intriguing, given that
Islam’s inclusion in the scientific structure of psychology is
ideally extremely action-oriented. Talking about Islamic
psychology is pointless unless it results in actual outcomes.
As a result, Islamic psychological theory is only useful if it
can be applied to a variety of situations (Nashori 2005; Rusdi
& Subandi 2020; Zaharuddin 2013).
Responding to this, a leader of the scientific integration team
in UIN Yogyakarta stated:
‘So far, the development of Islamic psychology, which is
considered a new school of psychology, is still circling in
theoretical concepts, rather than concrete and applicable ones.
This should be a challenge for experts to further socialise and
ground Islamic psychology in real life levels.’ (Interview
translated by DR)
The findings of Nurlena Rifa’i’s research supported this
argument (Rifai, Fauzan & Bahrissalim 2014) that only two
of the 57 Islamic universities or institutes have attempted
to apply the concept of scientific integration in the
development of syllabi, lesson plans, learning processes
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Responding to the above shortcomings, several seminars,
discussions and conferences were held. Some of the meetings
debated the formulation of the Islamic psychology method.
Some argue that Islamic science does not only work in
observable areas but also works in conceivable and
unconceivable areas. Because of that, the ways of
understanding the data or facts themselves in Islamic science
are very diverse.
According to this group, whilst modern science believes that
the ‘senses’ are the most objective tool in observing natural
phenomena and realities, according to the perspective of
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Islamic psychology, this tool has very limited capabilities.
The senses can only observe reality that can be observed
sensually (conceivable area). To observe the conceivable and
unconceivable areas (transcendental-spiritual things such as
the reality of spirits or ecstatic experiences), it needs another
method outside the scientific method, namely kasyaf
[intuition] (Faridah 2016; Mujib 2005; Purwanto 2007).
It can be said elaborately that Islamic psychology uses a more
diverse method than Western science using the scientific
method. Islamic psychology does not only use senses and
reason in formulating a concept but also strategically uses
several methods at once. Islamic psychology uses
observational methods and empirical experimental methods
for spiritual experiments that are recognised in Islam,
including qalb and revelation. In Islamic science, all the
various methods are considered legitimate ways to know
nature in their respective fields of application (Alizi 2005;
Bakar 2016; Sulaiman & Syakarofath 2018; Ushama 2011).
Responding to the above argument, Muslim psychologists
themselves questioned: ‘can this intuition be accepted by
the scientific community, Muslim or non-Muslim, as a tool
for understanding reality? And how to measure the
accuracy of the truth?’ (Result of an interview with a senior
lecturer at the Islamic Science Institute, USIM, Malaysia).
This question implies the hesitation of Muslim psychologists
to use methods outside the scientific method that have
been manifested so far. This can be demonstrated in the
fields of psychological study and diagnosis. At the
theoretical level, case studies undertaken by numerous
Muslim experts attempt to blend Western psychology ideas
with Islam. However, when making the research
instrument, they were still hesitant and finally returned to
download the results of previous research which were
considered permanent, so that the theoretical framework
had no connection with other research instruments
(Nurhayani 2016; Zaharuddin 2013).
From the methodological debate above, it can be understood
that the idea of psychology by taking the perspective of
Islamic studies is still being developed. The method of
Islamic psychology as mentioned above still needs to be
continuously tested until it is found, which is considered to
be a strong foundation in its development efforts.
Polarisation of the ability of Muslim psychologists
Attempts to build a discipline of Islamic psychology that is
widely accepted, as well as the existence of Islamic psychology
in Southeast Asia, are difficult. According to the findings of a
documentation research and brief interviews with experts in
the field of Islamic psychology, it is found that this difficulty
occurs because of human resource problems engaged in
Islamic psychology studies, which unintentionally present
polarisation of ability because of their educational
background (Abdullah & Riyanto 2014; Abidin 2017;
Gumiandari 2011).
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Original Research
On one side, those with a purely psychological educational
background are generally experts in the fields of psychological
theories and are very experienced in their practice, but they
do not have a strong religious knowledge base. Despite the
fact that they tend to start engage with Islamic psychological
topics, they still use existing modern psychology as a tool for
analysis, however they include Islamic views on psychology.
As a result, their analysis of Islam is less in-depth when they
comment on or make judgements regarding material
components of Islam (Zaharuddin 2013).
On the other side, they have a religious educational
foundation (Islamic studies), but not enough psychological
expertise (Abdullah & Riyanto 2014). This group is made
up of people who aim to understand Islam’s classical
repertoire (at-Turats al-Islami) in order to develop Islamic
psychology. They have access to Arabic literature that
contains classic Muslim philosophers’ views on psychology,
such as Ibn Sina, al-Ghazali, Ibn Miskawaih, al-Balkhi and
others. They take their sources directly from Islam’s
classical repertoire and contextualise it through the
perspective of modern psychology. Because of their strong
religious educational background, when they attempt to
integrate psychology and Islam, the ideas from Islamic
studies that are linked to psychological studies are
frequently irrelevant (too normative, theoretical and less
applicable). Even if their thoughts are present in this topic,
the psychological analysis is superficial and does not
address the concerns highlighted, making the differentiation
appear rigid, partial and even distant from the Islamisation
of science’s idealism.
The above reality is confirmed by Islamic psychology experts
In Indonesia and Malaysia. Fuat Nashori, in his book Agenda
Psikologi Islami, showed the polarisation of the ability of
Islamic psychology scientists who are still fragmented by the
scientific mainstream. However, according to him, there are
still positive and negative values. On the positive side, the
expansion of Islamic psychology studies in Indonesia will be
richer with perspectives, but the drawbacks can occur if there
is less networking, completeness and dialogue amongst them
(Nashori 2002).
The same thing happened in universities in Malaysia. A
lecturer of the Kolej Universiti Islam Antarbangsa Selangor
(KUIS), Malaysia stated that:
‘Around Malaysian universities, there appears to be a significant
separation between KUIS Psychology scientists and other
universities, such as the University of Kuala Lumpur (UKM) and
the University of Malaya (UM). Psychology lecturers at KUIS are
considered to have a conservative, normative mindset, including
within the scope of the integration of psychology and Islam.
Meanwhile, those from UKM and UM are seen as more scientific
and non-conservative. They do not want the integration model
that is applied in KUIS.’ (Interview translated by DR)
Apart from the above debates, scientists who have a
knowledge base of psychology should be balanced with
adequate mastery of religious insight. Conversely, religious
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scientists who are concerned with the disciplines of
philosophy and Sufism should be equipped with a sharp
mastery of Western psychological analysis. Because when
this scientific polarisation is sharp, dichotomic patterns of
thought here and there will still occur. Islamic studies-based
scholars, for example, still focus on normative approaches,
whilst those based on Western psychology when integrating
with Islam are mostly concerned with their understanding of
Western psychology.
Prospects of the developmental studies of
Islamic psychology
Based on a literature review of the current development of
Islamic psychology studies and observations in several
universities in the two countries, it turns out that there are
quite good prospects. The indication can be seen from the
following transformations:
From formulation phase towards research phase
Nashori (1996) mapped the phases carried out by Muslim
psychologists in integrating psychology and Islam. When
sequenced, there are four phases of development: (1) the
enchanted phase, the phase in which Muslim psychologists
feel in awe of the reliability of modern psychological theories.
They fully believe that modern psychology can help them
explain scientifically the condition of Muslims or Islamic
teachings. They use modern psychological theories or
concepts as an analytical tool to discuss various problems of
Muslims. (2) The criticism phase, the phase in which Muslim
psychologists use critical analysis on modern psychological
theories. Several differences and contradictions between
Islam and psychology are sharpened. In this phase, Muslim
psychologists begin to realise that the concepts of modern
psychology are highly questionable, doubtful and contain
fundamental weaknesses. (3) The formulation and research
phase is a phase of awareness that is more crystallised
amongst Muslim psychologists about the need to present a
psychological concept with Islamic insight. At this phase,
there is an attempt to formulate the Islamic view of humans,
then the theories developed by Muslim psychologists go
through the formulation process and need to be tested for
their reliability in discussing what happens in real life. (4)
The application phase begins with the application of Islamic
psychological concepts in human life and the use of research
results to solve various problems that occur in human life
(Nashori 1996).
Based on the phase mapping above, the development of
Islamic psychology studies in Southeast Asia is in the
formulation and research phase. This can be seen from some
of the literature produced by Muslim psychologists who
have tried to formulate and research various Islamic
psychology concepts in Indonesia and Malaysia (Ampuno
2020; Diana 2015; Gumiandari & Nafi’a 2019a, 2019b;
Gumiandari, Nafi’a & Jamaluddin 2019; Hairina & Mubarak
2020; Halimah 2020; Hartati & Wae 2019; Istiningtyas 2014;
Noor 2010; Rusdi 2017; Saefudin 2018; Shahabi & Sharbaf
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Original Research
2015; Sham 2016; Skinner 2010; Ulfa 2015; Ushama 2011;
Warsah & Uyun 2019; Yani 2013; Yudiani 2013).
From comparative study pattern towards developing
concepts of psychology based on Islam
Nashori (1997) stated that there are four patterns used by
Muslim psychology scientists to produce Islamic psychology.
The first pattern is to explain the problems of Islamic
teachings or Muslims using psychological concepts. The
second pattern is to compare the concept of humanity from
Islamic scholars with the view of humanity from modern
psychologists. The third pattern is to provide an Islamic
perspective on modern psychological concepts. The fourth
pattern is to develop knowledge of the human soul which is
based on the Islamic worldview.
Amongst the four patterns of the development of Islamic
psychology mentioned above, Indonesia and Malaysia seem
in the phase of transformation of study patterns from
comparative study towards developing concepts of
psychology based on Islam. In line with the phases discussed
earlier, Indonesian and Malaysian Muslim psychologists
have tried to build a psychology concept based on Islam. The
use of an Islamic point of view is carried out with the
consideration that Islam is a source of guidelines, views and
values of life for humans. Besides, there are many concepts
about humans in the Qur’an. Islam is a source of knowledge.
Islam can be seen as an analytical tool to dissect modern
psychological theories. This effort is quite challenging
because there are attempts to present a new perspective in
understanding humans psychologically, including efforts to
formulate the human concept, the concept of insan kamil and
so on.
Amongst the works of Malaysian and Indonesian Muslim
psychologists is Abdul Razak’s (1997) Human Nature: A
Comparative Study between Western and Islamic Psychology.
This work tries to compare the concept of humanity,
personality and human behaviour between modern
psychology and Islamic psychology. This comparison is an
attempt by Abdul Razak to produce Islamic psychology, but
what happens is more like a similarity process, namely only
equating the concept of psychology with concepts
originating from Islam. Muslim psychologists may find this
context to be trapped in a tendency to view concepts as
comparable or equal to one another. On the other hand,
Mujib’s (2005a) work on Personality in Islamic Psychology
tries to formulate the basic concept of human personality
which ‘should be’, not ‘what it is’, from the behaviour of
Muslims. Through Mujib’s thoughts, the perspective of
Islamic psychology has distinctive nuances and colours in
building the concept of personality compared to
philosophical, theological and sociological approaches.
Similarly, the work of Malaysian Muslim psychologists such
as Alias’s (2008a,b) Psychology of Consciousness from an Islamic
Perspective and his collection of writings in the book Biological
Psychology from an Islamic Perspective indicate that there is an
early stage of formulation regarding the Islamic psychology
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concept. In this book, the author tries to formulate concepts
and theories about consciousness, soul and reason. The
formulation of concepts or theories contained in the book is
still a human philosophical view and has not moved in a
certain context, for example, in the world of work, social life
(society), family life, education and so on.
These efforts have been proven by the development of various
concepts based on an Islamic perspective, such as the concepts
of learning psychology (Alias & Majid 2015), motivation (Alias
& Samsudin 2005), human cognitive development (Arifin
2016), contemplation (Badri 2018), fitrah (Al-Afify 2018),
controlling emotion (Diana 2015), human personality
(Gumiandari 2011; Haque 2020; Hasanah 2018), hardiness
(Istiningtyas 2013), humour (Istiningtyas 2014), forgiveness
(Khasan 2017), hesitating (Masroom & Abd Rahman 2015),
worry (Nugraha 2020), responsibility (Rochmah 2016), sex
education (Rusdi 2012), character building (Saefudin 2018),
gratitude (Rusdi 2016), rida (Rusdi 2017), positive thinking
(Rusydi 2012), the concept of ruh (Samad 2015), critical
thinking (Sulaiman & Syakarofath 2018), honesty (Suud 2017),
anger (Wigati 2013), dreaming (Yuminah 2018), managing
stress (Yuwono 2010) and so forth.
From normative-cognitive approach towards substantiveSufistic approach
At the beginning of the study of Islamic psychology, and even
today, there are still Muslim psychologists who tend to give a
touch of Islamic norms to the concepts of Western modern
psychology. This can be seen from the scientific works written
by Indonesian and Malaysian Muslim psychologists. Alias and
Samsudin (2005) tried to provide legitimacy for the Islamic
concept of motivation in building the modern psychological
motivation theory. Likewise, Istiningtyas (2013) discusses the
hardiness personality which incorporates Islamic views into
the concept of hardiness in Western modern psychology, so that
the resulting concept is more religious. Likewise, the concept of
the psychology of Islamic development written by Hasan
(2008) still uses developmental concepts from Western
psychological treasures which are given Islamic values.
The conventional method used by Muslim psychologists in
the context of the Islamisation of psychology is not to start
from zero, but to assemble concepts in a ‘patchwork’ and filter
the various weaknesses of Western psychology (Bastaman
2011). This process of psychology’s Islamisation, as compared
by Badri (1979), is like babies mixing with mud in a large tub.
Muslim psychologists do not need to completely dispose of
the contents of the tub, but what they need to do is to dispose
of the mud and keep the babies. Muslim psychologists only
need to discard the wrong sciences, then direct the parts of the
correct sciences to conform to Islamic values. Furthermore,
according to him, everything is not easy, and there is a long
process that needs to be passed until finally many people
accept our idea of Islamic knowledge (Badri 1979).
The approach built by Muslim psychologists above is more
normative and tries to use a cognitive approach through a
process of rationalisation and filtering of modern psychology
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Original Research
concepts with Islamic religious norms which are full of
psychological aspects (Bastaman 2011). However, further
developments are more substantive-Sufistic approaches.
Some Muslim psychologists do not always want to be
trapped in justification or verseisation approaches, but more
than that, the concepts and ideas of Islamic psychology must
transform to eliminate secularisation views that have ignored
the human nature towards more substantive thinking, the
content of Islamic studies departing from various Islamic
treasures, al-Qur’an, hadith and also Islamic Sufism, which is
rich in human psychiatric and spiritual elements (Abidin
2017). This can be seen when discussing the theory of human
personality. Mujib (1999), Mujib (2005a) and Mujib and
Mudzakir (2001) were not trapped in the Western concept of
personality theory, but through their creativity and
seriousness in conducting Islamic literature studies – alQur’an, hadith, Sufism and others – they can discuss the
personality of a Muslim. Likewise, the formulation of
learning psychology written by Alias and Majid (2015) and
the formulation of psychological measures such as gratitude
(Rusdi 2016), positive thinking (Rusydi 2012) and others
have started to move towards a substantive-Sufistic approach
(Susanty 2018). From this explanation, it can be concluded
that Muslim psychologists in the two countries have begun
to focus on the substance of Islamic studies, which indeed
depart from various Islamic cultural treasures: the Qur’an,
hadith and also Islamic Sufism, which is rich in elements of
human psychology and spirituality.
Conclusions
This research shows that there are three problems in
Islamic psychology developmental studies in Southeast
Asia: (1) the debate on the subject still focuses on theoretical
integration and metaphysical levels rather than applicative
ones; (2) methodological problems; and (3) polarisation of
the capacity of Muslim psychologists. Apart from the
problems, the development of Islamic psychology studies
has good prospects. These indications can be seen from the
following transformations: (1) from the formulation
process to the analysis phase; (2) from comparative study
patterns towards developing concepts of psychology
based on Islam; and (3) from the normative-cognitive
approach towards the substantive-Sufistic approach.
Through this research, it is anticipated that strategic efforts
from Muslim psychologists are needed to collaborate and
build networks to design further targeted studies to solve
the numerous problems that occur at ontological,
epistemological or axiological levels around the integration
of psychology and Islam.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the postgraduate director
of Universitas Muhammadiyah Yogyakarta Indonesia for
supporting this research.
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Page 9 of 10
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no financial or personal
relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them
in writing this article.
Authors’ contributions
The authors contributed to the design and implementation of
the research, to the analysis of the results and to the writing
of the manuscript.
Original Research
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