KARA S FINNIGAN TRICtA J. STEWART Leading Change Un der Pressure: An Examination of Principal Leadership in Low-Performing Schools ABSTRACT: Through case smc.es of 10 elemen tary schools in Chic ago , this arexamines p rinCipal lead ership In low-performing schools. The data inc lud e 33 1 interviews with teachers. administrators , externa l p artners. and others over a z-vear period USing transformation al leadership as a lens. we found that p nncipa ls In scnoors that moved 011 prob ation In a short pe riod articulated the school vision. pr ovided supp ort and resources to teachers. establishe d collabo rative structures and norms, d eveloped commitment 10 co llective g oals. and managed the school Their lead ership respon ses were closely linked to their interpretation of the accountability policy All the p rincipal s c entralized dec ision making Our study sug gests thai distric ts should carefully assign 10 these schools lead ers with appr opriate knowledge and skills and reassign ineffective pnnctp als given the Critical role that pri ncipa ls play In brin ging about nn orovement und er pressure «ere In n'cPIII years . m any tnt -an schools have IJt'(' 1I d esign at ed as lo w perfomung a nd p laced nuder ac c ounta bthty s anc tions unde r th e :-10 Chi ld Left Bt'hind Ar l o f 2001 Ｈ ｾ ｃ ｌ ｂＩＮ Before NCLB, p unishing schools based Oil pe rfo rma nc e outcomes was a n integral part o f a 1U1I1Ibt' r o f sta te a nd dis trict ac counta bility policies ac ro ss th e country ( MintTop &: Trujillo. 200:1). Sc hools placl'd IIIJ(I('r sanctions have lo w pro port io ns o f st udents pertormmg a t grade level. a nd th py Sf' TW lngh proport ions of lo w-inc o me andminority st udents ( I I.S. Depa rtment of Education. 2CK.li ). Tn mak e ma rto rs wo rs e . s rune st ud en ts S IW lld their entire e ducatio na l ca reers-cfrom kindergart e n through 12th gnult>--i n low-pe rforming sc hool s. Address co n s spondeoce to «a-a S Finniga n. PhD. Warner SChool of Educa tion. Ur uversuv of Rochester. Dewey 1·333. Box 27042 5. Roches ter. NY 14627 E-mail kllnnigan@Warner roc hester eoo TIll" Illld t'dyillJ! Ihl'4 lry o f se hou l :W('OIIllI<thilil,o IIC ,lid l'S i"l hal thrnlllo!:h a 1'l lIlll,illa l il lit elf -';111('1il'ns and SllillICII1 , IIll' sd u)(ll ..tnff w ill n '4lin'(·t thei r .. ITol1s (( r lla.'i, 2(Mt.!l. III 1"'<.;4'11('1', by l1'allu('"alill.i! n "Slllln'I'S and attering 1111" curriculum and insmn-t ion. sdulCII stalT will brin g a lIClI l1 nupmvenu-nt . Wilh ;1 111"U\-ision o f r-xu-rnal SIlIlIIC 'rt a nd a rt 'fc)('u sillJ! of ar tent iun. t hey wil l, in Ihl '4II)', (I\"('n '(l1II1' Ihdr hisln rit'S nf lo w pt'lfol1n;U1C"t'. II0 WP\"(,I", IlIt'n' is huh- i1IlPlll in ll to w lwt lwl" se.-hfICI!s ha w ' IIU' 1I1'(·t"'-';U) · internal ca. ｩＷ ＧＺｬｴ iUlla!lt'adC'l'Ship . In fact . ft'w S('hools 1J.:IC·ily III nuprove. ind nclillJ! ＨＩ ｲｾｬｉ ha n ' ht 't'll n-runved fr om ｾＨＧｬＮｉｲｳ 'l('f'Uu lllah ilily sall("tiolls; III L'ahfurnia 1110111', n illy !)' 'j , o f Ill(' a p Pl"llxim.ll.. ly 71MI sc'hnols ill tIll' filia l s laJ!I' of ｾＨＬ ｌ ｂ ｰ ｲ ｯ ｊＡｬ ｾｬｉ Ｑ illll'l"o \"('Il1I'lIl ( l1'SIIl lt'lu ri llJ! ) uupro ved enuugh In exit sa ndjo lls «' 1'1111'1" fo r Edur-atmu l'oln-y. :!lIl1H ). Furthermore. few !ow-IIC 'no l111ing St'llfIC)ls ha n ' n 'c'pin 'd inn-usive 11-..sisl;UWI- I)('(';U ISI' of luuin-d di slri, '1 mill s ra lt' ('all.w ily (O ls o n , :!Olll ; Hidml"d , 201H; Ii. S. Ikpm11l1l'Ilt o f Education, :WOI). Pas l n-seau-h h as fOllllll lha l IIII' pri nd pal is a key pla,\'''1" ill s ('lIno l d ft'c'liw lll'sS ( l jrookovr-r. 1!17R; lh ou kovcr &. Le zotn - !Hill; Ed m o nds, Hl7!-I) aur! sc'IlIIC II illl)l1"O\"I'1I11'1I1 (Fort on. :Wn:l; E lmon-. :wun; IA,jlhw(1C 1C1. Lo uis , AIifII'I-..;(II I, & W,lhlsln llll, :W().J ) in t ill' C'\"l'l)'dily operatiou of thl' school 111111 in '<C 'llIIC II ､ｬ ［ｕｬ ｾ ｐ (Fullan. l!I!11. ｾ Ｈ ｓｬｦ ［ Kelley. 111'111'111;111 , &. " Iila llowski, ｾ ｬＩ Ｉ Ｎ ' "Ii lll'ililiis iI101ll'11('(- S(' lItICI! nur! st udent IIC 'nllll nal wt' ; 1111')" sha fl(' Ihl ' S..-lIl IC '!'S internal ｉＧｮ ｃ ﾷ ｴｾＢｩｯＨＧｓ Ｌ d imah', and l"C'su llln'S II lalli llJ.!I'r &. 111,('k, 1! 1! 1l' l. Soc'lIflC II ｫ Ｇ ｡ｬｴ Ｍ ｉｾ ｨ ｩｬＧ has hl'C 'Ulllt' 1'\'1'11 ilion' cTilil,.. 1 1I\"l'1" IIII' la sl det'aell'S :l.. llIt' puhlir- Sot'hI IC,1system n 'SIIClIul.. to th(' Ｈ ﾷｨ ［ｬｉ ｊＮＡｩｬ ｾ l"f llld ilin lls nf Ih l' :!Ist (·t'1I111I) ·. III fa"' , ill luda y 's t'(llllplt'x 1'1I\'i1"01lI1Il'1I1 n'SulrillJ! Irruu ｩｬ｣ｮ ＧＺｬｳ ｩｬ ｾ 1I'Illlil"('lIll' I1IS, snuh-nt divers ity.' ;lIltl It'('!lIlo!cI.l:it'al tlt>\·t"I(II)nll 'lIls, It'adl'N h!!, is essennnl IIR il hw(ICl( 1 &. Rieh l. ｾｉ ｍ ｊＺｉ •. Pl'rlull's most illlllC 111<1111 III Ilit"current r-onto xt is t ill' increased :It't 'OUlII:lh ilily Ior results iIlH lh "in.': s llm tlanls, as.<.;4'Ss rnt'nls, and c'ulls('l IIlt>llt·PS for illad l'lillal l' pe r fonnanc't- ( Fuhrman. ＱＡｾ ＱＡ Ｉ Ｌ whk-h has hac! a m aj or im pac-t 011 the w o rk o f I'rilld pals ( Ylun a k i. .Ja('" ohso n, &. J)rySflah' , 20(7). Wllpn 'a s leade rship clearly matt ers 10 lil t' t'lIITl'lI1 p o lic'y context . fl' w st lll lit's ha n ' C'xa lll illt'l l lil t' It'adl'l"Ship pl'act icl's of s ('lIoo ls ra rm-ted hy IIl\'SI, po!ici ('S. Cha pm a n aud II;1ITis ＨＺｾ ｕｏ Ｍｬ Ｉ ｡ ｬＢ ｾ ｬＧ ､ that lItosl of the n 'Sl';!I"('h lias ffl('lIs l'd Oil ｾ ｉ Ｇ ｦ ｬ Ｇｬ Ｇ ｬ ｩ ｜Ｂｴ Ｇｾ or ｾ ｩ ｭ ｰ ｲｯ ｜ ｩ ｬ ｬ ｾｍ sc hools ra t he r than ti ll' llll )sl ｴ Ｇ ｬＢ ｬ ｬ ｬ Ｇ ｬ ｬ ｾ ｩ ｬｾ or ｍ ｦ ｡ ｩ ｬ ｩ ｬ ｾ ｃ situations . 1IIIw ('\"I'I", tln - orgamaa nonal !irl'l"allln' lias SIIgJ!I'Sll' d tbut I1'1UII 'l"SlIil l (1III'm ll's fliffl'n 'll lly 1111111'" threat t"llllC lil io ll" «('.J.!-, Sla w, Sa lllll'la lltls , &. 111 111011, HlS I ). illd intliHI! a Ill't '" In 1ll'I"'r understand Ip.uI PI'SlIip ill Sl'lIlICIls unde-r sa rwlinlJs. If Ih l"Sl ' .u '('o llnl｡Ｂｩ ｬｩ ｾ Ｇ IIC IIiC"iI'S an' tn ｨ ｬｩ ｬ ｾ a llCllIl sc'honl illlpro \"l'lI U'lIt , aclfhljolla l n 'S('a l"d1 UII Ipa d t'l"...lIip in h ,w ' IIt'nunn illJ! S('hnols is t'ril ka!. KAAA S FINN IGAN AND TRIC IA J STEWART Thruugh c as e st udies of 10 s c hoo ls in Chi ca go. t his s tudy e xplored IIIP leaders hip pra rt k-e-s o f pri ncipals in low -perform ing sc hoo ls, The s tudy adds to contemporary lea ders hip research hy exa mining th e pra ct ices a nd behaviors of prilll'ip<l ls ｦ｡｣ｩ ｬ ｾ a ccot uunbility po licy Prt'SSIIH'S un der th e Ch ica,go Sc hoo l P ro bation Policy (wlrk -h prpCt'l!pl! NCL" hilt has man y of the 5:11llP comp onents ). T hese a re not just t lu- gen e ra l pressures of accounta lnht y but rat her the mo rt' imme diate pressures of betng nOI o nly p lan -d Oil probanon h UI n-quired 10 improve or fa n ' ad d itio na l sanctio ns , s uch as re constitutio n o r sc hool clos ure , as well as th e ｓ ｬ ｩ ｾ ｉ ｈｬ as sociated wit h t his stat us. Th is in-depth ex an un a non of leade rship in lo w-perform ｩｬ ｾ schools considere d whet he r the r- urrenr theoret ica l a nd empi rica l Hr e ra t li n ' on sc hoo l leadership is consistent wi t h the reahnes of the cr isisori ented. high -st ress context. Speoifir-ally, thi s stud y e xa mined what ha p!WllS as principals in prohal io n s ch ools respond to accountabilit y po lic ies to brtng about sc hoo l improvement nnr! wh e the r th es e principals exhibit t he behaviors a nd prowling of transformationa l leade rs. These dat a are important to ｾｃ ｌ ｂ a mi future iteranous of Ihis legislation IW('(II ISt' alt hough more a mi more sc ho ols have been placed under sanct ions. lit II"" re mains know n a ho ut leadership in low-pe rforming schoo ls. THEORETICAL FRAMEWOR K M)-Tiad faclo rs and definitions are a<;.sod a h'tl with tho coucepr of leaderslupt vroom & Ｌ ｉ ｡ ｾ ｯＬ :!IKli), a nd these ha w e vol ved e ve r time. Lt' :'Idt>rs hip is critical in a ny ｴｬ ｲｾ｡ ｬ ｩｺ｡ ｴ ｩｮ ｮ ［ it is the firs t c o mponent in tran slatmg mt ent io n into action r ljemus. HIS }) . Bums ( H1iR ) is frequently credit ed wit h ｨ ｲｩ ｮ Ｌｧ ｩ ｬ ｾ togeth er ｯ ｰ ｯｳｩ ｬ｜ｾ vie ws of lea de rslup-c-nam e lv. from t hose w ho view leaders hip as ｔＢｦＧｓ ｩ ､ ｩ ｬ ｾ within an individual in a pos itio n of a uthority who is firmly in c ha rge 10 those wh o conce pt ualize lea dership a s ti lt' interact ion be tween leaders :'1 1111 followe rs (Evans . W!)li; Owens. 20I}..l ). Bums cont ended that I('adprs hip s ho uld not be conshh-red fro m t1H'SP ｯ ｊｬｰｯｳ ｩ ｮｾ perspectives: ra ther. th e aut ho r argued that It'ad t'rship Involves t wo dunensions: transa ctio na l a nd tran sro r mattvc. Tra nsactional lea de rs hip rreatos clear SII1 IClul't'S that s uppo rt what is expected of follo we rs . and it esta blishes a sy ste m of rewa r ds or puni shme nts. Transfo rm at io na l If'adl'I'Ship appt' a ls 10 followers ' values and e motio ns. a nd it en courages Ih l' gro wth o f individuals and . as a result . the gro wt h of IIlP organiza tion (Yllkl &- Lepstngor. 201l!i ), Stnce Burns's nme. Ill{' c o ncept of transtormat lon atleadcrslu p has co ntinn e d 10 evolve ami is widp ly a ccepted in the field of educat ion (St ewart. :!OOi )_.-\ key aspt't 'l o f trans formanona l Ipal!prship is tha t of facilitau ng o rｾｩｬＷＮ｡ｴ ｩ ｦｬ ｡ ｬ ､ｬ ［ｬｉ ｾｴﾷ I Bt'nni.. &. ｡ｾ ｬｮ ｳ Ｎ HIS,;) am ! illllllH\ in,g orgamzational pt·lflll1ll.111n· ( lIa....... I!IS.') hy iIHluc'illJ.! f ollowers 10 ad Inward o rga ma..a ｬ ｳ I (lwl' lIs. :!on -l). 111is In "' of II'.ulN sh ip n 'tlllin 'S ｳｴ ｲｮｬ ｾ JllIsilin' I ional ｾｯ｡ rl'l .lli llllShil ls la -twer-n Ih(' I('a lll'r aw l II\(' orga ni7.a l itula] tuetu bers-c-in 1'S SI'IWI·. mot ivat ｩ ｬ｜ ｾ 11I1's (' ind ivid ual s 10 Illun' Iwyond the-ir setr-mto resrs a nd 10 work lo w a n l lhi' ('0 []1'("1ive ,good of ti ll' o r,r:an i7.a lio n {Kutte-r, Hl1lfi; ｾ ｴ ,11 hou-a-, :!(Hl I ). AI"("1 m lin,g In Yuk l ( I$l!l l l. IIII' IUt·lIIhl'r.- o f Iht' u rga n i7.a non Mfl' l' l l l1Isl. ad m ira lit m. loy a lty. a w l n-s pe ct towardtlu-h-ader, and they a rt' lIIol i' -ltll'lI 10 d o moret han the-y m i ,r:illlilly ('X))('('Il'd In dn" ( p. :1;') 1 )" Oll r C()/lt'I'pl lla Ii7':llio ll o f transromumonat 1t'.td t·l.... h ip builds o tT tlnn ...-ent WOI"I.: hy IA'i lllwf""1 an ti ｣ｵ ｬｴ Ｇ ［ｉｾｬｴＢｓ (''It't. IA'il hw lllHI &. .laut zi. :!(MI!); Leith wood t'l ;11_. :!lJll l : Leuhwood &. Hit' hl. :!IJO:l). whll dl"S('riI H'1 1 t ransrouuauonal It'ad t'rs h il' in a nuanr-ed m ul e mu ph-x W;ty . Their t'xp; u ull'll t"( 'llt'('I'liOlll lf 1r.lIlsfonna liOlm l lt'at lt'Nhip iu d lllll'S four arr-as: st 'IIill,g the .hrecnon. (11·' t' IIII,in/ol llt'tlp lt,. dt'vplll)lillg the OI-g;lIlii'.:llin ll. alll l llla nOt!'till!'t ti lt' ｮ ｲｾ｡ ｮ ｩＷＮＺｬ ｬ ｩｵｮ Ｂ The-se- arr-as an' lIul 1U... -essartly tl i_ s tint'I aspects o f lendl" ....hip; rath e-r, lIlt'y a n ' inlt'!'tralt'l l or m "t'rla Jlpill!'t const ructs. a nd th e pmr-. tin'S wi thin r-ar-h art' ( '11Il1ｩ ｬ ｾ ｉ ＧＱ Ｑ ( Ill individual S("IUH II r-trcumstances (" iII'S. :!f)()4i; Leit hW(HHI. I!I!H I. ｓ＼Ｇ Ｇｩ ｮｾ I It(, diu..." ion of tl u- s eh(H II is o n en n 'fI'ITI'd tu as instrtu-tiunal 1t'lu lt>l-sh ip , mill il I'IWOm p,L....'>l"S ti ll' plinl'ipal's ro ll' ill ｭＱｩ｣ｬ ｬ｡ ｩｮ ｾ a vi-don, ｳ ｰｴｩ ｮｾ ｨｩ ｾｨ I'Xp l'('la l io lls for sta rr lU lIl st llliplIIs , and tll' H'lnpillg gro up ,r:ultls " A<'("onlill,g 10 Owen s (:! (ll l-o. the t!('H ' lopmt'1l1 of tfu- visum u n itt'S the gmllJl around s han'tl assllmptio ns and hl'li t' fs . Ih lls s ln 'lIgl lu' n illg Ihl' urgamznrional r uh un-. [ )PH 'lo l,ing 111"1 11 111' inn lln 'S IIIl' Plillt"ipa l"s rnlt ' in SUI'IH)J1in,g ("(llm gt· hy ｉ ＧｦｬＨ ＧｯｴｬｲＮ ｾ ｩｮＮＧｴ It'adlt'N 10 la l.:l· risks . to 11) ' III'W 1Ilt'lhl lltS of It';tdlil1.'t. a nd to c ha llt' lI,r:t' the status quo. l'lint-ip,,'"I]s whn llt'H 'lo p teac hers h rill g them in lo ('u lll al"l wuh 11I'W idl'IL<O; (lio llhillJ,:: &. Sullivan. Hl!:lii; ｓｴＧｨ ｲｩｮ ｾ &. li n k, :!Ollll ). ｓ ｉｐ ｉｈ ｉＱ ｩ ｬ ｾ h ·adlt>l.... Ih lls n 'tlu in'S prm "idill!'t th em with 111't'lII'l1 n 'Sotlll'I'S (i l1ch uli ll,g lilllt' am i insln lClio n;t1 materia l... )" eusurtug t hat llll'y haH ' aIT t....... In prof('S.s io nlll III'H' lo plll('1I1 andtraming. andmodehng key ,"aIm'S am! pra c-tu-es (S lllilh 8,; Andrews. WR!I)_1111' principal's m il' ill dt'wlo p in g the o rga n i7.<1l io ll is 10 ('u ·a lt, .1 posilin ' s("ho o l dillllllt' o r t'lll1 m"f'. 'L-. Wt'll lLo,; a ltt' r ils SII1II'1I1 I"1' 10 fadli t:lh' IIll'sl' ("\ll1 11ml ｣ ｨ ｡ ｬ ｾ ｴＧｓ ｟ In add il ion til ("I"t'a li llg p ro ft' s.s io nal l'o llllll llllit il'''' (( lllfo u r 8,; F...a kl'r. IHUR). princ ipals Ilm'> l dp,"P1np rPlat io lla l In lsl ar lit1Il,gs llt rr, w hkh. l\('t'I, n lill,r: In HI)"k alld ｾｫ ｨ ｬ ｬｴＧ ｩ ､ ｬ Ｇ ｲ ( 2002), iUH lln'S n "SI" "(·1. ("ollll'l'h·m-(' . IIl' rsona l rt'ganl. a nd ｩｬ ｴ ｴＧ ｾ ｬｩ ｬ ｹ ｟ t'lInlll' n nun·. t·tTt'('l i, "p prillciplt ls art' ｳｬｲＮＭ ｬＨＧｾ ｩ｣ in t1lt'ir ltt·llui.siliun o f n"S(lmn -s-lHllh m UIII')! a nd ideas -f..u m lilt' exte mal f'mimllllWIII ( H l) -I.:. St 'hrilllo!, Kf'rt M: IW, llollo w. &. f.its lo ll, I!"IS )_ f inally. p ri ncipals IllIlS! ｉｮ［ ｴｮ｡ｾｴＧ t hl' nr,ga ni 7..;tliHll. I!I" . K,ARA 5 FINNIGAN AND TRICIA J STeWART moutronng a ll aspects of the school (fro m program implementatio n 10 perfo rmance ). buffering tea c he rs fro m e xit' null demands, and dealing wit h pe rsonnel is sues su ch a" staffing . Th is la..t a rea buildss o n Bums 's ( 1978) a nd Ba....s 's ( WR:'» tran sactional dime ns ion of lead ership. provi ding depth In the management behaviors a nd practices of lea de rs . ａｬｴ ｨｯ ｵ ｾｨ nuu-h of the literat ure o n transf orm atioualleaderslup has 1101 ex plicitly a rgllPd fo r s ha re d lea de rs hip a nd has be en critic izr-d for this nm is."io ll (Nort house. ZOU-I ), a pa ra llel body of literature has contended that disl rih ut ed Of Inclu sive leade rs hip is c ritical to organ izat ional effectivoness ro.g., Fullan. ZOOS: Spillane . Halve rson. & Diam ond. ZOO!). In a n environment "con t rol is s pread thro ug ho ut the »rgailld lls in ' ｉ ｉＧ Ｌ ｵ ｬｴ Ｇ ｬ ｾｨｩｰ Ili7.<llioJl, ;'i1l orga nizationalmembe rs fOC'l IS o n organizatio na l pe rfo rm ance a nd contnbut e 10 s trategy a nd rttrecnon . a nd e mployees are able to infl uP ll C(" dec isions that s ha pe their expecta ncies" (Mohrma n & Lawler . Wf)t";, p. 121) . Through t his I.H M;' of leadership. teac he rs th eo retically develop a vesre d in ter est in li lt' operat inn a nnpe rformance of 111(' sc ho ol (Ellis, WS-I ) a nd al 'fIUif(" th e power In make decisi ons th at will support the ir efforts [ Enderlin -Lampe, ＱＡ ｾＱＷ Ｚ La.s. hway, IfIfI9 ). Recent resea rc h fo un d t hat tra nsIonuanonalleaderslnp is most e trec uve when it is int egrat ed with s ha red lca ders htp ( \ Iafks & Pri nty. 201tl). Transformationa l lead ers hip is part icu larly w("11 s uited to COIllIlI("x changes that require orgamzanou building ill t he rapidly changing s c hool environment (Ca rlson, ｈｾｉＨ ｬＺ Cha pman & Harris . ZOO-I; Leith wood , W!ll ). A fe w studies ha w' e xamined principa l lead ership in sc hools 1lI111("f acrountahilny poli cy s anct ion s . and the y have round Iha t pri nci pals Inc re ase teacher monitoring (\ tinl ro p, ZOn:3), inc re ase the lis e of da ta 10 inform the ("fhll'a l iolla l prog ram (Spill an e pi al., 2(02 ). r edt rec t funds towar d policy goa ls . a nd focus Oil ｉ ｏ ｗ Ｍ Ｉｬ ｴ Ｇ ｬｦ ｮｲｊ｜ｬｩ ｬ ｾ s tudents ( Ladd & Zelli, 2(02 ), Chapnmn an d Hams's (2 (Xl-I) I L K. st udy of schools t ha t ha d not m er account ahilily Im-gt'l s round t hat th ese schoo ls Ior-used un e rad ica t ing a negative c ult ur e andlow expecta tions . a" wel l as imp roving teaching an dlearmng t hro ugh hi gher-qualit y professional deve lopment . Leit hwrx xl ( WH-I) a rgued that it is crit ica l 10 rocus o n a ll c omponents of t ra ns form at ionalleade rship in c o mbinatio n, Sla ting Ihat "pe rsevera nng 0 11 one or s everal dimensions of leade rs hip a nd tgnortn g the remainder w ill nor ｾ ＨＧ ｉ the jo h done" (p. !ll-l). However. a number of rece nt st udies ha w sl1AAt'SI("c! tha t leade rs hip practices and be haviors m ay vary o n th e basis of s ch ool conte xt a nd , pe rh aps . l:'\'PII the addit ional press ure of the highs ta kes ar-couutabilit y po li cy sa nctions. FOf e xa mple, Jaco bson, Brooks , Gilps, J ohnson . and \lima ki (2007), Gill'S (200G), Ro binso n. Lloyd . a nd sm UI)\\ I· (:!IIfIS J_and Ytnuaki a n d Ｈ Ｇ ｮ ｬ Ｇ ｡ｾ ＧｬｴＢ ｳ (201)";') d losnillt'lII ITindpals who fUI'u 'w(1 fir-t on ｴｬ Ｇ｜ Ｇ ｦＧ ｉ ｉｊｬ ｩｮ ｾ safp, <;.4'(' 111'(' , a nd o rdN I)" ('ll\ i n llllllf'IlIS 'Lo.; tltf'y a tlt' m p h ,,1 Iu Impro ve II...ir In w -Ilt'rfnnnin g ｓｃ ｨｦ ｈ ｉ ｉ ｯＮ［ ｟ ｾ All hn ugh IIW\; OUS ｮ ｾ Ｇ Ｌｭ t-h h;t.. idf' ntifif'l l tilt' iIllIHI11<U1('(' of ､ ｴＧ ｜ＧＢｬｴ ｮｊｬｩ ｾ un l" rl)" envir on1Ill'II1s ( Sl:,(' Cotton . 2(1):11, wha t these st udies ｓｬ ｾ ＨＧ ｳｴ is that It',ulf'rship is sn uanonal o r ('(JIIII'x l dn veu , S im ilarly, L'hapmau am t IIams (:!OIH) found tha t p ri lll'il',tb f. M'lIst 'll first 1111 th l'l lhysir a l r-ondi uon. s lId l 'L" lea ky clas.s. " Him.. ;UI" broken windo w s, l)t'fu o ' Ｎ Ｂｮ ｬ ｬ Ｇ ｬ ｩ ｬ ｾ 1Il1l 0 - subs numal changes to I,.-in..'! ;II HIlI I Improvemen t.. III rombmanou. these- st lUlil's ｓｬ ｬ ｾ ｬ ｯｳ ｴ Ｎ ＢＨｬ a pr iont i/_a tilill tIf IIU' num- transacttona t. ｬｉ ｡ｮ ｡ ｾ ｦＧｲｩ ［ｬｉ ｉ ｴＧ ［ ｜Ｈ ｨ Ｇｬ ｾ ｨｩ ｬ ｬ behaviors ami ;w li\-ilil's ill li lt' acr'tututnlnlity I'0 lir y en vtrounu-nt. given that p rinc-ipals ;In' fll U'I,tl til ､ ｩ｡ ｾ ｊｬＨ Ｉｳ ｴＧ am l ;u llln'S." prol.lems t1 11111'1" illl·n ·;L.... ·11 Ilrt'Ss IIH-. Ｌ ｜ ｉ ｴ ｬ ｬ ｬ ｬ ｾ ｨ I IH'S P scholarly r-out ributions a n ' import ant . num- n 'Sl;'ard l is ｬ Ａ ｬｉ ｾ t hl' di sti nc t nat ure o f III;n l'i pal Il'illk rshill in " " 'a r ly warrante -d ｴＧ ｘ ｩ ｬ Ｑｩ sc·llIlllls ｦ Ｚｷ ｩ ｬ ｾ a r-r-uuntnlulity IIC llic'y sanct ion s. POLICY CONT EXT Fan ",1 Wllh lo w st uden t performum-e inthe ｃ ｨ ｩ ｬ Ｍ｡ｾ ｵ Publn- SdlOols (C PS), Iltt· IIliuu is Ｑｴ Ｇ ｾ ｩ ｳ ｬ ｡ｬｮｈ ﾷｉＧ ｡Ｎ ....st ",l lIw WHS Sc hOll l Refurm A. -I . A... a n-snh. the llf'wly n t'all'Cl O ffin ' o f Art"oulllahility in the C PS df'\"{-)o pt'Cl a system o f SIlPJlOll a nd COIIst'l IIlf')WI'S 10 st aff in the- lowesr -p crformmg ｾ ｨｻ ｈ ｬ ｬｳ Ｎ TII{' C PS losla) ,Jj..hed a cuto ff point of 15'lj".. Illt'im ing if If'S." than l rjlh o f students !'f-o n ",1 <It fir ab()\"{' na t iona l U 0 I1 11<; based o n the S(: hool'"s Ａｊｴｯ｡ ＨＧｴｉｾﾷｮ Ｑ test results Ull the Iowa Test o r Ba<;ic S kills , thl' school wo uld lit· identified for n ·lUt..ha tton a mi probat km. To I1Im 'p flff S.'l11CtiOIlS, Sd llllll.. hadto Increa se to Ｒｬｲ ｾ Ｌ l. r s mdents 1In' t'fi nJl!: na tional norms . TI I{' 15'J{1c u toff was <Ill arbitrary 1I111nl " 'r St')l'c,,, ..1 by 1111' d istrn-t , ill part be ca use o f the ｉ Ｚ ｬ ｾ ｦＧ Illlllllwr of sc.'llllllls that WlIlII" l)t· d t'SiWlalt"l l a.. !C )W Ilt'rfOl1llillJl!: ( llI' IIIil'tl , :!()(II: IIf'S.s , 1!l!1!1). III t ht' l st year alone. nearly Illl.' qua rter of ＨＬ ｨ ｩＮ Ｇ［ ｉｾ ｏ Ｇｓ Sl'hools Wt'n ' pili o ll l'mh:llioll-Spl'.'ifi c"llly , W!I schools, 7 1 of wh ic h \\'I'I"t' elementary schools . »min l,( Ihis s tudy. the pmha lluna ry cuto ff Wit" ra isl'd from IG'Uli o Ｒ ｭ ｻ ｾ w it h sdu IC)!s requiu-d to I"l'a dl 2!)'J{, 10 utove off p ro"'l t !Ou. l ｂｉＧｙ ｩｬ ｬ ｬ Ｇ ｩ ｬｾ icll'll l ifipd a nti plan'lI undr-r probation. sdHlols '>'0'('1"1' pro \"illt'll Willi external s llIJIIC 1l1 10 assist them in t he-ir uuprovcnu-m efforts , Fo r ('xa lllp it', th e schools wi-re a....ｳ ｩ ｾ ｬ｣ＧＨ ｯｲ＾ｊ ｴｬ＼ｨ ｬ ｯｩ ｬ ｡ｬ ｉ ｾ ｓＧｉ ｬ Ｇ ｨ ｡ Ｂｬ ｾ ... 1 wit h ｬｉ ｯＱ ｩｴｯｲ ｬｾ Il lI' scho o l ｰ ｬＺ ｬ ｬ ｩ ｬ ｾ p n M't·SS a nd ｩｬ ｰｲ ｮ ｜Ｂ ｩｮ ｾ Ih t, Il'ad l' rsh ip o f thf" <;.4 ·lll MI I. s.-'!l.ICIls were ｡ ｬｾＩ required to work wi th I' xII'I1I<lI Il:ll1ne rs w ho p rcn"idt"<t c urric u la r a nd uearuenonal assistance.. TIlt' rule and practices I<.ARAS FIN NIG t.,N AN D TRICI A J. STEWART nf Ihl'SI' SIIppm1 pro viders a re bey ond th e scope of th is art icle hili a re in n'fl'n ' II('{' to th e lea de rship behaviors an d practices of the pri ncipals (fo r de tail s ｮＧＱｴ ｡ ｮ ｬｩ ｬ ｾ H lP support com po ne nt of this po licy, S('(' Finn iga n, Hitter &. O' Day, 200f!; Finn iga n &. O'D ay, :WO:J). CliSCU S.S Pf! METHO D AND DATA SOURCES TIlt" first a ut hor was projN 'l man age r for a s tndy of 10 lo w-pe rforming ('1ementary sc hools in Chicago that Involved a team of resea rc he rs from the Wisc o ns in ('('111('1" for Ed uca tio n Research at the Umversuy of wisconsin \ fadiso n a nd front the Conso rt ium 0 11 Chica go Sc hool Research. TIle sc hools t hat partu-tpated in t his s tudy had been placed 0 11 probatio na ry eta tu s d unng the ls t or 2nd yea r of implementa tion ( InnH- 19!l i o r I flfli - lflnR) and were selected to provide va riat io n in re ga rds 10 t1U" population served. IIIP ex terna l pa rt ne rs . IIII' numbe r of ye a rs o n probat inn , and o the r s c hoollevel r-ha m r te rts nc s. AU these sd um ls se rve d high-poverty. m inorit y, and highly motute populat ions. as see n in Ta hle I. Of t he 10 low.pertormtng s chools. 5 we re rem o ved Irum probation (S2, S:3, 84 , Sfl, a nd 8 10) by th e IlI'ginning of the sll ldy ( l!lfI!l-2000), with 2 (S2 a nd S ID) movi ng off probalioll qu ick ly {wit hin 2 years). Fo ur sc ho ols were on proba tio n (85, 5 7. SR. Sf!) thro ugh tilt' 2nd yea r of t he study, meanmg that th ey had s erved 4 to r) vr-ars 011 prohat mnary s ta ins h;y th e e nd of t he study. Fina lly. one school (S I ) lIIovt'd ( Iff proba tion be fore th e s ta rt of the st udy hut was placed ha c k 0 11 in just I yea r. See t he appendix for deta ils re garding the probatio nary s la tus of II\{' ('a'w st udy s chools. TIl(' st udy involved senustructnre d Inte rvie ws a nd focus gro ups' r-onduct ed dming three mult iday s ill' visi ts 10 each sc hool durtn g the Hlf192000 an d ZfKXl--2001 school yea rs. Tw o-person team s COlHIIICtf'd th e visit s . with (',-II' h visit ｬ ｡ｳ ｴ ｩ ｮ ｾ from :3 to 4 ､ ｡ ｾ ..s. for a tota l o f 18 to 24 researcher days in r-nr-h sr-hoo l. In tot al. th e data include ;l:H interviews. To unders ia lIII t llP nrganizatirma l response 10 probat ion tn these sc hools (m c tnd ing theleaders hip n >spo lIs P). the st udy team interviewed tea r-he rs a t a ll grade h-vels hUI focllsl'd on teachers at IIlP benchmark grades-a-Grades 3, 6, a nd 8 (re lat ing In the s tud ent promotio n po licy in Chica gn)-hy in terviewing them nve r mult iple pe ri ods. A tol :11 of Wf! tea r-her int ervi e ws were ( '0 11d uct e d over I IU" z-vea r penod. In add itio n, Inte rviews were conduct ed with external pa rt ne rs an d prohat io n ma na gers (II = 26 Inte rvie ws). principals an d assistant principals (II = 62 Interviews ). a nd ot her membe rs o f lilt' sc hool c om munit y. including parents . Loc al Sc ho ol Co un cil membe rs. ;m d specialeducat ion c oordinators (II 44 Intervi e ws ). Duri ng school visits . = ｉ ｾ ｾ Ｌ Ｇｪ Ｂ ｱ Table t . SChool 51 , '/m ," y " /Itlr ,' ｬ Ｇｮ C8se Stud y School OemOUr. ph ic s Pree and RPduced· Pric e lunch (0 ..) 100 MobilIty R3(:e,E ' hn lClfy •• African Amell can '"1 '" 100 25 800 35 600 800 300 '0 35 25 While ' 00 ' 00 97 2 1 tatoo 89 700 45 450 ' 00 450 35 30 25 1300 3' Afll can Ame" ca n t .auoo 53 54 55 90 90 90 Afll can American Afll can Amefl can Afll can Amellcan t ewc 56 57 sa 59 9' ' 00 100 100 ·0 1 100 ' 00 AfrIC an Am(>ncan I'M . AfrICan Ame<lCan Afl tean Amellca n tauoc 91 8 1 Af" c an Amenca n WhIte 5 '0 95 Ra/8 (00) S tudents (n) 400 t anoo 52 :l!t:l ＧｓＮ ｾ ｉｬ Ｇ ｾ Ｇ t .ateo 55 African Ame"can Whil e "2 11<1/" RO"'\d"1Q1'.15 OCC" IP OO lh ' eo.'Q"oullO IlI"''''' ｃＨ ＬＧ ｉＬ ｛Ｑ ｅＧｦＱ ｨｾ ｬ ｬ ｬＧｦ ｴ ｾ Ｕ SItch !'Illfc pnl,I'1lC'S may n'" a<1d 10 100 1 tfu- rt'Sf'an'h n-am mterviewed i'Il !i\'iduals (o r. ill a Iew ca......'S. ｾ ｲｯ ｬ ｰｓ of h ·ad w!'s ). u llSl' r\·t'll da..srooms. and c'0 Ilt'('11"11 rel evant tltM'IIIllPllls . No ll ' l ha l t his a llid t· f'M 'lIst'S Oil 1W:'Tl'Ppfi o lls o f principal It'adl'""hip wi lh a ll t·lIll'hasi.. CII I lht· ｉｴ Ｇ｡､ｬｴｾ Ｇ \;t'WS o f their prindlJals as dro wn Irtuu Ill(' ill' u-rvtew dat a. We u<;('11d OCII11WlIls . ol)St'n ·alinll.S. and int e-rviews wit h n ll w r 111('11I1... 1'" 'If flu' sc'llfH)1comnuuuty to pr o vi de a,Iclil ional {"flll lt' XI allli ln triun gulat e li lt' ｦｩ ｬｴ ｩ ｬ ｾｳ Ｎ All interviews alll i focus ｾｲｯｬ Ｂｩ wr-re audio-recorded undtra n...·r il>4·d ver bat im. \\ 'f' ('Olll hK ll'cl d at a a na lysi s ｉｬ ｓ ｩ ｬ ｾ Qsn In!t'll lal io lla r o,; l'\ 'i\"f); sofl wan ' It ·;Jtu h l; d "W. ｾｉ ａ 1 to ex amine princil'a llt·;u lpl....h ill, 11u' ＨＢ ｮ ､ ｩ ｬ ｾ prnn 's.s W ,lS itt-ra t in ' a nd ill\"Oln'll ("odt's that wI 'n ' dl'li n 'd from IIII' Ilwo n 'Iiea l framewo rk and t hosl' Ihat em erged f W IlI Ihl' data ､ ｬ ｩ ｬＱ ｾ analvst s. For ('xmll l' ll', a priori n" ll's ilw llll!t,.l ll11J<td lTans f,)llllalillll a l ll'alll ·'....llill a rt-a.... Ｈ ｴ Ｇ Ｎ ｾ Ｎ Ｌ S(·f · ｬ ｩ ｬＱ ｾ d in·c.-lillll ) liS wr-ll as ｓ ｕ ｉ＾Ｔ Ｇ ［ ｬ ｴ Ｇｾ ｏｬ ｩＨ Ｇｓ wirhiu t lu -a- a n 'as Ｈ ｬＧ Ｎ ｾ .. , ·is illll). II,m I'H·r. <l 1l11l1l 1W:'r o f th('U1c'S ｴ Ｇｬ Ｈ ＧｉＢ ｾ ｴ ＾ｴＱ c1llrinJ.:: ana IY"iis, ｲ｡ｬｧ ｩ ｬｾ fro m ael· .!iljuna l s lllw.IIt·J:!OIit'S (If If'adt' I'''hi l' an-a.... ｴＨ Ｎﾷ ｾ .• ill"illllt't iu lla l (·O ht 'lt ' IlC·t ' ) In an'as n 'lal t'l l ilion' tlir('(1ly to 111(' SdUHl1 ami In ;u Tullllla loility 1>411i('y conte xts {t-. ｾ .• tu rnover ill start. SoI'lIst' m a king as Jlrillc·ipa l.. illll 'll'f(·lt>t1 5H-I " ARA S FINNIGAN Arm TRICIA J. STEWART the a ccountabilit y ｰ ｯ ｬ ｩ ｣ｩ ｴＧ ｾ Ｉ Ｎ This a ppro ac h a llowed o ur liS(' of transfo n na tional It';-u!t'P.-ihip as a I('IIS, bur it a lsn ensur ed th ai addit kmalt homes were not overlooked as th e v relate d to sch ool leade rs hip under ac co unta bility policy sanctions. ｩｬ ｧ Ana lys is involved r-xaminatton of till' <lata wit h a priori and ｦＧ Ｑｬ ｴＧｾ codes 10 un de rst and lea dership ac ros s I0 schoo ls a m! th rough a process of r-hr-r king an d rech ecking o f themes a" discus ser! by ｬ｜ｉ ｩｬ ｾ a nd Hub erman (W9 -1 ). WI' analyzed data thematic ally a cross sit es to understa nd relationsh ips ret ween the mauc areas. Baser! o n the c onstant co mpan uive method (C.lase r & Stra uss. Iflfi7 ), ana lys is Involved ad dit iona l e xa min a tio n t hro ugh nnr gro up ing the dat a by sc h<)(11 ( t'. g.. a ll t he int e rviews wit h mn tttp te sta keholders from 5 1 ac ro ss t he 2 years were a nalyze d in c o mbi nat io n to understand l ilt' emerg ing Ihf'IHf'S for S I). Thi s a na lys is ste p provided us w it h a be tter unders tnn dtn g of III(' lea de rs hip beh aviors and prac tic es r-ase hy r-ase (sc hoo l by school); it facili ta ted IhE' iden tifica tion of c ross-cutting t he mes across ｾｩＱ ＨＧｓ Ｚ an d itled 10 the further grou ping o f da ta by pro ba finn a ry s ta tus 10 e xplore a ny add itio nal pat terns in the data (i.e., sc ho o ls tha t re ma ined 0 11 probation we re compared wit h those t ha t hadmo ved o m . RESULT S 1111' st udy unco ve re d a n importa lit an d c rit ica l find in,lit: Trans fo rma tional 1f" HIt'TShip beha vio rs W ('I"(' ra re in those low-perfo rming sc hoo ls, An e xanuna tlo n of t il(' rirh data a cross t he 10 s chools ide ntifier! d ist inct patt e r ns among three ,litrn nps of s chools: those t ha t mOH'(1 olT probat ion qui ck ly, thost' that rl'ad w d a cc ounta bility target s at a slowe r pare. and those th at remained 0 11 probat io n. Priur-ipals in the sc hools that mo ved off proba tion quic kly (S:! a nd S IO). dem o nst rating nuu-h sharper ,litains in Impro vem en t tha n the othe r sc ho o ls , most d OSE'ly resembled transformational lea de rs as defined in th e lite ra ture . with s ome impo rt a nt disuncuons. The ir t wo scho o ls W t' I"(, differen t Irom e a ch other in runny wa ys: different e nrollments (appro xilllalf> ly SOO \ 't' TSUS 1,:300 st uden ts) . dif ferent s ta ffing (the s matter sd100l had two a ssistant pnur-ipals ami the larger scho o l had 01 11' ) , d ifferent leadership histories (on e sc hoo l had a principal who had bee n the sch o ol admi nistrat o r fo r many yea rs before probation: th e ot her s chool ha d a principa l put into plac e in uu ed iately a fte r pro bation who was pr omot ed from wit hin ). and different e xte r na l partners . wh at set th es e tWI) sc hoo ls apart (hl'sidf'S their increased SC O Tt'S) was that their lea ders npt'l<tlt'd quilt' different ly fromthe le ade rs of li lt' sc ho o ls tha t we re slo we r o r unable 10 11l0\"(> nIT probntinn (as disr -ussert late r ). Three sc hoo ls mo ved o ff probauou ;tft !'r 11 few years IS1, S-t , and Sf» , Allhollgh t1w sp schools 11;1(1 SII('('('SSflllly nu-t accounta bility Illlliey t:llw 'ts , IIU'y would ilw \'ita illy han ' diffic-ulty s us ta in ing t his n 'S!HIIISt' gin'lI thl' p rin ei lla ls' lunit cd vision for S('lll1(11 improvenwnr as \H 'I! as the tr ma.teqnato all enr iou III dp\'p!II!Iing t lu - ppoplt· o r u rg:.m iza lioll. ａｲ＼Ｇ ｬｮ ｬｩ ｬｾ 10 011(' o f tin' n -aclu-rs . the scho o l had muvr-d o ff prnbafion o nly because o f the ｾ ｳ ｴ ＼ｬ ｬ ｩ ｳ ｬ ｫ ｡ ｬ rtses a nd falls." 110 1 !Jt'C<lIlSl' o f IIt,('1' and I:LSlill ,l;! c h a nJ,Ws . Fi na lly, princi pal leaders hip in lilt, tour Sl"llIlllis thai Wt'!l' o n probat ion Illro ugllll\ll t ilt' CIHlrsP of the si lidy (Srl. Si , SR, a nd S!I) :lIl1 l ill thp Ollt' sd lo n! that m oved o ff a ucl then hm-k o n ( S I) was s im ila r in t hn t they s han ·d a n overemphas is uu mana gement p rad in's a nd a lac-k o f aueutio n to the other ('o m pum 'llls o f lrurk-r ship. The- st udy fUHIiIlj..(s an' organized by key tl n-mat k- arr-as . as d is('lIs,s l'<I in Iht' thr-on-t icn l frame work: splli ng li lt' din-rt iun. d t'\"plopin!( people. l!ton,lopillJ..( thr IH :tll<t!(in g lilt' u lgani/':lt io ll, a nd dislribu t ing oraamaauou. h-aderxhip. SETIING THE DIRE CTION 1,.l '"d('I'Sh i1' n ,lal ('(\ 10 sd li ng tl u- di n 'clioll o f lil t, school involves <1('" \-dop ing a vis ion for nuprovenu-nt . a rtu-ulafing expcctanons for s ta ff am i st udents. :u \l1Ilt'H ' I(ll llllg (·tlllt'c tin' goals fo r tilt' o rganization ( Ld t hwood & .laut zi. ｾ ｯ ｮ ｲｬＺ 1,.l'ilhw H1 Hl l'l al.. ｾｏ Ｍ ｴ Leithwond & Riehl. ｾＨＩ ＨｊＺｬＩ Ｎ 1111' sc hoo ls thur moved off prohal io n Ilui('kly Ｈ ｓ ｾ a nd S IO) showe d p \ ; dl'llI 'l' of tilt'S{, ('(1] IIIHII lI'llls of instn utional lea de rs hip Ihat were 1101 apparent .u Ihe other cast' s tlld.... sl: hools. Allilollgh th pS(' pri ncipa ls had ｴ｡ ｲｾｴＧｬ ､ their reforms 10w,lI"Ii w ad in g ( 'n 'l1 hl'fo n ' h(' ing p la('t'(! o n pmhat iou} Ihrough the a dopt ion o f a IIt'W n ':lI\ing p rogram. prohati on aplH:',Irt'l l ln a( 'I'l·It' 111Ie the prn!(n 's.s toward reform. 11l(' n 'a(!in g pro grallls likply had a d irect inflm 'I\I'l' o n t lit' re ad in g S('o n 's. However . the s tud.... data sugzesr that Ipad ('I'Ship had a ll illllin 'l 'l illn lll'IWI'1111IliPS!.' st udent (l1l1('OI IIt'S Ihn ltlgh a num ber (If Irans forlHill io lla l lpad l'l"Sh ip behaviors and p r,lt't in·s. For exampl.., in both schools Iltl' I' ri lll"ip'll s m1i1"u la lt'i l a \; s ioll that involved rpadi ng a.s a r-ote ('o m po 11t'1I1. Add ilio na lly, both 11I; IK ipals sln'ngl hpl\t'll their vision mid d in '('l io ll l hl"Ollgh a c-h-ar a rticulation of their hig h ('XI' l'I'la lio ns for Sd HHl1 SI,IIT, Fina lly . the p rind pals Im gl'!t'll aUPlllio n am i rt 'SOIlt"('t'S 1I0t just llll llU't,t illJ..( till' a(·(·llIIIlI:lllilit y n 'l lllir<'lll<'nls - lllm; llg a llll\"(' t il(' Ill"tll 1ati llil 1'lltllff-11I11 1111 illl11UI\"ing t ilt, school organizat ion. 'Il H' Ilri n('ill<l ls cl"\'a l('(1 :1 (lia lllglll' h,LS('i \ OJl nuprowmem tluu fO('l lst'tl on Ch:lIIg illl,( o rga lli/.:lt io na l s truenm-s and nOI1I1S: they d id not limit their fO('\ ls 10 ShUl1-h'1lI1st ra lt 'g i('S a ime- d a l hoo st ing acntevemcut sl 'o n 'S O\l 'l' the p rohaliolmry hunlh', 'Il lis focll s on itH p ro n >Hlt'lIl a.s a la rger. co l!t'i'l i\"p goal W:I.S a ('o ll<;i<;!I' 1l1 llIt's,sagp tha I I\ ARA S FINN IGAN AND TRICIA J STEWART pri mari ly ()(TllITP. l thro ugh scboot wlde an d ｾｵ ｬｦＧＭ ｉｦＧｶｴ ｬ ｬｴＢ＾ ｬ ｩ ｬｧＮ .. a nd h-d to {'Olll11l011 goals and expectanons. Their ongoing c onumtmeu t to aut hentic sc hool impro vement W<lS diffe re nt from that of th e principals in the o ther sc hools, who focus ed na rrowly o n the accoun tability po licy requirem ent s (s imply ｾｴ Ｌ ｬｴ ｩｬ｜ｒＺ a bove the probat ion cutoff). Al OIIP of Ihl'SP schools Ｈ ｾ ＲＩ Ｌ set t tn g I he di r ect ion o f III(' school m ea nt t'li m inaling ｾ ｰ ｸ ｬ ｭ ｳｒ ｟ ＼Ｇｉ ｮ ｹＱ ｨ ｩ ｬ ｾ tha t d id not seem central to the vis ion of s chool Improvement . Sim ila rly, the principal a nd s taff a t RIO bega n (,x<lIuini ng t he dat a Front different programs to det ennme which s ho uld remain . Afte r oxammmg III(' data a round t he in-school suspension progr am . for exa mple. a nd fin di ng that st ud en ts WNt' not c ha nging their beha vio rs afte-r pa rt icipat ion in this progra m. th ey di scont inu ed it a nd ins te a d identified ways to b e tter serve 1I1PS(' s t uden ts wit hin their cl as sro om s . Along w it h c hallt'llgi ng ex isting pract ices . th e pri ncipals in 82 and ｾ Ｑｏ Implement ed ad dit io na l t esting a nd th e s ubseq uent re view of It'SI res ult s with teachers. to target wea knesses and iden tify s trategies fo r improvement . In two schools Ihat moved off probation hut at a s lower pa ce (&1 a mi 8 6 ). the princi pa l set clear expecta tions regarding reading instruction that It'd 10 coherence an d consistency a cros s each school. Pe rhaps the ｢ｩ ｾ ｴＧｓ ｴ dis tin ct io n be t we en these Ｑ ｦＧ Ｌｈ ｬ ｰ ｾ a nd th e O Ilf'S in t he sc hools th at 1l\00'f>I! (Iff 11rnhat ion quic kly is that be yond ｦ ｻ ＩＨＢ ｉ ｉ ｓ ｩｬ ｾ their effort s o n re ading, t hey had no clear vis ion for school improvement : that is , th ey d id not a rt ic ula te way s ill which the st ructures . nOl1l1S, a nd inst ructio na l pract ic es wo uld Ｈ Ｇ ｨ｡ｬｾｰ III accommodate t his IIPW fll{'IIS OI l ｮ Ｇ ｡ ､ ｩ ｬ｜ ｾ unpro venu-n t. Althongh one principal ､ ｩ ｾ ＢＧｬ ｓ ｓ Ｈ ＧｦＱ a pla n for mm i ll!2: off j irobanon. s he ado pt ed the ｾｯ｡ｬ ｳ and ｉ ｭ ｬ ｒＺ ｜ｊ［ ｾ ｴ Ｇ of tilt' ex ternal partner , th us indicating a limited un､ｦＧｔｓ ｬ｡ｮ｣ｴｩｾ of what s trategies o r a pproaches to Implement . In t"SSpIICl:' , IhpSl' Ipa (I('TS were not a hle to a rticulat e a visio n for school hn provem enr that wo uld a llow their schools to under go 111If' organiza nona llea n ung a nd change. Few teachers had posit in " things 10 say about the lead ership a t the schools tha t remained on pr obanon. Ac{'onlin/lt 10 nne. the y we re like "a tri be with king. In tht'S(' sc hools. th e exter na l part ne rs often filled a lea de rs hip void IpO hy th e principals , ｳ ｨ｡ｊｬ ｩｬｾ the direct ion a nd couecnve goa ls in a na r row wa y <IS aligned wit h their ow n program s . Interesn ng ly, th e e xternal partner s were usua l ty selected bec ause of th e d in -rtor's pe rsona l reputatio n. rather th a n the program philosophy or e mpha sis . thus . th e pro gram did not Ii t '( 't 'S.. arily match the philosophy and ongoing re fo r ms of sc hool staff ( an d, at tunes , wa... coutradu-tory 10 tl lI'S('). In 0 11(' of Ihf'Sf' sc hools (S I) , thf' ('xt prnal pm111t'1' IlIll o lily t1il'('{'lt"lll('al'llt'rs ' plmming lllf'f'tings hUI a lso nhspn: pd 110 R lht' reachers 10 deu-mune w ho needed a ssistance and 10 ｓ ｕｾｬＧｓ ｉ ［ｬ d iffen'lIt Ｇ of acnon 10 the pli lld pa l «(',K . n 'IHO\'al). ('\"(' 11 though the ex ternal patf ne't h ad 110 Inn ua l a uthority at the schoo l s ill', The pri nc ipa ls o f t he s c hoo ls tha t n- maim-d o n probat iona ry s ta tus Iried ne-w 1ht ngs III /o(t'l uff probat ion , TIlf'Y IIS('II ;1 n umber o f a pproaches 10 thi s P IH I: pi l otin g a reading pro gram ill a fe w g ra des. nuplenu-nttng a pullout ｰｲｯ Ｌ ｾ ｮ ｈ ｵ for st ud e nts . n >q llir ing mandat ory rea ding o r wrtnng blo ck s , H'cru i lill g Il I' W n-ne-hers ( p ,g . , Tea ch fo r Chicago Int erns ). hirin g a n ';Hli l ig coordina tor, lo we rtn g cl as s s tzes. ereattng Incent ives fo r tea c hers 10 Improve te st s cores ( l',g" gift ca rd for t he teach e r with th e hight'st gro wt h ill sc on >s ), la rgt'l ing st ud ents nea r lilt' ae-r-ountabihty t-ut nff fo r ex tra SllP P 0l1 , IIIt'Ptillg wifh teachers In d isl'lIss performance " a la , msmuung all-dav kinde-rgart en . ilH1111'lu t' lIti ng s chnolwide lit era cy Ihl'lIlt's , a n d n 'q uil"in g o ll go in g I ps l prep. TIlt' piecemeal efforts nf these leaders wt-re no l 1';111 of a coherent or s l ra lt'gic at tempt In fa cilitat e o rg a lli7.11l io lla l cnanae ( I I" a n ex plk-t t vtston fo r Impro vement . Th is was c-qn-ciafly In ll' wi lh regard to Ih e pla n ning PWCI'SS required hy the dt smct . wh ich was c lea rly developed to co m ply w ilh dt s trlc tmandates ra t fu- r than hI' us ect a s a mechanism fur whole-school Improvement . In severa l sdlHn ls , l hos t' Involved in t ilt' proce ss reported ｍ ｣ ｵ ｴ ｴｩ ｬ ｾ a nd pa s ling t hin gs from the p revious ye a rs ' document ra th er than conduct ing all inten sive s t ud y of wh at wa s o r \vas no t workin g in t hei r sc hool hllSt'd Oil dat a. As nwnuoned earlier. Iht, re forms a dopted i ll rtu- fin ' s cl ullIls that n ' llI <lillpd o n probation Wt'I"{' di rected so ll'ly toward proha non Ｈ ｉｬ ｩＭＮｯ ｬ ｾ off Ihis s ta t us ) ra the r Ih a n toward in st mct tona l impro ve ment. In 0 111' illsl a lln' (S'). t hr- pri ncipa l ､ ｩ ｳ ｡ ｾ ＮｉＺＨ ｮ Ｇ ｧ ｡ ｬｴ Ｇ ､ Iht, scho o l's <lata 10 the potnt that he k new ho w many s t udents Illiss('d o m- o r twn III1t'Stiuu s . r-ompluiuiug lhat had t hey answered t hes e correct ly. the s c ho o l w Ol1 ld han > hl' t' n removed front prohauon. His complai nt ｳ ｬｉｾ ｧｴ Ｇ ｳｴ thai lu- wa s fo clIs ing almost ex cIusive ly o n tlu- me as ure used i n Ih l' po licy (IIII' It's i S I 'CI l"{' Clllllff ) andnot whether the st udents wereleaming. One o f Iht, pitfa lls o f t h is na rr o w re s pons e 10 the po licy was Ih a l flu- tnrgr-t kl'pl illc n 'a sillg, a m l as a result . sustaiunhh- improvement s were unlikely wit ho ut a vis iou fo r o rga niz a t io na l <"I1,m gt' , ｻ Ｇｏ ｬ ｾ M DEVELOPIN G PEOPLE Princi pa ls w ho t11'\"t'lop Ilt'0 pll' h ring reachers Into contact wit h 111'\\' ideas : they c1e \"('lop their knowledge a nel sk i lls; a ml they en courage them 10 II}' new practices (Leit hwood & J a nt zi. ZOO5: Lenhwood et al.. 200t Leithwood &. Ri<>hl. 2oo:} ). 111{' pl;nt'i p:tls ill t he sdlflo ls tlml lIIo w d off 5HR "'ARA S FINN IGAN AND TRICIA J STEWART probation quickly (S2 and S IO) target ed H'SOllfCt'S (i nclud ing instructional resources] toward their visio n a nd provided s uppo rt to teachers ill thei r efforts to impro ve. Alt ho ugh we fo un d f', i dp !I('{' o f this in bot h schools . IIU' te achers af S:! we re in s tronger agre em e nt th ai t hey rec eived tilt' s upport tllt'y IIl'l'dpd fro m their prtnctpa l to Impro ve t heir student s' academic perfo r mance. \ la llY te a cher s a l 82 repo rted tha t their principal provided t hem with the ne cessa ry resources and supporte d them in their wo rk. For {'xa mplf' , one tea cher tnld u s . lmenn [the ｰ ｲ ｩ ｮ ､ ｲ ｡ ｬ｝ ｬｩｾ ｨ ｬ have to liste n to our id f'a.. a nd s he m il': ht say , M Oh, I do n 'l really thin k that is a gfMK I ide a ," hUI w e mil': hl t ry it <I!!a in anot her t ime and sIlt' uuglube more re cep tive ｉ ｬ ｡ ｈ ｾｨ ｳ ｬ Ｌ BUI she does listen. She does hsten, w Inch I think helps a tot. [Tea r-her 3, S'2) IIPH' II1£' principal was viewed a.'! SOIllPOIlf' wh o no ! o nly list ened to the c om pla ints o f parents a nd reache rs but als o iden tified solunons t o th eir problems. At S IO the p ri ncipa l fo cused o n reellocat lng re sourc es 10 s upport teach e rs . inclm ling having o nly one ass istant principa l, 10 pa y for two 111011' reachers a nd thus create smaller r-lass S il l'S ill th e primary gra des. 111is dec is ion lIlay have exacerbated SOIll{' o f the divi sions bet ween the p rimary-wade tea c hers and up per-grade teache rs . Fina lly, in bot h school s , till' principal had given lead e rship responsi btluies 10 ､ ｬＧ ｳ ｩ ｾ ｉＱ ［ｬｉ ﾣＧ ｣Ｑ a dnums tra tors rega rding the development of te a che rs (a'! discuss ed Iatr-r, n ·ganl. illg tho d ist rib ut io n of lea de rs h ip ). 11l('St' individuals modeled Il'ss o lls and h elped reachers e xa m ine st udent da ta a nd conside r al te r nat ive instrucn ona ! approaches to a d d ress st udents' nee ds mort' appropriately. 11w princ-ipal at nne o f the sc hools tha t 1Il0\H I off pro bation s low ly (8:1) (lI1IIl',II·t'd more surcr-ssful than the 0111('1" two at developi ng the people within the orga niza tion and, t hus. was more s imila r 10 the s c hoo ls t hat 1110\"(,<1 off probat ion qu ic kly. St>" ('ra l tea chers a t this s c hoo l repo rte d inc re ased professional development a nd oppcr t um nes to be heard. as illust ra ted by nne tea c he r's com men ts : SIU' a llowt',! us 10 collabo rate a nti voic e our o pin ion... And ha..ｩ｣｡ ｬ ｾ ﾷ Ｌ Ih;ll's whal s he wn...- a ｦ ｮ ｣ｩｬ ｴ ＼ｴｬ ｯ ｲ Ｍ ｾｮｩ ｻ ｴｩ ｬ ｾ and ｳ ｬＱｒＧＺｦｓ ｬｩｮｾ Ｌ ;1.." 0 JlJlos£'t"I 10 Iw illg aurhori ta nve. Am! s ill' a llo ws li S to ho ng what WP 11a\'(' 10 the table. Wt' r- reall' the Sr! l<K I] atmosphe re, t ilt' school environment and needss a mi wants Itlgt'tlwr. :-;'l I don" think the re's ever b een a l ime that I've hea rd her say. "No. we won't do tlus.tl mean. we always s it down and talk about it a nd tlisc u"'s . S!tf"11 sa y. -no you think thi s is what's hest fnr o m childre n?" A nd a 101 of t imes Wf' ('n nw ｨ ｬ ｾ ｴＧ ｨ ｴＧ ｲ a lu l ｭ｡ｾ Ｇｬ ｷ s llf' a lrpa dy kno ws it's no l riRl ll. But ins!l ',HI nr Jus t yOll kn o w , jus t knorki n!! us do wn an d ｳＮ ＱＮｾｩ ｊｧ Ｌ - No, wp' r (' IInl goinlo! 10 lin that,- sh(' gin'S [1Is l an 0 PIH1I1t tllity 10 col!allOrall' a nll ('Olll{' to 0 111' o wn flf'Ci s inn .. o r r('n li7.p Ifo r oursp!\"t's] a nd Wf' d o . (Tendlf'l"" , S l ) 1" . ,,1i "'I f "/,."'.,.. I '",1,' " I ...ＮＬ ｾ Ｂ /Y ' F m 11l" llllOn '. tt,;td lt'r' ;11 this Sl·lluol n -porn-d ptl!'iiliu' rommumcanon 011111 ｴＢｦ ｩｬＧ ｬ ｾ ｐＧｉＢ Ｇｮｯ ｴＧ ｮ ｨ ｬ ｬ ｾ ｬＱ III" t',,<thl;ttillll pron>s-.. h t't'aIlSl' t fu-y we re .'tin'lI ff'('ln .m·k a l M'lll how In improve e-urriculum a nr! instruction. In {"UIlIr ot..t. :!, f If :!S u-ar-lu-rs a l'Jlu' 'If Iht' (IIlu-r schools that ullIn'll l IfT "ml..a tion ｬ ｴ Ｇ ｉ ｍ ｉ Ｑ Ｑ ｴ Ｇ ､ Illalllwy H't·,'in 'tlulill im,t1 j'Hlf('S-silllla l d('H'llllllll('nt "I'lw ly ｻ ｾｩｬ alld a lac-k of !,li lwi, ..,1 SIII'IMI11 -all while IIm lt'r Iht' j,'ad " rshi p fir a priru-ipal whll \\ as later rpll\u \'t'fl frmu 1ln- sd u NII. ( )lIt' h'adwr suuum-d III' the vi, 'ws of many when slw said. I t lnnk . 'lu i'I' ｦｲ｡ｬ ｫｬ ｾ Ｇ Ｎ Ihal Il lI' , "ur n'llI ;llimill is lr;l tor 0 1';lf im illi"l ra l iu ll is not ottln- r 1";11',,1 ,11, o r \\ ｩ ｬ ｬ ｾ h ' do IIU' Ih ill !,!" IIf't ·!'S."".1ry 1o !'!", liS ' Iff l,rn h .1ti" Il, s uch ,l" u 'ally ｉ ｬ Ｂｨ ｩｬ ｾ IIU' s la ff In II(' mnova nve. . .. I !In'd think lilt' .1,hnin islral ion IlIIdl' I-.."III< I" \\ hal it is Ih.1 1 ill Ill(' In ll!'! rUll 1'!f'IS kid s 10 h"'"om" Iwll ,'r rea de rs. 1,,'lh 'r " lllft,'nls, IWI" 'r thin ks rs . Ami Il!wsll 'l underst nud ;Il ul h" I' h" .111 is not ;1110 all aSl' t' c!s of ht 'illl': a It"lft" r. I dOll'! Sf'f' If'al k rsh ip , Arlit you know tha t ｬ ｡ ｬｩ ｦｬ ｬｾ wuh h 'ad ll'l'S, ｾ ｉｍＢ ｴ rela;lIdlult", ｾ Ｇｍ ..I I'f'l ati " ll s wuh lI arl'lll s. ｾ Ｂ Ｌ ｉＧＨ l in ll s wit h kid s . (T l'l ld w t r" Sli ) Sim ila rly . a primary s l l1llt'J.lV n f lilt' p rincipal fir Ihl' Ih illl st 'll"ol In IIlU\'l' nIT prohatiun s lo " Iy l S I) \\";IS 10 ill(,Tt,a.'if' t Ill' ｬｉ ｯｬ ｩｬ ｕｬ ｩ ｬ ｾ o f teacher p l1ld k t·s---fo r exampb-. hy revn-wmg the- IO--\H't' k a."";I'SSlllt'lIts ｾ ｩ ｜Ｇｬ Ｇ ｬ by ｉ ｴ Ｇ ｡ ＨＢ ｨ ｴ Ｇ ｬ ｾ ;11 ,,1 1lIISl.'n:ill.'! daKslHumo,; 10 Sl't' ｾ ｩ ｦ ills tn wtiull i.. ｨ ［ｴ Ｂ ｰ ｴＧ ｬ ｩｮ ｾ Ｌ ｾ !I o Wt" 't' r. tilt' I'ri llcil'<tl ,lid 1If11 Ilist ·1N'" how s ht ' wou ld luuld tin' r-apac-ity (I I' tl" "t'."I ' IIII' kllflw lt'tlJ!t, a nd s k tlb, " f h '''dwr-i \\ ht 'll ..ht' 111I{"o n 'n 'tI' lro l... It'mo;. In f:td . It't\dWTS (,lllllp la ilJ('l l l hal ..lit' wac most rl K'II'if'(1 0 11 s tudent Ix-havior ra the-r tha n ' Il l dt'H'h'I,i".'! nr ｳｉｈ Ｇ Ｎ Ａｴ ｬｕＧｮ ｩｬ ｾ their mstmcnona l N -;tcti n .... " m ff>S.s in ll<tl ,lt '\"('l opIlWIII or ad dit ional ｴｲｮｩ ｬ ｩ Ｑｾ was limited a t lilt' lin · ..du NIl.. that remained on probation. DEVELOPING THE ORGANIZATION whenprmctpals Ilt' v t' lo p Ill(' orga nizati on. the y CH'HII' a po smve school t'Ull ml ' with hi j!h It-'vt'ls of re lat iona l trust: t hey Ｇｩ ｴ ｲ｡ ｨ Ｇｾｩ Ｈ ﾷ｡ ｬｹ acquire reSOll rl't 'S; and t hey aln-r Iht' o rJ:a l1 iza lio na l st ructures In Iar-ilitat c t ht'S(, ､ ｬ ［ ｴｉＱ ｾ ｴ Ｇｓ (l A'ilh w(lllc\ & .la nt ai. 2!1(1!l; Leit hwoo d et nl., 2(I()I ; Leit h wuod .-.:: Hil' h l, :WlI:l). The I'rinl'il'a l" in I h" S('h()()ls that l11o \'l 'd off probat ion Illlie k ly 1I1'Pt' Hfl' t1 10 h t' SlIC('t'SSfll l a l 1101 on ly ､ Ｂ ｜Ｇｬ Ｇｬ ｬ ｰｩ ｬ ｾ a posilin ' a nd colla looral in ' sl:hl" ,1 dilllalt' a nd nllt ll H' 11Ill a lso ｰ ｲｦｬ｜ Ｇ ｩ､ ｩ ｬ ｾ Il'ad w rs w ilh ti lt' n 'sollln's lht'y Ilt,('tlt't l. AJ:(a in, t hp pri nc ipa l ;(1 S2 ap pt 'a n 'lI SlllHPwhat I1Ifll !' SHfTt'S-s rlll li mn SIO ill Iht'S(· <tr(,:l"l, AI SIO most ｉｴＬｩ ､ｬｴＧ ｬｾ r(', .. ,I1('(1 lhal t ht,y n 't 't'in'd t llf' Sll ppli t'S a lll i rt-'Sl lllrcf"S IIlt'y IIt't 'tlt'll - pan ic u larly, In Iht' Iilt'nll'y prul!r.tlll. As um' If'ad lN ills ln w t iUlw l mat t-nals ｮ Ｇ ｬ ｡ｴｩ ｮｾ lold liS, · y0 1l han' a 1"1 u f H'S()lln'('S . I IIIt'a n . a llY lllah'nal Ihal lUll n t'ftl [11K) "ARA S FINNIG AN AND TAICIA J STEWART they'll give it 10 yo u. All yo ur ideas peop le listen 10 a nd w ill he w illing to implement ." Ho weve r . in this o ne a rea of o ur filU1illj:!S, we fo un d 1f'S.<; cOIISiStPlI1 PPI'SI)f'Cl i, 'ps w ith in a sch ool: namely. a group o r te ac he rs in the upper grades thought that they d id no t ha n ' the sa m e acc ess to resources as the lower -grad e teachers d id . This find ing appeared closely lin ked to the process o f lmplementm g t he reading p rogram . w hic h th e principal a nd e xterna l partner had in iti a lly focused o n tmplemenung in th e p ri mary gra des a nd <lowly exp a nd in g In the upper grades. At S2 w e f0111\1I st ronger evi denc r- demonst ra ting hi gh levels o f respect for the principa l a nd h igh levels of relat ional t rust a mong the s taff A c ritica l aspect of t he improveme nt proces s a t hot h t hes e scho o ls w as t ha i the prim-ipals h a d t-reat ed so lid hl o ('ks o f lilll t> fo r t eachers to c o lla horate. Alt h o ug h il run s c ounte r 10 t he lit e ra t ure on developtng pro fes sional comm uutues, w hich emphasizes h llild ing a co lla bo ra tive cult u re inlf'l'd f'l)(,lld Plltly ( IJUFOllf, Duleour. & Eaker, 2008 ; DuFour, Duf'ou r. Ea ke r. & ｾ ｬ ｡ｮ ｹ Ｌ ::!O(}Il; Duf'our & Ea ke r. IFIBS: Ea ker, Duf'o ur . & Duf'ou r. 20(2 ), till' p ri n ci pa ls ill S2 a nd St n mandat ed th at teachers me e t. Throug h t his requin-nu-nt . t hese p ri nci p a ls demonstrat ed t hei r commitment to d m ngi n g til(' norm w it h in th e se s c ho ols from O IlP in w h ic h t ea chers worked in is o la l io n 10 o ne in w h ic h t ea ch e rs worked c ollabo rat ivelv to ward ('olll'(,fj\"f' goals . AI S2 the scho o l ha d Imple ment ed bloc k scne uutｩｮｾ a nti reorganize d the we e k ly sc hedule-c-wtt h four regula r st ud e nt days Iollowed by o ne pre para uon d ay (d u ri ng t he l st ye a r, tllf'Y ha d a h a lf d ay o f prepa ra tion . hili it was c hanged to a fn ll d ay ill 1111:" 2nd yoa r). One teach er 11t'..c-nbed . ｦＧ ｬ ｩ ｬＱ ｾ t he grado level . I never t houglu I would like that. I kind of liked isolalf'd Iwfnrf', haviug my o wn pr e p liul('. lining my work, And then we firsl started wilh a hal f-a-day a wee k the lsi ye ar . And a t firs t we're kind of like "Why dn w (' han " to lalk 10 these ot her people? I jusl wantt o do what' s ill my room and that's it." II loo k awhile . It was hard 10 share Info rma tion willi other teachers. ., , Before. yo u we re in your room. yo u we re like anot he r r-ountry. you did yo ur own thing. Aw l God kno..... s wha t was going 0 11 in the next third-g rade classroo m. But now it's easter. (-;\'f'I)" year we shan> mort", And iI's 1101an easy t hing. So teache rs in othe r s c hools, ift llt'y have jmandated I'olla ho r,'llion nme]. u's a drastic change. BUI yo u have to r('as.o;ur(" them, "You're going 10 like u." ..\ nd [the prmc ipalj told us. "You're going 10 hke u." [Teac her a, S:!) And ｉ ＬＧ ｭ ｩｬ ｾ The teachers ht' lie\"f'li thai this scllt'd u ling c hange m a de a d iffere nc e in the ir e ffo rts 10 im p rove perform anc e . g iving te achers tun e 10 p lan a nd ("01labo ra t e. Simi la rly, a t S In the p rin cipa l had inst itut ed co m m o n ｰ ｬ ｡ ｬ ｬｩ ｮ ｾ tune G days a week for teac hers. requi r ing them 10 meet as a f(l"OllJl w ilh the rt';u lilll! r-uordmator d llr in .g our- of IhllS(' t tnu-s . As 0111' pri lH;uy grade te.u-lu-r IIPSt -ribed. mrs ,\"p;n WI' han ' 11\"1' p rf'ps a nd t wo of Ih osl' pre p<; lire spe-nt with nl ht' r 1'01k a glll's ｉ ｬＧ｡ ｭｩｬ ｾ Ｌ dis ,·u<;s ing, s hllr illg. Am l lns l yea r rf':llly 1111' only lim p VI(' d id Ihal is if 1\I 'I< N,k a <'1 a».s through [tht- H·;ttlill!'! r-oordinator ]. Andnow tlus year i' is maudntory. ( )11 :\Iollda:vs , I gu and l l1W1'1 with 11ll' Sl·t'o llt!-gra t!t' tear-hers. w ilh [t lu- rf'alling r-uordinaror] who is my liIPr;lI')' r-oordiuamr now... , Shl:' s ho \\'<; li S IH'W Ihi ngs . \\ .f' wntr-h ,·itlt'os o f nl/lI'r Il'ad w rs who w(' might want In lr-nm sOllw lhin g rrom . AIlI! Ih(,11 O il wedues da vs. W(' me et wit h ou r ｾ ｲ｡ ｻ ＱｴＧ It·\l'I 10 tlis' ·lIs" 11lf' S; U I1I' IYIW o f i <;S Il I'S . , , , So now W I' lIrl' ('\-f'1I gl'tlin g s l ro llgl' r with oll r I\ or killg 1ol(I'I I1I'r and trylna 10 1110\,\· lht· kids. [Teac-lu-r 20, S IO) \\,p fUUllI1 SO!HC' dl saz rcement in S IO IWIW('t' Il IlJlPN a nd p rimary reac hers: Prtmarv-grade lI'adlt' rs ｮ ＧｊｬＰｉＱＨ ｾＱ that p roh ati oll had r-a used f hem 10 w or k logl'l llt' r ilion ' a s l ilt')' a l1C'lIlplt't! 10 imp n J\'t' IIIC'ir sch ool's perfo r- ruanc'o, hUI IlPIll'r·gr:u It's tearherx dt'm Olls l r:ll t't! Ih al III('.\' were ill Hil ly lilt' bt' gilln illg s l a g(' s I If ch a ng ing t hp norm s fro m isolat io n to «ollnboratiou. As IIII\' s ix l h-j,!r;u ll' 11';1('111'1' st a lt'II, III'll . h :t" il-all,\' , W I' all ' SlIl'llf,s l'd Itl I,f' work ing l' lgt·, lw r (lolillg t he s nmr- t hi n!Z How ever. I douht tha t if Is ac-tually ha l' l' l' llinj;( he r'nu se as o f Illis pniur lI t' haven't been ahh- 10 1111'(" as ofn-n as W I' Ill 'f'd fn gd lhos(' filings 10 ｮ ｾ ﾷ Ｎ (["" a d II'!' I. S ill ) at 'hi' ｳ ｾ ｬ ｭ ｬＧ ｬ ｩ ｬ ｬｴＧＮ "1111' s c·lu )(lis t lurt I1 l1ln'( l o ff Ilwl >al ilII I IlIl'H ' s lo w ly lta ll a 11m/-( way III go in h 'I111S o f d l' \ t' I( ll' ing a IN)Sil in ' ('u IlIlH' a nd dilll a tl' , yet the I'rindpa ls a l 1wn ( If 11ll'S(' s l 'h ol lls (S:l aur! SlI ) d iS<'us.' wI! (' IIIIIIJ"(' and climat e ,lo; 1,1i()rili l'S, an d 10 s ('p huprovenu-nts . 0 111' p rinci pa l hrOllj:lht in a ll e xter nal 1(';tdw rs ｨ ｬＧ ｾ ［Ｑｉ orgall il.al io rl ( no l their e xte rnal partners ｉ ｨ ｲｯ ｬ ｾ ｨ p rohation ) to h('lp build l h t· internal roummnit y a nd develop t rust ;u Ho ng s la ff. TIl(' 0 111('1" prilldpa l ｮ ＧｭＱ Ｑｬ ｾ ｬＧ ､ HlP s d w<lllip 10 a llo w r-onuuon ｰ ｬ ｡ｮ ｬ ｩ ｬ ｾ tun e fo r teachers at lilt' S;lI!W grade level and required teachers to 11I('('1 OIWt' a week I!t U;lIg th is time. Altholl/;! h this s l('p was simila r 10 that Hf the schools lhat moved o ff prnhat mn st atus quickly. it W,L<; 110 1 ;IS intensive- o r ta rgl'll'd - fo r example. ｓｾ had a n ('uti !"£' day o f rounnou "hu mi ng tim e, am i S )O n'( lu in ·tl that III(' gr;u \p-\(> n '! I('m ·llf'l"S 1Il1'('f with the I"t'ad ill,£( coordinat or 1II I n 'a tlillg Ins m u-. lion. l't'rll a l's m o rt' im p 1ll1;lll l.lIw Sl; teachers h a d not ("!I;lI1gt' d their norms a round t'o lla ho ra li ng: the .... d id so out o f (·o m p limll '(' , ;L', . k-m onstrat ed l ry lilt' fo llo w illg quot e: That's \\ I IY \H ' d, 'I'i, ll'd 10 just 1111'1'1 wun ou r gm d e 11'\'1'1 a n. I sharr- nu- iufor ma non ;11 o llr ｾ ｮ ｴ ｨ ﾷ ﾷ ｬＧｱ ｬ ｬＨＧ ｬﾷ ｴ ｩ ｬ ｧ ｳ hpt'mlsl' IhosC' a rf' tll'lInih " flllCt' ;I \\1·1'k. Tilt· form II llS 10 l:!:0 In lilp I' I;n d p;ll. so h)" (;o-d w ('°J"(' llwl'l illg. If yOIl 110 11' 1 llWl'l, <;hf" 11 gI'l ｾ Ｍ ｏ ｬ Ｎ (T1;';lc h l' r !l. Sli) 602 KARA s. FINNIGAN AND TRICIA J . STEWART As iudir-at ed hy this ff'SPOIlS!' mill o the r teachers' ｦ ｾｊｬ ｏｉｬ ｓ ｐ ｓ Ｌ teac-he r collabora tio n was st ill in its infa ncy. In essence, th ese schools had mo ved aw ay from dys functio n hu! ha d not truly de velope d Into support ive a nd collaborat ive environments o r profes sio na l learning commumt les (St'P Dufour &. Ea ke r. H1f1R; ｾ ､ｬ ｾ ｉｬ ｾ ｨ ｩｬ ｬ &. Talbert . l! 1fI:l ). III a dditio n, te acher t urnover h ad o CCIlITPd at bot h sc hools. wh e n ask ed about the num ber of people !f'a \; lIg and wh et her lilt' re sult was a posin ve or a negative, o ne h 'a du"r II I S6 110 tNI, Dh. a ｰ ｮ ｾ ｩ ｬ ｩ ｮ Ｇ Ｌ hl'<';"I1Is l' S(JIl1P o ( the people Ihal I" ft we re a little iso lating am i llil l'k ky a tul our-and-our nu-an sometimes. Ami il just ma kes (or a Iw Ul' r school when t here a re mce people a nd 1'\"I'I)·OI le ge ts a long and e ve ryone likes ea r-h ot he r. [Teac her It . S6 ) As her wo rds imply. th is tu rn o ve r lila...· ha ve cont rj buted to ti lt' d evelop1Il t'111 of a mo re rosinve sc hool cult u re . At l ilt' ot her sc hoo l th at mo ved off p robat ion s lowly (S4 ). i1isciplil\£' was a major iss ue , wit h te ac he rs a nd ad mmistrato rs pla cin g the blame 0 11 one an oth er. thereby ｩ ｮ ､ ｩ ｣ ｬ ｬｩ ｬ ｾ a la c k o f rel ationa l trust . One reason s Im H:1 out a mo ng: th ose that te a chers ga\ "p e xplaining w hy the s c hool did not ha w a posntve clim at e: TIl£' principal had been a te ac her a t the school a nd was perceived a" ｳ ｨｯ ｷ ｩ ｮ ｾ favori tism to he r former collea gues. However. at a ll three schools 1ha l moved off probation slo w ly. tea c hers indicated th ai the r-limate of t he school showed s igns o f imp roving a nd t hat c ollabo ra t ion was s tart ing 10 occur ;11 SOIlH' grade leve ls. Int he sch o ols th at remained o n probationary s ta tus. this area of le ad e rship a ppeared to 1)(' part icular!...· we a k, with ne ga tive sc hool climates a nd a pe rvasi ve lack of t rust w ithi n these s chools, re s ulnug in lo w levels of mo tivation. Fo r e xam ple. a t S8 a teacher s aid, Sf'f' IllS In I){' down . Pf'o pll' SWill In be scared. First of all, they dOll't kn ow t he situation w ith tilt" schoo l he ing closed u p and wha t's go ing to happ e n with the sc hool. . . . T hat's a n o ngoing r-oncern . Mo rale SWillS to hI' ve rylow. I mea n Il1Iilf' a few pl,,,pl(' SWill like M Oh. I ca n't S.1y thts. rill s ca red to say this." ... WI' like e m-h other. h ut [Ihey Ihi llk l. "lf I ha ve s OIllf'lhing to 5.1y, I r-nn't say il because o ( r epe rc ussi on s." An d somet imes I reet mat way, I' MI. (Te aeher S, SR) Staff mo rale In one of lh (' sclloo ]s tha t remained on p robat io n (88 ), te achers report t'd that lh('y received 111£' rr-sonrr-es th ey 11(' f' <1 ('( 1; in the o the r four s chools. tea ch..' I'S repea tedly reporte d thei r ne ed f O J" addu ional resources a nd training. Th es e vie w s a bout th e lac k of resources a nd th e mdt canons of lo w level s o f IntSI W £'rf' Illost wi<if'Spf£'a d a t ｾ ｮ As onp tpad wr CO Il\lllf'ntNI. yo u kllow l hal Ihis schoo l {'(m ill h.., o ff prohati o n right no...... It M really c oul d , r ill SP';OIlS. Bur no ho dy gets ;HlYs upplies. Th ey don't gt'l an y ho o ks . T hey IIOII'l ｾ ｰｬ any s uppo rt ｾ (Tear-her 12, SH). Another tea t-her sai d, "There a n ' !H I II P W IlIa lt·ri;lls . WI' can say l ila l righl nn w. , , , If a kid has no t lllO\'pd , then Itt' ' ''I ｮ Ｇ｡ ､ｩ ｮｾ somewhat th e s anu- man-rials over. WIH' II as k ed whet he-r t hey w orked to get he r. a teacher a! sn s ta t I'd , "No, lx-caus e W I' don '! ha n ' tho uuu-, a nd uuu's 0 111' o f Ihf' ｪ ｨ ｩ ｮ ｾ ｳ we brought li p. W(' IIl'p<I nme 10 r-ollnhorat e 10 pla n together. and W (' re a lly don't h an ' ti lt' time." Alt hollJ,(h some principals in Ihp sch oo ls t hat remained O il pro bati on illlp lpllIPnlpd rhe sanu- IYJlPs o f st ruct ures fo u nd ill the ilion' successf u l SI'hll(lls (s urh as ｾ ｲ｡ ､ ｴ Ｇ Ｍ ｴ Ｇ ｜ＢＨＧ ｬ ｬｉ ｬＧ Ｈ Ｇ ｬ ｩ ｬ ｾ ｳ andleaderslup teams ). they d id nol do so with till' same commttm en t to wa rd d p\'plop ing a profes sionnl comlIIun ily a llli rnllaborat ive cult u re. 1II III('sP s chools. ti lt' h 'a('hprs e-ither d id 1101 lIlt't'l at a ll 01" met h ur d id 1101 fot 'Us s ubsta ntively o n st ud ent le arning o r inst rurt ional st ra n-gios dunng l h is lim p. M MAN AGIN G TH E O RG ANIZAT IO N The p rin ci p a ls at Ilip twn sl"hools ll lHl III m 't'd o ff probat tou qui c kly (S2 and S ill ) SIHIWt'l! r-lear signs o f Illa na gi ltg lilt' OI'gm liza li!m, 1!t'tIlons lral illg IIII' 11I0 1"(' transactiona l aspt'c is o f !t' luh 'rs llip (I.A'il llw onti &. Jant zi, 200!); l.enhwood t'1 al.. 200-1; Lenhwood &. Riehl. 2/K):» . ｾｉ ｯ ｳｬ ma nage nal as pt ·t'ts under pressure. a" idenufu-d throngnt h o data . were related 10 o f ＱＨＬ Ｑｬ Ｑｩｾ problems when !P,ttlpl'S did not successtullv buffer tea chers frrun ex ternal (It'lIlalllls (II" s lal)ilizt' Ilt'I'S()JUIPJ. FI1I1hpI"Il lOrt' , li lt' I)rin ci lla ls in the fin ' sd lDo ls lha l remained O il probation foc lIsl'd m o st o f thei r auention 0 11 t bo transact i(llml, manageria l ;4..Sllt'{'ts (If leaders hip 10 111(' detriment (If IIIP o lIH'1". transformati onal It':u II'I'Sllill areas. An importan t lea dr-rslup story t rout Iht'st, data h as 10 do wit h the I'P SII()llst ' of thr- pri nc-ipal s ne-rus elves 10 pmbauon. (II" t hei r ｾ ＾ｴ Ｇ ｮ ｳｴ Ｇ ma kin g as they mn-rpn-t edprobat ion and ma de dect s tons in respons e 10 t his a ccounta hil ity p oliq ; rl . outs . F('!wy , &. Sch roeder. 2()()!); Sp illa llt' (' I <II.. 200 :!). This was import a nt h('CallSI' it di st ing u is hed 1111' p rinci pals ;ll rho tw o s ('lIo o ls that lllo \"t 'd o ff prnbat ion qu ic kly front 1111' other p ri ll('ipa ls sUl"h Ihat lin' fomu-r h llffN ('l1Ip ad1l' rs from t he distri rt aduumstrators a nd 11 11' a r-c-ount ahilit y po licy ill eoneral. At oS lO Ill(' Pli llC' ipa l lo ld teachers that lil t'}" rould sucn't'd a tu l that tll (';" d id Ho lm't'fll" worr y abuut lo s ing theirjobs. which .';('I1."t'd 10 dt ' fTt',tst' ka('II..rs ' an xiet y about p ro ha l io ll.'· In addition. the S HI pl'illl"ipa l vi r-wed p ro ha ti on in ,I posil in ' lighl - h olll in l ht' ('xlp llIa l a....s is l;u wl' t ha i thp sdlOol n '('('i\"t'd a nd in ti lt' a d d it io na l pOWt'r Iha l s ilt' was gin n as pm1 of Ihis po liey. Th t, p ri llei pal a l S2 intPll lr('l pd prol mti n n in a Silll il;l!" way and fm 'lIsPd o n ant! p lan llPt! fo r sc!lool im pro n 'IIIt'1l1 "MIA S, FINNIGA N AND TRICIA J. STEWART while hufft>rilll!: teachers Imm the negat ive aspect s of the policy (s uc h as lin> threat o f job los.'i Of sc hool d OSUfP ). In man y ways , these principals were ｉ ｴ ﾷ ｶ ｰ ｲｮ ｧｩｬ ｾ <!('cllI lIlta hility to their benefi t . as described by Jacobson and ･ ｯ ｬ Ｇ ｡ｬＡＺ ｬＧ ｾ C20(7). in t heir efforts to garner support from staff an d bri ng a bout improve ment s. They conducted ｯｮ ｾ ＨＩ ｩｮ ｧ monit oring o f implementat ion an d perron nance outcomes a nr! thus rocused t he atte nt ion of IIw s ch oo l s ta ff on stude nt achieve me nt and othe r t ypes of da ta. These rf>SI HlIlSf>S a re in cont rast to how t he principa ls in t he other sc hools Int erpre ted the po licy ami related it to the na rrow foc us on the probat ionary cutoff For e xa mp le. in 57 ra ther tha n buffer teachers from the sanct ions and reduc-e anxiety and ( 'UlWPOIS relanng to these extern al threa ts. the prinr-ipa l thn-at e ned the tea che rs. say ing Iha l they wo uld los e their jobs if they did 1101 Improve lwca use the s choo l wou ld he recons tit uted. Although Ihis aspect of man aging the organizatio n was s imila r in both s chools. a few related problems WPW evident at SID that did not emerge at S2- ll:Ulw ly. disc ip lillP iSSllPS. s ubs tit ute shortages . a nd teacher turnover. AI S IO several tea r-hers thought th at the administ ra t ion did not s upport them when they were having di fficulty wit h st udents. alt hough the prin cipal had hired three disciplinaria ns in an e ffort 10 all eviat e th is problem during the course of the s tudy. In adduton. S IO struggled wit h t he staffing of subsnnues. In ract . our- day while till;" research Il',UH was visit ing. seven teache rs WPfP a bsent a nd no substit utes had arrived. so administrat ors were scram blin g to r-over th ese da...s es. Typical strategies to ad dress this s ho rtage involved a...s igllill/t resource teach e rs 10 cove r C!;L<;."W'S or ､ｨ Ｂｩ､ ｩｮ ｾ a da.'is o f kids in hal f a nd s (,luling ea ch group to another tear-her for the day"Int he rare r-ase w hen subs t tt utes did s ho w uplate r in th e day, st udents a ndteach ers would reorganize once again. TI ll;" c haos associa te d w ith thi s s llhs t itutp problem le nt an air of un ce rtainty to eac h da y. Fina lly. nearly half th e teachers left S IO afte r it went n il probat ion . Althon gh some of these ch a nges WP I"£' volunta ry. others W PfP pa rt o f a K,n ' Nling out" 1)I"()('f'SS that the assistant pl; ncipal described a." a w ay 10 en s ure tha t teach e rs had high levels of conumt me nr to th e sc hoo l in genera l a nd the ne w reading program in parti cu lar. Two sc hoo ls that 1ll0'"(>(1 off probation s lo w ly (S 1 an d SO) ex pe rienced these s ame high levels of teacher tumove r-c-in eac h s chool, a ppro xim at ely half the teach e rs left, s ome vo luntarily, when-as onu-rs were removed hy the ne w princi pa l. Inl pn>stingly, on ly one of tlw principals in Ihp sc hools thaI rpmail1(>(1 on prolmtion (S l) d ir(>('!l;"(1 h{'r at tpnlion lowa rd lll;"fSOllIH'1 is....uPS. ｾｰ ｮ｣ ｯ ｬ ｲ ｡ ｧ ｩ ｬ ｧｾ six Ipac!lpl'S 10 lea' "", 1Ill;" sc ho ol. 111is slra lpgy to rPIlHWt' II few ilwffPCti,"p IpadlPfS is similar to the st ralpg,)' of Sf>\"pm l S('hoo ls Iha t 1ll00"pd off probationa ry stalus. In co nlra"t, prin ci pals at two Sd lOOls Iha t r pma inM 011 prol mtioll (55 and S7 ) tnI'd rt'-- nl lili ll,l! IlI'W h 'adlt'l"s , wu h 111(> lIu pl' 11I:IIII1('y w Ollld infllst ' posil iH ' (>IWIl{\' int o Ilu -sdu H,I. 1'l1fIJl1111l<lI(')y . 1111'S(' pri,wip<lls d id nol t'l llls idt'1" the (>ffffts of p la d lljt IWW a nd , ill a ((>W f' ;-L<;t -s, uncertified u-aclu-rs ill Ihe bem-hmark .l!l"itd ,.... whic-h w l'n' liSt·" In d ,'!t'l'lIIilll' probationary s lal llS (Grad ,'S :1. Ii. a m i RI. aud 1111 SllppUI1S had IWI'1I pil l in plan ' tn IIt'IIi them s mTI't'(1. Ollt' 11';w hN ｜ ｾ hiI ha d a ll t'lllp r,gt'JI('y (" '11ifical inll n-qnin-d :!2 o f 2·1 s lw lt'lIls to ;lll t' lld s runnu-r s!'l loo l ht'c all s" no nr- U( them had S\I(,(,t'ss(u lly (·Olnp lt·!t·d Iht· d ;L...... ｾ lit 'yo llli al'('o untah ilily p n -s....un-s . o r pNha l'S lin ked 10 Ih l'st'. Sl'\'l 'ral sc !Loo l.. lha l n 'lllailll'(l ull pn,hill io ll w t' n ' fadll )! r-losun- I,,'('all st' o f d t'('lillill)! t'llwlllm·nls . As a n SS teacher said . "they'n- h'ari n,g d o wn ;111 o f IIll' I'l1ljt '("ls arunud us. ;Illcl lht' Sl'hIHII populat it III is fl' '(Teas ing . I think for tt u- I'L<,;l :1yt'ars WI' los t a IHlSiliull t'\'t'I')' year....-· This uncertainty a bout lilt' fa it' o f their schools ca used teachers a n x u-tv a bout their positions a ncl Hkt'ly cunlri h lll('t11USOIll(> o f lilt' lIi2h tu rnover. Two St·I"H,I... that 1ll 0\'t'C1 off o f I'rtll mli nn al a sl n wl'r pa n ' (5:1 a nd Sti ) t'XI"" li l' llt'I't1 d mll.l!t... ill Il';u lt'rship afh'r bfoinl't: put ti ll probation (Ollt· jnuuediate-Iy, Iht , ot lu-r after a few ,Y('ars Oil I' rnl mti o ll), Sim ila rly, t hree of the fin' probation schools Ihal werr- st uc k (HoSt' llho IIZ, WSH; Sto ll & Fink. )!I!I(J) Ull pruhatjon e xperienced h i,gh 11Il'IIlIn'1' ill It·,ul l'rsh ip a... m and a lt·t! by t hr - disl ril'l o r, ill 'Ult· n L....-. because of Iht' scnons tlmess o f the pri tu-jpa l. () llI' ' If Iht ,S!· Sd lllll\<'; t' xllt'rit'llCl'd four ｉ ｰ ｡ ｬ ｬ ｬ Ｇ ｬ ｾ ill 2 years. 11l(' pt'Il lt'I UlII turno ver of leade rs-c w ho s hnlllt! ha ve Ix -en St'lI ing l ilt' dm-cli o n fo r Sd ll Hllw id t' improvement hil i wer e not Hu-n - ｉ ｏ ｉｬ ｾ (,Ilou.':h tn d n so -cTt';tIt'C 1(·II:llIt·n2 t... !len IUSI' the It',u lt'rsh ip kt'l 'I ｃ ｨ［ ｬｉｊＺ ｩ ｬｾ lind ht'('a llS!' li lt' ｭｬｵ ｡ ｬｩｴ Ｇ ｲｳｬ ［ｬｉ､ｩ ｬ ｾ and Intsl thai true l'u llal" lral in n ｮ ＧＨ ｬｉｩｮ ｾ \\'t'n ' Ilt'n 'r re ahzed . As tl llt· Ip:ldwr at s r) l'lah'(l. "you know. pl't ll'lt' ta kme over a lltl ｴ Ｇ ｮ ｬ ｩ ｬ ｾ in wit h ､ ｩ ｦＢ ｉｾ ｬｉ ｴ a ll illltlt"!'i a nd ､ ｬ Ｎ［ｵ ｬ ｊＮＺｩｬ ｾ lh is . Anti yon ge tused In run- ｬｨ ｩｮ ｾ a nd tl wy try to s traig hte-n. so you d idn'l know if you \\' ('1'1 ' c om ｩ ｬｾ nr aomg." 11\('1"(' was no rh-ar alll'mpt at the ,lis lrit'l It·\ '(>1 to prm 'idt · Iht'st· SI'h (M I,,", w it h a St'astlllt'Cl administralor; ill snlllt' t·.LSI'S, 111(> n-placenu-nt had liuh- tn no t' xperiellt"t· ill a It'.ult·rsh ip rol l' , ｾ Ｑ Ｚ ｬｉ ｙ o f tln- pnncipals in the Sd ll"'lls that remained o n probation (wit h a(h'k " rnuu the probation ｭ ｡ ｭｬ ｾ ｴ Ｇ ｉ Ｇｓ w ho 1Ilt'1I1 01'('tl lltplll ) he ,gan Ilwir impl'n n ' l\lt'll l " ff0l1s hy ｉＧ ｬｳ ｬ ｩｬ ｾ tl ut! Ih t, ph ys ic:1 1(,Il\'iWlIlllf'llt w as mon' p lp:L-.;·m l (e,.':" ｩ ｐｬ ｬｉ ｜Ｉ ｩ ｬ ｾ t hp ｉｩ ｾｨ ｬｩ ｮ ｾ Ｌ n 'p lad ll,l! w indo ws ). At S IO. Olll' o f lht· sehon ls.1ha l Illm '('d o ff I,w ha t ion q uic kly, Iht' pO lll'i pal l'('(·og nizt'(l lllt· Ilt't 'd In tlll t'lltl lo Iht· ph )o's k al stn l('t lln ' o f t ht' st"" lmo l. ind udill,l:!; ｉ ｬ ｡ ｩ ｬ ｩｴ ｬ ｾ Iht · in lt 'riu r fur Ih t, firsl lime in 20 )o'I·a..... tlnd ｮＭｰ ｬ｡ ｬＢｩｮ ｾ hrnkt'll wilUltl ws. In Ih t· SI'h uol s t ha i n 'mailU'fl Oil prtlha1ioll w llf'rf' Ihl'st, la<,;ks wpl'e I"fl 1111:11 It·IIIII'tl. lh " t·Il\ 'irt JllIUI'nt... I(>ndt'tlI n hi' sOIllPwhtll t!t·l ln "S.... ｮｩ ｾ Ｎ OIl(> IIlt'ml",'r n f Iht- WSt'a rdl It'mll Ilol ed Iha l a slt'ne ll ca u U' fnun ullt' u f Ill(> SdU H.rS I\ARA S F ltl NIG M I AND TRICIA J STEWART bathrooms a nd t ha i a child was unnanng ill lilt' e nt ra nceway because t here ltaht s Inside t il(' luuhrnom . 111t' ch an ges 10 t hese fa cilities w ert' mon- limn symbolic- gest ures. t ht·)· we re necessary c ha nges to neg lec te d W(' H' IlO phys ica l st rur-tures. The p rincipals of 1I1P schools th at re ma ined Oil proba tio n focused almost exclusively on mcmr o rtng fo r co mpliance rat her th an improvem ent . {'s ing o!)Sf'Pva nons as pa rt of lilt' supe rvIs to n process In ma ke c hanges or Incre ase report ing requir ement s was as ra re a<; provi din g construc tive feed bac k to te acher s . F1lI1ht'11I10 rt' , this momto rmg was o ri('III('(1 Inward pnx-edural iss lIf'S, ons unng tha i less on pla ns we re complete d or reading progra m components W"') "(' vi sible in the classr oom. At S!l a teac her told us . Mit's so micromanaged he re. Th ey pi ck Oil yon. Like if yo u didn't put ho w YOIl'n' go ing to group yo ur kids in your 1f'S.<>01I p lans , Not w hat yo u are do ing. 111f'y pick o n lilt' st upides t things." AI S7 a reacher said, M) t hink tha t it is unclear wh a l HlP pri orit ies are, I Ieellike [ad m inistrators) misse d IIWIll o r they spend a lo t o f th eir en ergy a nd focus a nd tn ue o n probabl y a bo ut the fift h Ihing do wn lil t' foot! chain of priori t ies.Mw he n aske d fo r a n e xam ple. t his teac he r responded . "Do yo u ha ve yo ur c ha ract er ed ucation post er up?" At Sfl a teache r described it as a d nunist rarors' always loo king for negatives: Now , you know , I t h ink I expect III{' worst so I'm not s urp rised anymore and 1\ '(' r-ome In t hin k o f it a<; Iwin g: "I'D' am usin g , . . a nd t his s choo l is falli ng: apa rt her e a nd no OllP car ps becn use they're so busy lry ing 10 do little nasty ｬｨｩ Ｎ ｾ Ｇｬ to r-ert a m rea che rs. They co ncentrate mo re o n little vindictive rmel things . Sometimes t his plan ' reminds yo u of Nazi Germa ny. II's just st u pid stuff. BUI I just COIllP in Ill).' roo m and shut my d oor. So I d nn 'I e ve n ca re anymore wha t Ilwy eto o ut t he re. I know s he's goi ng to S;ty the re is somet hing I did n't do , al lfl I' m p re pa red for it. SIlt' c ont tnued. M ll1f' o nly thing she eve r loo ks for is so me t hing negative SlIP c runes 10 yo ur ronm a nd t'\"('l)1hing in it can 1)(' pe rfect e xce pt for 011(' [thingl a nd s ilt' wo n't see a nyt hing b il l that O l ll" litt le t hin g, Anot her SH t eacher told 11.'1 tha t the m essa ge from the princi pal w ac; " If )O'OU were a superior tea cher. we would n't he 0 11 probat ion." M DISTRIBUTING LEADERSHI P Principals w ho ('lUploy di stnbut ed le adershi p s ha re de ci sion making a nd authority with ot her schoo l sta ff {Spillane et a l., 20( 1). Principals in tbe s chools Iha l IlHIW·t! off pro bation quic kly (S2 a nd SIO) fos te re d a s upport ive vnvi ronmcnt tha t involved dis t ributed leade rshi p , a lbeit in a (·o11 trolll,1I manner. III eac-h ('asl', t ht' principal h ad g in -II It'iHk rs h ip n 'spotlsi h ilit il's to d l'si gna lf-d :uhni llis l ral ors I'pga n lillg l ilt' d p' ·l' loPllll' lIt of and. 10 s Olm ' e xtent . lilt' m o n ito r ing of It'ad lt' !'s . Tlu-se ind ividuals WOIkt' d d o s t'1.\" wit h t eachers 0 11 all Ollgllillg ba sts. wh ic h ill(' h ult'd modpIillg II'SStIIIS 01111 1j ointly e-xa mi ning st ud ents' dat a 10 h t'111 te achers IUlt11 Hlld l' l'st and l ilt' ern-ct tveness of their lnsrrur-tionn l apprnar-l u-s a nd (' 0 11si d t'r di ffereut st ra teates In help s lm ll' llls ma ster their wo rk. III Iht' r-asrof S:!, t lU's !' ndmtntst rat ors W f'rt' f·,d lt'tl .li/('il i " " fII·.., . when-as at S IO lI lt'y \H' rt ' H'I/r/i IlY r oo n/ i IlH""'." . III fa ct. murh uf t hv in struct ional g llitla lH·p a nd support at lhl' sl' s d um I s ilt's r a mp fro m Iht'sl' orbe r admmtst ra tors. a ll ho u gh rlu- priHci p a ls in holl l n IsI'S clt'llf ly I' xh ih ilt 'l\ Ih t' ir st n -ng lh as inst rurt iona l Ip'l(lpl's . as £'lHl' h as izl' d by Smit h and Andrews ( l!IRH). ill pr io ritizing tllt' sl' po s il io llS a nd a ltt' rin ,g the s truct ures a nti p rC1c !icps 10 Sll l'Jl0l1 uu-ir work w it h t eac hers . III h ot h c ases. t he p rind pa ls ha d s Iro ng ins lru ctio na l h;w kg rllll nl!s that gllid l' d the w o rk of li lt' a d m inist rat o rs . lnt crest ｩ ｵ ｧｬ ｾ ﾷ Ｎ a few teachers a l 0 11( ' o f Ill('s (' s c ho o ls (S:! ) nn-nt inned Ihal cnnuuunka t iun hud unproved aCl"o ss lilt' s c ho o l h ('f';Iust' (If l ht' o ngoin g ,UTI 'SS 10 t ht' Im-ilitut ors . w ho sp rVl'1! a «rit iru l mk- ill s ha ring h 'adwl"S' Ih o ugh ls and ('(lm ·l' m s w il h t he ptiuc-ipn l. Ow' II';H·i1I' 1" de sr-r ttx-d rlu- iru1'0I 1a n i ro ll' uf tlu- Iar-ilu ators: Wl'lL ohvio ll"ly the pmu-ipn l i" Ih p .l"min;llll ｦｩ ｾ ｴｬ ｮ Ｇ Ｎ But t lu- f:w ilila lors are illll'" rlaill 10 all of us ｉ ｾ Ｍ ｦＧ ｭ ｬ Ｂ ｴＧ In ' \\ ollldll'l know ;II IY of tlus stuff unle- « till')" n ·lat..d it to II". , . . T IH' fadl il;llors an' pro hahly tht' most unportaut pI'llI'll' ill IIII' hllil.lings her-a use Ilwy J"t'ally' are in IIH' d as<;roo tlls . . . alltl I'm \ PI)' 11ll" ky to haH' [n Iar-ilitntor] Iwlping me . (Teacher ll, S:!) \"\ ' 1)·. \ 1'1)· Tho princi pals in h olh S('hools that qui c kly moved off probation h ad a to p-do w n . rent ra hzed decision-making approac-h a nti mado allmaior der-i s ions wi th lit I It' input fro m t eachers (w it h ti lt' e xcept ion of t he school planIlillg p l"tlt'('SS a t S W and the (\I'd s io ll to c ha ng(' ex ternal juutners a l S2- in lhl'sl' cast's 11';l('lw rs had men- subs tantive input . a lt hough the p r indpal Illadl' IIH' Fina l flt'('is if)II). 1111' pnm-ipals m al l" it c-lear ll ta l l ilt' tlin'(·l io n (If til l' sd u Ml1 w as go illg to chango . tha t 10nJ-: h d t'cisi ons hatl lo hI' made . and that Iht')" \\"I lIlld make Ihl'sl' l':llls . S im ilar ly, in Ih l' s ('hoo ls t ha t 111 0 \,£ ,11 off prubafiou 1110 ]"1' s lowl.v. t ht' p rinci p a ls m ad t, tlt'd s io lls wit hout inp ul fro m h ';w hl'I"S. In S t, lhis I,\VI' o f ("plll ra !izt'd Ikds io ll m a kinJ.( was ('\·id f'nl ill a ll aspt'('ts o f sr-hoolwnh- d p(·is io ll lUilking, as is P\-il!PIlI in l ht' fo llowin g ｉＧｘ ､ ｬ［ｉＱｾＨ Ｇ w il h a tl' ,lI'hl' r: 1"H:IlIII:\H:Il: So Y'Oll ("pj hkt' dl'd <;ions H .\<1Il:R: . witholll our knowlt'tlgl'. ;I n' matI" wjlh , ., I\ ARA S FINN IG AN AND TRICI A J, STEWART I\T n mf:l\l;R: Tnn l f;R: Withnut your knnw lf'll,R12' o r witho ut yo ur consent? Ill'finite ly witho ut o ur kno wledge. T hat's the o nly thing I am IYf f:RU f.ll f.R: Can you gi\'f' me a n sure of. exa mple? '0 n ;\' l!fX St aff ill111lt is never ... the Ie 's neve r tim f'. 11112')' dn n't wa nt to list en us. It's a." simple a.'i t hat. They don', give us tune to have s ta ff Input. (Tear-her 27, S l) AlthOIl,lth t hese ｦｩ ｮ｣ ｬｩ ｬ ｾ Ｇｬ poi nt 10 limit e d distribution of leadership . mo re work 11('('IIs to bo don (' to bet te r unders tand the exte nt or ways in which leaders hip is dist ril uued ill to w-performmg schoo ls far-ing a cco unta hiliry sanc nons. given the limited e vidence of thi s e lement in th e caw st udy s ('hools. DISCUSSION Although the ht' llttvio rs a nd pra ctices associated with tr.msfon na tiona l leadr-rs hip we re 1101 wid es pread among tilt' sc hools in o ur s tudy, th e princ-ipals in t lu- two S('hoo ls that e xited proba tton uuic kly ex hibit ed a num be r of th es e. ｳ ｬ ｾ＼＾ｳ ｴ ｩ ｬｾ the Impo rtance (If this th eorencallens inunde rst a ndｩ ｮｾ It'adt'l's hip in an accounta tuht v contex t. TIl{' princi pa ls o f S2 a nd S lO provided di rect ion. s et goals . and a rt iculated hi gh expec tat ion s for s tudent a nd tr -aclu-r perform ance 1111:')' implement ed cohere nt in stru ctional prog nuus. whic h en su red that tea c-hers developed t heir kno y.-lt,dgt· a nr! s kills a nd c o llaborat ed MOI IIIlI mstrucuou. TIlt'S(, principals a lso effectively re a uo c a ted I"PSOlll" ("t'S to .....a rd thei r Imp rovement s t ra tegies. Addi tionally, they for-used on a number o f mana ge ment pra ctic es. ruomtormg progra m impl ementat ion and removtng ineffe ct ive te achers . Iu tlus section. we disC IISS t he ways in which th ese lea ders bro ught about sc hool c ha nge un de r p ressure. 111P leadership behavi o rs and pra ct ices o f the prin ci pals in th e sc hoo ls Ihat mo ved off probation quic kly WPI"P closely linked to t heir tnrerpre talio n of th e proha lion po licy. In th ese sc hoo ls (and eve n in a fe w th at Wt'1"{' s lower 10 mo ve of0, the principals inte rpreted probanon as a positive neel'S'ia l) ' s te p and , as a res ult . we re mo re n e xihll' a nd re flec t ive in a n e ffort to II)' different s trategfes (or disc-ontinue ..... ha t was 1101 working ). In a ddition, Iht,)' were les s like ly 10 hl:ulU' the teachers collectively fo r lo w st udent performan ce (even though th ey may have blam ed SO Ill P individuals , who m th ey forr-ed 10 lea ve ). Finally . a nd perhaps most Important , these leaders were mo re likely 10 buffer teachers and th e overall orga ulzauon rrom extemal ､ｬＧ ｬ ｾ ｬ ｬ ｌ＼［Ｍ ｉｊ ｾ Ｑ Ｑ icularlv. thOSt, of the cent ral o ffic e . The princi pa ls in ｉ ＮＨ ｾ Ｌ Ｇ j Ｂ ｾｉ ( 'I", /11/" f :mlr r I 'IY"' " un- I h I' S!.' s {, lll)lll-; WI'Il' Il'ss COIl ( ' P Il Ipc l a bou t distrir-t 1)( llil'i('s a nd 11 1;111lIa l('s a m i more 1'01lC't '1111'<\ wit h ｦｩ ｬ ｬ ｩ ｬｾ ways 10 a llo w fle xibility within a ny res trt cI ions (II' ｮｾｪＱ ｩ ｮ Ｇ ｉ ｉｬ ｉ Ｇ ｉ ｉ ｉ Ｌ ｳ {III' ､ ｩ ｳ ｲｻＧｾ｡ｮ ｬ ｬ ｬ ｵ Ｇ ｬｉ ('Ollllllt'll'1y) if IllI'y thought tha i it W:LS ill the IlI's l inlpl'I'sl of the sehoul. These principals wen- n ot as threat em-d hy ｾＧ ｉ ｜ｏ ｯ ｬ dosu rt, ax s n lllt' of HIP m lu-r loa ders were. s n IIlP)' m ay han' 1'('11 addiuonnl fh'xi hili ty ill tenus o f ｭ ＨＧｴｬ ｩ ｬ ｾ d ist rict mandat es . III COI III, Lsl, p rilld pa ls ill II l1' schools Ihat n 'llla iru'd 011 probat ion \i(' w-ed ir as Iwing unfair o r Illisgu idt"ll and wen- more rigid in their respons es 10 sanctions. III t he S('h o o ls rhar 1H0 H ' d o ff prohal io ll qu ickly , the p li l1c ipa ls foum l ways 10 liSt' a ('I'o llllla b ilily 10 t heir IWlld i t- fo r example. to m-quire a ddit ional reSOl1 H 't 'S or n-move - ineffect ive teachers . Ihn s )('\'t> ragin g this pulley to the-ir ad n mtilW'. as clisc llsst"l ! h)' J ac ohs o ll m il l I'ol!t'a gllt's ( 200'j"). All II H' s upport provided to ft>a d lt' l'S. lilt' reallocati on of n 'SOIllT ('S, and the- llln ilitnrillg o f results d ost'ly ［ｬ ｬｩ ｾｬｴ Ｇ ､ w it h ti lt' o Vl' rall \-is io n o f t ht' It'a d l'rs ill tho sc ho ols t hat moved off proha lio ll qui c k ly, a vis ion t ha t fo c lls l' c! Oil s tudent gro wl h and o ve raftleanuns. not m e relv s a uct io ns o r c u toff s('o n 's, T hro llg h a s tro ng PlIlp ha s is on their ｯ ｲ ｾ ｡ ｬｩ ｺ｡ ｬ ｩｯ ｬＱｩｾ Ｑ goa ls as \\"('11 as the-ir at tempts 10 align <I II pro grams towa rd "w hat's go o d for st udents. " tl U'St' p rinc ipills made great head wa y 0 11 c ha ngi n g no t only ti ll' interna l s l ru l"lllH'S and no rm s h ill. ultimatel y. s t ud ent h-a ndng. F IlI'thermon-. Iht' s nm-t ural and ins truct uma l r ha llgt's that It,d III Improved Ilt'l-[onmlll u ' Iu uu-so tw o s<'llools were no t qukk n xes but ru ther h ighN urder d l:lllgt'S, S O li it' of whic-h ha d I,pglln bc rore their s c h oo ls \\,PH' p ili o nt o prot .anon . Inst ruct ional coherence a lll i teacher collaborat ion {th ro llgh (Tt' a l iH ' ｳ ｻＧ ｨ ｴＧ｣｜ ｉｬ ｉｩ ｉｬ ｾ Ｉ WNt' kl'Y aSJlP('t s o f the Ioaders ht p in tin' sd to o ls t hat 1II1lH 'd o ff qu ic kly , ln fact. tl lt'St' t wo sd um ls p l<l('pI! a he-avy l'lH p hasis o n dt' H ' lo p in g n-a chors . h ilt these "mandated" c hanges wo uld 110 1 have w orked ha d the- princi pa ls 110 1 als o c hall gt'd th e c ult ure a nd r-luua tr-. In t hf' s c ho o ls t ha i remained Oil probat ion a nd ill l host' Ih al Wt'n' s lc l\\t'r to ilio n ' off. ti lt' priur-ipals narrowly tocused 0 11 tlu:!t'l'o lll lt ahi lity targl't s and d isplayt' d a lar k of unde rs tanding a bout how to c h a llgl' t!ll' s chool cult u re. In a dd it io n , th l'st ' It';u "'rs o n 'H'lIlp h a s izl'd t hr- nunsacuona l aSIII'{-ls o f transformat ional h'ad l' I"'lh ill- ll:llllp ly . tilt' momt ortua o f I' l' r fornw lIl'l' wit h a foc lIs Oil p rm 'l' d u ra l I'!Wllgt'S, III tht' sc hoo ls Ihat 1Il0\'l'd o ff probatron Iini c kly , the monit orinq w as llia gno s t ic : th t's t' it'atll'rs e xmu im-d st udent d a ta 10 i<\t' llt ify p ro h lt' lIls o r wt'a kIH's s('s aud ('o tls idl' n'c! slratl'g il's ill co llabo ra tio ll with illst n w l io nal It';Hit'!'S to ｉ Ｌｲ ｩ ｬ ｾ about im prnvr-uu-nt s . T Il(' p rilld l' als in sc ho llis t ha t Iin ic kly llHl\' t"ll o ff p ro hilt ioll (Tt'at l'd a I'o lll'( 't in' SI'II';<' IIf n 's l)(JIls ih ilily fo r lilt, pt'lf o l1na llCl' of st llt lt'1I1s am i a st 'lls t' o f IlIW 'l1Cy , no t j llst ItI'Ca llSf' o f ti lt' pn's.sIIrt's o f 111(' a<'{'ou llt.l hihty {jill "ARA S FINNIGAN AND TRICIA J . STEWART po licy, bill beca use of a mo ra l res ponsibility 10 Improve. T('adJ('1'S in th ese sc ho o ls sha r{'fi a seuse based 0 11 their int e ractions wi th a dmi nistra tors. ow' of MWI'r(' al l in this toget he r" a nd o ne of rallying to get he r to "prove evr-rvonv wr on g. ra t her than a f{'{'ling or bemg bla med hy t heir pri ncipa ls " Thi s c-limate was d e a rly link ed 10 th e relational trust a mong teac hers a nd administrators Inthes e scho o ls. In c on trast. in til(' s c hools that re ma ined o n p robat ion o r were s low 10 1110\"(' off, tea c he rs t ho ught that admtmsua tors we re a cung in ways th at ran c o unter 10 their belief systems a nd h" IiI'\"('(1tha i Iht'St, pr incipals were responding to ex te rn a l pressures fWIIl W uu- ce nt ra! offkf'. TI lt' pri nci pa ls of a ll 10 scho o ls were describe d as top-down le aders wit h cent ral ized a ut ho rity, TI l(' un wtllmgness to dec ent ralize a ut ho r ity O f con tro l may st em from th e threat cond it io ns re s ult ing from the high s ta kes as,",o<'iatt'll wit h a ccOIlllla hilily policies. .lar-nbson a nd coll eag ues (2007) conte ndedt hat in un st a ble environm ents , strong and more fo nua l lea ders hip behaviors lIlay be ll('(' {' s.<><try to "reestablish coh erence and d ire ct ion" (p" ZH:l) " In th e schools that moved o ff Ilroha tio n qui c kly, Ihis design nut OJlly inst illed a se nse of c o herence a cr oss tilt' SdlOOI h ut a lso ex e rted a fo nu o f cont ro l. All ho ugh it m ils against tfu- lite rature O i l di stribut ed leadership and sha re d docts ton ma king, Ihis cent rali zed response of pri ncipals ill low-perform ing sc hoo ls is 1I0t ｳ ｭ ｶ ｲ ｩＡＧ＾ ｩ ｬｾ given t ha t the o rgamzanons \\'1' 1'(' under th re at Ｈ ｾ ｉ ＨＧ ｬ｡ ｨ ｩ Ｌ Jackson. & Spa rks, 2002; Sla w et al., WS l ). TI lt.. sc hoo ls thai quic kly 1I1O\'I'd off probation provided o pport uni t ies fo r tea r -he rs to o ffe r input into decisions, a nd the princi pal!'> sh a red m struc t ional !t'<U INs hip wit h key adn nmst ra to rs yet ret ained tight c o ntro l OWl' organizat io na l dec isi ons. Finally. t he pri ncipa ls t ha t qu ickly mo ved off probatio n fol lo wed a s equentia l nult'ring o f 1(',H1PNhip" lIpnn hf'ing pla c ed under sanctions . the principals ｉ ｬｴＧ ｾ ｡ ｮ by clearly a l1i1'lllali ng the vis ion a nd ti ll.' e xpecta n on s fo r a ll s lndl' nts to succeed and that . as an organ ization, they c o uld improve. The princi pals for-used IlI' Xt O il s ta ffing a rrangem e nts a nd hufft'rinl! (Illnnal!in g the o rgan tza non ), rotlowed by ensurin g t ha t th e Sd lOOI ha cl a tru s ttng a nd c ollaborat ive e nvt romuent that was fo cused n n inst rurttona l Imp rovement (deve lo p ing t he orga mz a non ). In f'S.'l{' IW{' , lea dership wa s more dyna mic th a n what ma ny of t he t heories wou ld s lIgl!ps t a s t he principals a tte mpted to bri ll/! abo ut sr-hool Improvement under pn'ss lln ' , Unfortunate ly. the major ity of schools did no t a ppear po iSt:'d In 111 0\ '(' past I hf'St' in itial leaders hip stages gtven their narrow fo c-us o n acr-ounta bilny ta rgets ( \" (' l"S U S Impro vem e nt ). Inadequat e s u ppo rt In touche rs . la c k of a tt ent io n to organizationa l development . a nd over n-hance 011 monn o nng. Gil ａ ｬ ｨ ｏｬ ｉ ｾｨ it is mtormattve 10 e xamine IIll' t wo principals whose s c ho o ls 1ll0\'1'f1 off probation qu ic kly, perha ps it is even mo rt' c rit ical to w o rt' dosf' ly ClIllsiciN the ot her I'ighl priru-ipals 10 nuderst at u t w hy transferｬｈ ｡ ｬｩ ＨＩｬ ｡ ｬ ｬ Ｇ ｡ ､ ｴ Ｇ ｬＢ ｾ ｨ ｩｰ was ra n ' ill th l'sp Iow-p erto nmng schools. ldenti fyiug IIIl' factors thai hi nd e r 0 1" fm-ilit au- suona lenders lup ill Iow-pe rt o mung scho o ls is d ist i m-t from un covering the cha ract ensncs o f leader s in hi gh pt'rfo n lling or "effect ive" schools. First . flu- ｦｩｬＱ ｮ ｾｳ ｳ ｬ ｾｴＧ ｳ ｩ t ha t the a('(·Hlllll.lh ililY prt 's.'> Ill"l'S appear to hI' to n s lro ng for many loa d e rs . ｮＧ ｳ ｬ ｬｩ ｮ ｾ ill an tuuut eut led l"OtlSt'II" ('Il("P o f foclls in g o n t he IIU· ' l ...ure ( ti lt' cut off ] rat her than s tudeut Iemutng o r organt zat tonal perf ormam-e. &'('OIHI. Ihese s(." lIoo ls required changes 10 Ilnd l'r ly ing norms a nd oxpectauons Ihal proved diffu-nlt w illi th o current staff \\'IWl"I';lS Sl IlII I' pr inC'illa ls \\"(,t'dt'd out Ih o st' tea chers who were 1101 comuut ted to the d ifficu lt prO('I'SS o f s(." hoo l Improvement umb- r sanctions . th ere w as 110 fo rma l mechanism o r plO n 'ss fo r this . Third , 111(' account a bilit y IHJ!iCy its e lf le d 10 a Sf"IISP o f u .-g,'n ey fo r uuprovemenr that result ed in greater cent ra hza tton o f d ec tsfon maki n/,: a nd Ih al ma y ha n ' in fact undercut some o f the Import ant p ro n 'ssl 'S I H ' t"t'SS'lI") ' to 11('\'f'lop a s iro ng ｯｲ ｾ｡ ｮ ｩ ｺ｡ ｬ ｩｯ ｮ｡ ｬ (,u li nn' with hi gh 1,,\','ls o f t rust and sha red norms . T ilt' two princ ipa ls th at quic kly 1111)\'1'11 off Ifrt lll<lli tm Illalll lal t'c! cert ain changes . s uc h a.... c-ollaborat ive llI("l'Ii ngs wit h a ｲ ｴＧ［ ｬｴ ｬｩ ｬｾ SIH-', 'ia !is l, ill an effo rt 10 ha.... ten i mprovement . Wh y th f'Y WPH' SIHTt'ssfu l III eallsi llg Iht'Sf.> 10 hi' a lllht' lll it' I'XIH'I'il'll('I>S fOI" m o st h 'a d lt'l":'l spea ks In lht' g n'a h'l" relationa l t ru ...1 ill Ih,'S!' scho o ls , as we ll as the fin n aliglll nt'lli o f Ih('S!' s ll1H"IIlH'S wuh the s ha n 't! vtst on ali t! ex pecta nons of tl lt' sl ;lff. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICAnONS Tlns st lltly informs li lt' re-sea rt-h o n transfo rmatioualk-adership a nd lo wp!'rfon n ing SdUH Ils ill Sf.'\"t'l"a l ways . F irs t , in Iht'Sf.· set tings. f ocus a nti ell' herence appeare dt o b e a cri t ica l aspect o f se tting t he direc tion fo r Sf.'hool Improvement . IRSS e ffect ive leaders fo r-used na rrowly o n the accountability largl'l s as ti ll' goa l \"t' I"SUS student lea rn ing an d school improvement. St'('tmd , pri nd pa l"t w ho did 110 1 pay s uffi c ient attent ion to a ny o f these four a rea" o f loaderslup WI'I"t' less Iikt'ly to s ho w s igns o f Improvemen t. Having a vision was Hoi enough: Th e more " ff{'cli n ' principals in t his Silldy a lso provnled t he support a nd n 'S OIl H '" s JH·("('SS"U) · to d t'\"t' lo(l lht' k now lt' tl/.! p alll i sk ills ' If reachers : I hey t'st al flis lwtl ('lllla ll' Irat in ' st rur-t ures andnorms : a nd 1111')' tlf'w' lo pl'd a ( '11 11 111"(' of a nd comnnnneur ro t' o llt'( 'tin' gfla ls. Finally , nunsact ton al. or 1l1<1I1<lgt'IIH'I II , ;lsl lt 'c l s ' If transformat ional " ARA S FINNIG AN AND TR+CIA J STEWART 1f>:ldt'P.'hip were evi dent in rhe 100..<performing S<'hoo ls thai moved off probutiouary sta tus quic kly, ｩｬ ｬ ｻＧｨｬＨ ｬ ｩｬ ｾ attention to sta ffing . Inst ru ct ion al s upp011. monit o rin g of pe rfor mance, a nd bufferi ng from exter nal demands . These we re nor <\OlW in iso la tio n h ut .....erv part of t he overa ll im pr ovemen t proc e ss and w PH' viewe d positively by tea ch ers beca use o f t he relationa l t rust a mo ng staff an d administrators. This s tudy has impo rtant huplicntio ns for resea rch in Ihis a re a. Firs t . fut ure res earch s ho uld address SO Il H' o f the present limitat ion s, m cludmg its limit ed foc us 011 eleme ntary schoo ls. by broa dening the examina tion to a ll s choo l levels a nd co mparing differe nc es in leadership re sponses a cross Ihl'SP levels. In ad dlt ion , future rese arch co uld ex pa nd to ad d uiona l account ability po licy contexts. gtven th at Nl'LB ac co untability sa nc tio ns art' affec ting a gro wing number of sc hools. A nother limitat ion tha t fut ure n "SI';II"("h could ad d ress is the p rese nt st udy's emphasis o n pe rcep tions o f h-adership. by inc htd ing observations of lead e rship behaviors a nd prac tices 0 1" sump type of me asureme nt of pri ncipal lead e rs hip. Finally. future rese arch cou ld mo rt' closely attend to th e c hallenge of obta uung pe rc epnons of lea dership behavi o rs a nd prac tices in schools with high levels of te ach e r a nti IHincipal turnover. Future re searc h could include a larger n um ber of s tudy s ilt'S a nd mo rt' close ly e xa min e t he differe nc es in linding.<; fo r sc hoo ls wit h greater turnover a nd th ose wit h more s table environments. The si lldy a lso nas importan t implicat ions fo r policy. A" m o w and m ore sc hoo ls fal l under l\CLB sa ncnous. a ke y questio n becomes. w ha t s ho uld stares a nd districts do to interve ne? 11IP mos t challenglng scho o ls W("I'(' stuck t Ros euholtz. IHSH: Stol l &. Fink, l OnG) under a cc ounta bilit y sanc t io ns and thus seeme d unlikely In change t he ir patt er ns of lo w pe -rformance and mo ve off probat iona ry stains; as such . lilt' ｦｩ ｬ ｬｩ ｮ ｾ from this st udy s uggest that rene w t'i \ a ttentio n must he paid 10 edn ca nonal po lic ies th at address lilt' leade rship of these schools. States and dis trict s s hould focus o n the assig nme nt o f experienced a nd trans forma tional pri ncipals to the lo wperforming s c ho o ls un der ac counta hiliry policy sanctions . providing a d ditio ua l mcent we s to en courage seasoned principals who have proven their ef fe ct iveness in m ore t' hallf'llging envir onmen ts 10 w ork in t hese sc hoo ls. Howeve r. IIU'S{" po licies may req uir e a c om mitment o f several years to reduce th e lea derslup inst a bili ty th at pl agues t hese schoo ls. The s tudy a lso ｓｬｾ ｴＧｓｳ tha i s ta tes wo uld benefit fro lll targt.' ting educa tional policies (a nd resources) t oward the menr o nng of pri nci pa ls in low-pe rforming schools. Ah ho llgh many s ta res haw impl em t'nt t'cllt"a cll€'r-lllpllloring policies . little at ten t mu has be en paid to Ihe mentoring of prinr-ipals-c-part icularly. those w ho work u nd er the pressure of s an ction s. Ii 1:3 Fina lly, 1Ill' s ludy has important implicat io ns for p ral'l ic(' a s it relates 10 tln- ongo ing prflft's-s ioll a l dovelopment of prilld pal s in t1wsp schoo ls a nd t he dis trir-t support of these leaders . Alth o ug h many of the prindpi,ls ill this s tlldy e-ould haH ' us('d a dd it iona l support in s t n'llgll ll' l1 ing their t ra nsa ct io lla l It'illll'rs h ip IIPha, "io rs , their ahility to set tho direct ion. develop pt >( IJllt' . Hllli de-velop l ilt' o rga n iDtl io ll was PH 'n m ort' r-rjt u-al , T o truly hli ng illHllli organizntionul improvement . t1istriet s IIII1St Iwgin by llilild illg lht· h'iu !t'rs h ip r-apar-it y wuhiu sd lnols under a( "('ol llltah ilily policy sanelio ns " Withou t th is anenncn to Ill(' iuterual It'ilt!el's h ip c:lpac ily, tlu-n- is litt tr- likelih oo d that t ht'st, s chool... w ill uverconu- their lustoncs o f II)\'i IlI'rf(mmu I( "I' " APPENDIX: CASE STUDY SCHOOLS AND PROBATIONARY STATUS AS OF 2000-2001 e rooeton School During Study Oil Year 1 2 , 3 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 0 Year 2 0 11 011 0 11 00 0 11 00 0" 0" Oil Years on Probation , , 2 3 3 , 3 5 5 5 2 Years on Probation 1996- 19971hroug h 1998-1 999: back on 2000-200 1 1996- 1997Ihrough 1997- 1998 1996-1997 Ihrough 1998- t 999 1996-19971hrough 1998 -1999 1997-1 998lhrough 2000-200 1 199 7- 1998lhroug h 1999 -2000 1996-1 997Ihroug h 2000-200 1 199&--1997 lhroug h 2000-200 1 1996-1997 Ihrough 2000-200 1 Ｑ ＹＶ ｾ Ｑ Ｙ Ｗ throug h 1997- 1998 NOTES .-\ l'rf>\"iolls u 'p;io n o f th is article was pH 's l' nll'll a l the eoe nl('l't illg o f t hl' Amen1'0 111 ElhK ,lt illlla l R''Sl'a l'(" h A..soctanou. SIII'(' ia l l han ks III.lemufer (r l lay a nd .lohu (). Ea stoll fOl tlu-ir p:llidmw l' 0 11 11lf' p rojl·,"t am i IIII:' slIlIPo r l of thi s s tudy, ｾ ｬ ＧＨｬ ｬｷ Ｂ ｲ Foundat ion fo r its I . !\ llll' that lllall YIlrh;1I1 di st rict s , illl"h lllill!i: t he flleuS of uus s illily « 'hieOl!!:I) Public Sd u Hlls; CPS), hOl\-1' ht'l'Il I1\:ljo rity ﾷ ｭ ｩ ｬ ｬｏ ｲｩ ｴ ｾＢ Ｍ for man y years. In facr. t hf' (' III"1"l'lIt d"1Il0l!:rOll1llit"s of Cltica l':0' 8!)'1Il Iow Income a nd 8'1Il wlun- ( fil':llrf'S hased 011 the CPS wd ls ill' I, a re s im ila r 10 what Hess ( I {I!) I ) fl llllld :W years agl l: I tunng 1!187- llI8R, thrl' It' Illt' llta ry srho o ls in CPS we re 80% lo w inc ome aml 1:!'.lIl whne. ｾ Ｂ Although these s lllllit-'S tnformed our s iudy, not all of them il1\"o l\"('l! sc hools faei lll': s anr-tinns. 6U I\ARA S FINNIGAN ａ ｴｾｏ TRICIA J STEWART 3. n ', f'r tuue, t he ba r was raised e ven hig he r. In ad dit io n , a fte r this s t udy the CPS bega n us injil mo rt' pe rfo nn nur-e indic a tors. f' xa m inilljil gro wt h. and fO<'llsi njil o n all s chools . 111(" ac r-o untn hility system for elementary ｾ ､ ｜Ｈｍ ｉＱｳ a L5f1 began lls inR lilt' ｬｉ ｩｬｯ ｩ ｾ Standa rds Achieve ment TNt in a dd ilion to the Io wa Tf'S1 o f Bas ic S kills a nd including rf'a d info!:. w rilinR. ma th, sdf'lI(,f', a l1d soc -ia l s cieuco ( rat her t ha n j ust rf':u liI1 R s co n'S :l-'i il rlid , tu rinR Ihis st udy). I. Inte rview an, t foc us ,gro up <lu ps t ions Ioc used 011 a variety rlf areas over t he thr ee vi sits, including mstmcuonat goa ls an d pract ices. schoolwide ex pec ta tions a nd a r-r-nunralnhry, pro ff'Ss ional d " H>!o p uu' n l, le adership, o rganizanonal culture. s chool imp w \'f'lIH'n1 planning. dec-isiou lllilkillJo!: , resources. IISf' o f dat a . a nd ex te rn a l a mi irue rna l s upport fo r c h:m Rf'. 5. Th is announcement occ ulTl'll du rillR a Ia r-nhy 1Il1"('l inR at the sch oo l. Alt hough ｬｲ ｡ｧ ｩ ｮ ｾ many teachers we re s ubsequently SO Ill(' tea chers to l<l us it was ｴ Ｇ ｮ ｣ｮ "weeded out" by t his S,1111f' prin cipal. 6. Sinr p th ts s tu dy , S') a llll SB were r-iosedre cause o f d f'<' lin ing enrollme nts a nd lo w ac-ademic pe rforruan r-e , an d S!l was ult ima tely consohdat ed wi th anot her buildinfo!: (a ltho ugh t he sc hoo l re tained its ill<'ll tity ). REFERENCES Bass , B. U Ｈ Ｑ ＡｬＮ Ｅ ＩＮ Ｏ Ｌｮ Ｂ ｉ ＬＧ ＯＢＮ ｾ ｨｩ ｬ Ｇ ,//"f 1" ·I.1{II'III,IIIH>IW.II'I/I d {'.r /"y-II/thms. /'> pw York: Free 1'!"("Ss. Bennett , A. (21111 1, Apri l). 171t' Ｏｉｩ Ｌ ｾ ｉ Ｏｉ Ｚ Ｇ ｉ Ｌ ｬＧＢ ｬｩｲ Ｎｾ Ｌ ' !I " f IIwllry '!( 11/'1;011 (!r fl it' CI, ;t'''!Jo 1" " /"' 1i"" 1" '/ ;" ,11 Paper pre sented a f the Ame rican Ed uc at io nal Res earc h A<;sod atio ll. Se aule. \\"A. Ｑ ｾｬｮｩ ｳ Ｎ \\". Ｈ ＱＡ ＩＬ ｾ Ｑ Ｉ Ｎ 171t' t'lI it:f- Ne-w York: Morro....-. Bemus . W., & Na nus, n. ( 19&5). 1,. vlt l ,',"S: SI m ll'!l i"... f or /(II;i "!1 d UllY" . Ne w York: Ha r per & Ro w. Broo kover. W. ( 1078). Element a ry sc hoo l soria l c tnnate a nd sc hool ac hievemen t. .i l/ w r it'" " 1;',I II,vl t i m w l R"."N llrh .l onrnal, I :i, Ｚ ｊＨ Ｑｬ ｾＧＩ Ｑ ＸＮ Brookove r. W. it, & Lezotte. I.. W, ( 1fli11). 1 7/flll!!" '" i ll .w·/u ,,'/ rlmrnrtrr i ...t it-... ('{.i ncident w i t" ､ ｭ ｬｕ Ｂ Ｇ ＾ ｾ ill ."'ml",, , (w h i r l v'IIwIII «()(' ('a <;inlla l Pa per No . 17). 111s ing: ｾ ｉｫ ｨｩ ｾ ｮ Sta te Universi ty. East Lansing Iustnute fo r Resear ch in F_"l.<;( IM Teaching. ( E RIC Document Repro<lll('l ioll Se rvi ce No . Jo: 1H8 100ij ) Bryk . A. S.. & Schneider. Il (ZOO'.!). Trns t ill "''''/1101...: A ( 'O IT ' Ｑｔ ＾ Ｎ ｾ Ｏｉ Ｏ ｉＱ ﾷ Ｂ Ｎｉ ｩｬＧ i lllfJl l I/V' flWII/ . New Yo rk: RU'l.'i("11 5.1 R(" Foundation. Brv k. A. S., Se bring. P . B.• Ke rbow. It . Rollo....-, S., & Eas lo n,.I . Q. (l flM ). n "l/t i ll,! Ｚ 0 " 11I ,WillI if' ｦ ｋ ｖ Ｌ ｉｩ Ｎｾ Ｑｉ II... 1/ ,1'/1" d ill /UP'. Bo u ld e r, ( 'II inlf /o Ｎ ｾ ､ ＢＧ Ｈｉ Ｇ Ｇ ｾＺｦ ｻ ｬｉＧ ('0: west view Pr ess . Rums . .1. ｾｉ Ｎ ( Hl7H). I.nld,'/xbil'. Ne w Yor k: Harper & Ro w, Ca rlson. R. r . ( l ft!"Il'i). R.:(,..,,,, ill .r/ "l/iII1:' ,w lII; "rl: / "'/xl )('('/ i /·"s /II, fIIJI"" iz llfim" "v" I,.,-... /lil' . '// lfl "" ,1"" ,' d lll/ I!I". Whitt> Plains , NY: Long ma n. Cenu.r n n Educat ion Po ticy . (200,11 ). ,U'I//fIyi ,," 11It1/1...,w d /'t'/JIll rld i"!1 l'",j N 'I...: Sdll" >! IT's f r //r /" ";"!I i n ( ·"IUrln / ill. w ash ington. (X': Author. "',v'r "IIl'.. . /I"''''' ('Jw pma ll, C , & Ha rris . A. (200 11. hnproving <;(' hools ill lliffit'1I11 an d eh a llf'll!,!i flg V t< :h ｾ ｗ Ｍｾ ｾｓＮ l' o llh 'x1.s c ｓ ｬｲ Ｌ ｉ ｉｴＧｾ ｩ ｴＧｳ for iruprow' lllt'n t. D II/ .·{" i olllli ｈ ｻＧ ｜ Ｂ ｻ ＯｉｾＭ Ｎ (",,1\ "11. K ｬ ｾｯｮ Ｚ ｬ Ｉ Ｎ / ',-i "''; I " ,I.,< 11 ",1 ,<11/" " 111 Ｂ Ｌ ﾷ ｉ Ｌ ｩ ＮＧ Ｌ ｾ Ｇ ＢＬ ｵ Ｌ ｬＮ In llll ll... 1','s...1/d•.\fl,ll'\' ..\J,oXHl ll!r ia , YA: A"''''' 'dalio ll fo r ｾ ｬＱ ｰ ｬＧｮ ［ Ｂ ｩ ｯ ｬ｜ :11\,1 runu-nlum J)t>H'!0I'"WIII, 1l1lF, "II , 1/. , I llIFo lIl", H.. & Eaker. R. ｉｾ Ｈｬ ｾｯ［ Ｉ Ｎ H,'/' ;,\; I i/l .'1l'm /i 's,\;/IIIII I I. 'n l'lI; lI .t/ ｻｾ Ｇｉｬ Ｇ /II.", il;",'< " I !I'm/.;: X,.,,' ;I/,\;q"'.'< ,fi>r i"'I'I1I1';"'/ .,<1'1"",/.0;. Bloouungton. ｬｾ Ｚ S"llItlol1 TII 'l' ｉＧｮ ｾ ｳ Ｎ 1lll"', 0111, IL !lll F<>m, R.. Ea ke r. R., & ｾ ｉ｡ ｮ ｹ Ｌ T, (:!OO(i) . 1.I'II m ; ' '' 1 101 d t/; ",/." . \ It"" d . ＯＧ Ｇ Ｇｾﾷ ＮＧ ［ Ｇ ＧＯ Ｇ ｉＧ Ａ Ｏ Ｇ ﾷＬＧ＼ﾫ ［ ＧＱｉ Ｑ Ｂ ｾ ＢＧｬｉｩｲ ｬ Ｇ ｾＧ ＯＱ ＯＱ ｉＱ ｉＱ ［ ｉ［ ＮＧ ｳ Ｂ ｬ W'I/"/,;, Bloomin!,!toll, ｉ ｾ ［ S otution Trr-e 1'1'1 ''''' ' Itufour. It. & Ea ker. H. ( I!l!l:-)). /'m/i ',«s i ", ,,, I I"II /'lI i "'l ('flllllllllllili"!.; ,,, w"r/'; : / k «1 1" '1/( 'l i ,'" .«,/ill ' nd"' I",i "'1 sllld.'1/1 (/( -Ili ' '''' 'II I1'III . Ab-xaudria. fA : Assudalil III fur S lIl' f' r..- i" in ll a lld t'turk-ulum I lI,\'l'!n p tlWIlI. Eak er. l t., 1l1lF o m , R.. & HuFom , R Ｈ Ｒ Ｈ ＱＴ ｲ ｾＩＮ ( ;d / ; lI f/ Ｎﾫ ｉＯ ＬＮｉ Ｎｾ Ｏ Ｌ R.,/'II /I II l"i1l1/ .«("11",.1.,< III '''n ''''' ' 1'I1I/i ',«,o;i "1/ 1I1 It-"I'll illf/ nmllllllllili.·.\ B1oomin !,!ton, ｉ ｾ Ｚ So lut io n T l f' I' I'H'''S. EdIllOIIlI", It ( Ilrj"!!j, E fff'<,lin ' s('!loo ls for the nrban poor. f ;d lll" (/ I ;"'1II1 ,«h i /" .f i , I .-)---:t j". 1.( '/ /1"'1"' Ellis. T. I. ( \!lSI/. .\In lh ·alill!'! roncho rs fOI f' Xl'f'II('ll('t·. /;HU ' /J iy.·sI , Ii, (E llie Don i· ment Hl'l'rOfhw lill1l Se rvu-e- No , EI r'!!l!l ltll ) Elmor(', II. F. Ｈ ｾｉ IIl1l ). /lu i ld i 11.1/ ,/ " ,' /I' .,,11"" '" Ｂ Ｇ ｾ •./<//-:,<1'11"<111"",1",,,,,11 ;1'. Was hi U!/:lf m, I )f' : .-\11 "' 11 Sha uker lnsut ute . Enderhn-Larnpe. ｾ Ｌ ( I!l!li ). Shared dl'dsioll ｉ ｬｉｩ ｫｩｈｾ ill <;('h<lo ls: Er ft'd n il te acher pflka...\'. /;'d lll'll /;<1". JJ!'i( I ), I ｾｉｬＩ Ｍ ｉ ｾ ｾｩＬ E\';lIIs , T. .J. ( Ui!l!i), rHlIIs,li>l"lImlilll ",1 'ml/,,,,,,II ;I' : 1)/,<'1'1';"11' 11'- " 1111111'''' I1 'M ' 1I nT.\ " I/m ill;",/ mli l'" l 'IW ·li,.,'. ltnpubhshed manu-a-npt Firuugun. I\. S , Bitter. C.. & (f lla.\' , .I, (21" l9). h up rm;lI !/: IlIw,pI 'rfo nnin !'! s choo ]s thnmah r-xu-run l assi"t:mn ': Less o ns f ro m ('hk aco allf l L'alifornia. f:fl lu '," ill il /'<11;1'.'1 . I " "II/." ;s . \ n 'li i 1" '.,<, I ; ( i ). Hpl n ever l I I1'n ' lll h f' r I I. 2UI)11, fmm h ll p :1I f'paa .lt'" 1.1'1111!f>!,a x \ 'l i n i l FiunlganK. S.. &. 1)' lla.\'. .1, (2 110:1). ｦ Ｌ ｾ ｉＧｮＯｬ Ｏ Ｇ ｉ Ｏ ｉ ｉ Ｇ ｉＧ Ｏ Ｑ Ｑｉ ,«,.,,, ,,,1... /I II 1'mh"l;o": (;•.t , 1;111/ " fI '.'! li p ! Phila dl'l l'hia : I Tn iw' rsit)' of Pennsvlvunia. ('onsornum for PII!i('y H t' Sf' ;lll' h ill Ed lll·a lio ll. Fuhrma n. S. II . ( HI!'i!I). 77,.. IW". ' WI·"II III " I.;lil.l/ (' PHI': Po lk .\' Hnef No. I/B-2i ). l 'hila<lI' II,hia: l lniw' rs ily of Ponn sylvanta. Consor nnur for 1'(,lky Research ill Educanon. Full.m. .\1. G . ( 1!1f1l ), 77/1' II('I/" /II 1'(I1I; II !l I !'- (',l m'III i",1II1 d ''' '' f!''. New Yo rk: Teat-h. I' I'S ('oll p ,!!:1' P rt·s.... Fullau, ｾ ｉ Ｌ ｉｾ Ｎ (2 1111Rj. 117" , (.\ lI'flr l ll ll" hlill Y .I'1/" in II,.. IlI"i ,wi /" I1 I""d.'/".«Jli / , (Sud 1'11. ). S'I' W YOlk : Teaehr-rs Colt p!'!1' Pr l'''-'' . ( iill' s , C. (2 111 I1il. T ran sfunua tiona l ｴ ｬＧ ｾ ｉｦ ｉ ＾ｉ Ｇｓｨｩ ｰ in dl a tlPII!'! itlg urban f'1t> lllf'nt:uy sd uM,ls: A ....11· fOI" par ent ｩ ｬ｜ Ｇ ｯ ｨ Ｇ ｦＧ ｮ ｕＧ ｮ ｬＧ ｾ J••m !t ·I""";/' ,, 1111 / 'n/ in / i ll ,"it'I" " I/,\ , ;, /:1). ｾＺＧ Ｗ Ｍ ｾｓ Ｎ (ibs. 'r, II.. 8; Stra uss, A. ( 111117). 171<' ,/i.""""'''-I/ '!( /f m ll llll, 'd ｉＯＧｾＮ AlliinI'. Ｎ :-:I'W Yor k: II,ARA S ｆ Ｈ ｎｾ ｊ ｴｇ ａｎ AND TRICIA J STEWA RT Ｈ ｾ ｦｬ ｬ ､ｲｩｬ ｾ Ｌ E, II.. &. Sullivan. A. " , ( I !ffi). Bey ond the bOlllld ari (':,;: Inllci pal s , parent s an d r-onunuuines Ｂ ｨ｡ ｬ ｩ ｬ ｾ IIH' se-hool environment . In K Leith woo d (Ed. ), JII I' T II" t i " ' lI/ f l"' II ,(I /f'''1.: I!r ,v/ ll f'fl l immi 1('(/lf,'I -slii/, fl lld ",I ", j" i s'", fio " ( pp . Ｑ Ａ Ｑ Ｚ ＩＭ ＲＧ ｴ ｾ Ｉ Ｌ Dord re cht. l"f'lh("rlalHls : Kluwer A('adf' lllic , l la tbnaer. P.. &. Hec k . R. II ( 1fl!"H1). Rf'ass f'SSi n}l; IIIf' prtneipal's rote in :';('llIM,1 f'frec ttveness : A r eview o f empi rica l resea rch . Hl80- H1fI5. Nti l/ r (ft i mmf .'l ,l m i ll - is /m/ j"" () Im ,." ''''.II, .U( I ). 5- ·I-t. Hess . ( ;. A . .lr. ( lfIlII ). Chicago school re fo rm: A response 10 unm et needs uf slnI tf' Il l S at risk . In It .I. Rossi ( Ed.}, Sr/mo/'" "1/11 Ｌ ｾ Ｇ Ｏｉｦ Ｇ Ｎ ＾Ｂｴ Ｎｾ ｩ Ｑ ｾ Ｎ ＺＮｉ Ｚ ' I lt d ./i vfIJlf'w",·I.:.ti,r //f,...i/ j / V' 1"1/11 /11/" (p p. 20, - 228 ). New Ynrk: Tear-hers College. IIt'S.'> , (; . A.•. lr. ( l fI!l! l). E XPf'f"I.1tioIlS, opportunity. c apa r uy, and \'\; 11: TIIP four essenlial componen ts o f ｃ ｨ ｩ｣ ｡ ｾ ｯ schoo l re ronu ":" l/ r l/ l iOl/ll 1 J'''' i('.1/, J:I( ·1). .19-t- !l17. .J<t(,OhSOIl, S. ｉ ｾ Ｎ Broo ks , S.. G ilt'S, C.. .Joh nson , L., & Ylima ki, R. (200, ). S ucc ess ful leade rship in th re e high-povert y urban elementary s chools. Ｏ ｾ ＢＬ ＢＧ Ｌ Ｍｳ ｉ Ｌ ｪ ｊＡ ' fllrl J'" f j r ,11 ill ,v /",,,f.<;. Ii( .1 ), ＲＡｩ Ｑ ｾＱ ｉ Ｇ Ｎ Kell ey, C.. He ne man. II .. &. Milan o wsk i. A. (2000 ). S("1II /fol·/lff...,-c1 IH',.1i",,,ulI/('I' (/ff'(/IYI 1', 11i/l1I m ., . "'f/N/,'r motis-ation, flml ... d ff,,01 1>I'1:f" n JIIIIff" >: f'i lff /i " f/'" .lim" " ,"' 1/11.'1 ,!r lillY'" / ' /YIf/ IY/ IfI s, Phil<ldl'lphi a: University u f Pennsylva nia , Consortium fo r Pohcy Resea rr-h in Education. Kotter. ,I. P. ( Wi ,). Power. depeudem-e, a nti f'ff('('fj\'f' management . I/II'Y'I:llvl lllf ... i· 111'...... /(' ·I·i ,·II' . :i .i (.1). ｉ ｚＮ ＧｬＭ ｉ ｾ ｉ Ｌ Kott e r. .J. P. ( 19!16). ｉ ｾ ＢＬ ､ ｪ II!! ('//I/lI!!('. Bos ton: Ha rva rd Bus tne s.. School Press . Ladd, I I.. &. Zelli. A (200'2 ). School-based a C'('on lll<lhili ly in No rt h Ca rotmo: The reSPOllSf'S of :';('hcM,1 principals. f:rllII'nl innnt " dlff i " i,<;lml inn ()flfl f11'I'I!I. :18 ( 11. 1!l1- !i2!I, Lashway. ｉ ｾ ( 1m ). Ho ld in g schoo ls ae-t-ounta hle fo r achieve ment. ";HIt ' /1i"'·...t. 1·10. (F:RIC [)O('II111f'1II Rf'I' Tc MIII('ti oll Servu- e No . F:D I:l I1Rl) Le ithwood. 1\. ( I!lfll) . Leadershfp fo r school restruct uri ng . ";I1I1 ,,, lim ,,,1 :\ d m i ll i...· ", ("""" .r' flY/l im , (/!"' ''f ' ',1!1, .1(1(.1), -tns----51B. Le nh wood K., &. J antzi. II, (2flO!l). A review of t ransfon nruiona l s chool le adership research . 1!I!1()- 21105, /Rfl dr l-sll i p ' /Ild / 'ol ir ./l ill ｓ ､ Ｏｬ Ｏｦ ｯｬ Ｎｾ Ｎ 4 (3 ). 177-W!l Le tth wood . K . LOllis , K. S.• Anderso n, S.. &. Wahlst rom . K. (200-1). R(,l' il'lI' I!( 1'1""" " " 1'11 : 1f" .,. /r"" "'"!>!l i/ i ,(/lIl1'I/""'" "" IUI('1I1 ft"I/ ."i"rl . ｾ ｦ ｩ ｬｮ Ｈ＾ ｡ ｰｮ ｬｩ ｳ Ｚ Un iversity o f .\linllf'so la. CPlllPr fo r "pp lil'<'! Research ami Eflucal ional Imp rove ment. Le uhwoo d. K., &. Riehl. C. (:!Ol t J). Il1m l 11'1' knmr n //fw l ＢＧ ｬｦ ｮ Ｇ Ｌ ＾ Ｌ＼［Ｎ ｾ Ｈ ｬｦ ｬ ,'wll flul f•.,,, I,'r...hil '. Phila,lt' lph ia : Temple University. Louts. K. S., Feuey. K., &. Schroede r, R. (200;;) . State-mand ated arconutnbihty in hig h Sd IlMIIs: Teachers' inh ' '1,rf'lal io n:,; o f anew e ra . f.'d m '(l t j",,,, 1 ｦＮＢ ｾ ｉ ｉ Ｏｬ Ｑ Ｑ i,," '/lU' ｊ ＾ Ｂ ｦ ｩ ｲ ｬ ＯＮＭ｜ ｉＯ Ｂ ｦＮ ｉ Ｎ ＼［ ｩ Ｎ ｾ Ｌ 2.(2 ). j JJ- 2IH. Marks . II . M" &. Pri nty. S. ｾ ＱＮ (2110:1). Pmu-lpal leade rslup ami s chool performance: An integranon of lrans fonn;lljona l a nd mst rur-tional le ade rs hjp. Ndmy,'i",,,,1 .'1d m i n i." ' m l i on (Jm,,-I ,·,1.11• •1.'1(3). 3' (h1!l' . Ｎ｜ｬ ､ Ｎ ｡ｬ ｾｨｬｩ｜ Ｌ ｾｌ W., & Talbert . ,J. E . ( Hro). ( ·lm ll'.l"ls thn t 1//(I1/" " .f;1I" ' '''Il'IIi,,!! 11 /11/ I" ' f " /I i u f/: S' U/" 'fl if' " JlJ""1/1 u il ir... .1iw /l w.>l i m/ lI/(' m " j o/l ',<; 1../ fll"fl l i m fli l I/" o J.S. Stanfo rd. CA: Cf'IIIf'r fo r Researc h 0 11 the Co ntex t of Se condary Sc hool T eaching. 6 1i ｾｨ Ｇｬ ｡ｨ ｩ Ｌ 1'. Jac kson. p,. 8< Spa rks . L. Ｈｾ ｏＨ ｘ ＡＩ Ｌ An e xploratory ｾ ｬＱ ､ｹ int o failu re in s ll(,(,I'",,,flll ｏ ｉＧｾ｡ ｮ ｩｚｬ ｬ ｬｩ ｯ ｬＢ ［ Till' easp o f Marks and Spem-er. ltdl i ,11 ."wnw/ 1/( ,lflll/ll W'/lf I' III , 1,1. ｆ ＭＩ ｾ ｮ Ｎ 11",,, \I . n.. 8.: 1I111l('n mm , ｾ ＧＭ A ( Wil l) . (JIII/li llli i ' Y' 1111/,/./1';" (21111 r-d. ). Tho ll' sand I )ak'i. CA ｓ［ Ｑ ｾ ｦＧ Ｎ ｾｬｩ ｴｗ ｐ Ｌ II. Ｈ Ｒ Ｈ ｾ Ｉ［ Ｑ ＩＮ T Ilt' ｉｩｭ ｩ ｬ ｾ of sam-nons in In w- pf>I'formi ng S<'hIKlls: A s tudy (If !\Ia ry lam l 0111 11 Kt'III11l'ky se hnnls on !,mhal io ll, f ;d ll l 'II l i oll H J i/·.11 . II/III'ls is . \ ''''/' ;1"1'' , 11(:1). ( E RIC DOn ll11('1t 1 Rl'p rod Ue1iOIl S('l"\i n ' No. ｾ ＺＧ ｊ ＨＩ ｏ ｈ ｏ ｩ ＺＩ Ｉ :\lilll rop, I I.. & T ruj illo , T , :\1. (2ClOi)). ('onl'l'l i"t' i11'lion ill lnw ｉ ｬ Ｇ ｦ ｯ ｮ ｮ ｩ ｮｾ se honls: 1.1',,""'I11 IS fo r ｾ Ｈ Ｇ ｉＮ ｂ ilHlllt'nw nla lin n fro m firs l-gPlwrali o n ar-counta bdity sysIj' m"'. D'u f"IIfi fl ll / ',,/ i'".ll ,11l" I,II.", i s . In 'IIi 'Y's, / .J( 18 ). Reuteved ｓｴ Ｇ ｬＧ ｨＧ ｬｉ ｨｴＧ ｲ ｾ Ｌ Ｒ Ｑ ｾ ｬＡ ｬＬ from hl lp:III' paa .as ll.l' d ll!f'lla aA: 1:1n IRI ｾ ｬｯ ｬ ｬｮ ｬ ｡ｬ Ｌ S . A., 8.: Lawler. E. E. ( Hl!'lIi). ｾｉ ｬｩ｜ Ｇ｡ｬｩｯ fo r s d 1lM,I reform. In S. II . Fuhnuan 8.: .1. A Ｈｲ ｊＩ ｡ ｾ Ｇ ( Ells. ), R" II"" n/" ,w d n :f;lI"lII : ( 'n 'nl ; IIY ,'dl/ nll ;""'" i "' ·",,1i "".' 1/"" w" rk ( pp . 115- 11:1), SHIl Francisco : Ｎｉｯｳ ｬＧ ｾ ﾷ ｂＬ ｬＮｳ :\ o ll hol1sl', 1'. (; , (2(H) I). 1./'" d" I",lI i l ' : ＱＷ Ｂ Ｑ Ｂ ｾ Ｑ Ｑ """ /JI"I/I'lil'l' (:lrtl ('(1.) . Thousand ｬｩ ｾ Ｇｴ ｳ Ｌ Uaks. ( 'A : ｓＮ Ｑｾ ｦＧ Ｎ ( 1'( 1,1...., .I. (:!fHi'..! I. ( 'o lHph' x ily, aerountability. and school improvement. l/" I"n !H1 I;'/I" I" I/ i ",,,, 1 ft-", i " II", ;.,! (;J),2!t 'h t.!! l. O l"'on, L. Ｈｾ ｉ Ｂ ｉ ｉ . .I'" H1HI)" 2S). Stat es t ra m ｳ ｩｾ ｨｴ Ｇｩ o n school dts tn crs fo r tnt crvenlion s , f;d l/f'II l i" " 1\'1" -1.', ＮＺＡ Ｌｊ Ｈｾｏ Ｉ Ｎ I. ｾ ｌ OWt'lIs , It ( ;. (::!l ｾ I I ). I ' 11/'1/1i :;;111i"",,' ''''/lII l'i" ,. i ll lyl /1( '111 ion: . 1d" 1'/ i /Y ' /1'll d/ 'I",11 i I' "m l Ｌｾ ､ＢＧ Ｇ Ｏ ｉ＾ Ｚ ｦ ｩ Ｇ ｬｦｉ ( l I lt ed.). EIl,glt' wO'M I C!iffs , N.J; Pre-ntice Hall. Richard, ,\ . (::!(Hl I. .lnnuary ' ). SI.1 h ''i unnhle 10 hl'l l' all ｳ ｬ ｭＬｧ ｬｩｮ ｾ s c-hools. f;dunl Iii", Il i "'I.", .!./( W ), I!l. 2:3. H"hills o n , \ ', 1\1. .I.. ｌＱ ｯｾ Ｇ ､ Ｌ c'. A., "I: Row e, K. ,I. ｦｾ ｏ ｏｒ Ｉ Ｎ ｬ ｷ impact o f I" adl' rs hip (I ll snuh-nt oll ln'lH t's : A n ana lys i'i of Ihl' Ihfff'l"f'llt ia l {'ffl'd s of leadr-rshlp typ " s . f ;d lll"II I i","'/ . l d lll i ll i ,' / I1II i ll1f (Jmf/ 'I " 11!1, ｾ Ｎ I):l;·)-li' I . 1111SI'Hhol! z. S. ,I. ( lflRll) . 1'" ", ,/,..,.,, ' II"", kl" II/'/': 77/1' ""w i, ,1 m Y'If,izrrl i,, " Ｏ ｾｲ Ｎ ｾ ､ Ｌ Ｂ ｾＮ ｊ :'>if'W YOlk: Lon aman. St' hring , P. B" 8.: Brvk . A S. (::!OOO). Schoollenrb-rship and the hotl ollllilH' ill Chi･ ｡ｾ Ｂ / 'lI i 111'1 /11 K " /'I "' " , N/ {ll), I IU- I I:1. Sm ith, W. F.. 8.: ,\ m ll"e ws , II. L. ( I!lSIl). 1" " ' /"IlI'l i l>" ,,1 " " ,d" I",h il': 1/,,11' I I/'ill/';I"d" " " Ik,' " d !O;'I>'/I(·/'. Ale xandria. \ 'A: As soctauon fo r Sllp el-vision an d Cumruh un ! 1f-'\'P]o l,mt'HI. Sp illa lw , .I. P., Ili mllond . .I. B., Burch. P.. lIalll'tt, T.. .IiI.. , ｉ ｾ Ｎ & Zo ltnp f'i, .I, (200'.!), ｾ ｉ ｡ ｮ ＼ｬ ｧ ｩ ｮ ｾ ill lilt' m ill/til': Se hoo l le;l.tlt' f'i andthe e nat-nuent of a rr-ouuta bility polir-y. f ;d f/,'/lI i " ,,,,I /',,l i n J, (.'i(5 ), ' :H -i(i2. Sp illaJlt' , .J. P., lI nlw rs o n , R . & DimuondJ. B. (:!lJOI). ｊｮ ｈＧ ｳ ｬｩ ｾ｡ ｴ ｩｮ ｧ se hoo l lf'ade l-Sh ip p rad i("t'; A rhst n huredpe rs pecnve. f;t/' I'"II I i"'/111 H"." YII1'I1I'I", .111(:3), 2:l-:!S, Sla w, B. .\ 1" Sa nllj,la lllts, ｉ ｾ E" 8: I nu ton. .I. E. ( 1!IS I) . TIlft>;lI-rigi,lity pfff'<:' ls in orzaIliz;lli, mal behavior: " Illlillill' \'t' l ［ ｕＱ｡ ｬｾ ...is . At/m ill is inl i i, '< ' S /'i / ' III 'I ' ()Im ,.' n 1'J, ;!fi , :-Il11 -:'l:! l. Srt'\ \a rl ,.j, Ｈ ＺＡ ｬ ｾ ｬ ［Ｉ Ｎ Transfonnanonal It'a, tl' rs h ip: Au ('I'oh ill,!! l'o lli"t'Jlt f'x: llllilll' d Ihl o llgh (110' wruks o f BllnlS , Bas s . AI'oli n , ;111,1Ld thw ' HIi I. ( 'Il/wl/ il/ II ' /" ,11',,,, 1 '1I1-:" II"" ' i/ll",/ . II1", i ,, i.,ll1Ililll / 'Ill t/ / 'o/i/"ll' ;H . 1- 1:1. 618 I\.P,RA S FINNIGMI AND l Rte lA J STE"WART Sfnll. ｉ ｾ Ｎ & Fink. D. (l p!:It' ). ｮＬｴｕ ｬ ｾ Ｏ ｩ Ｂ ＡＱ anr Ｎｾ ﾷ Ｂ ｦ Ｂ Ｂ . .: U r"':;" !1 ,.,d lf"" .;(,"'./i,...,I1'. .... "IIf' ,"£"/",,,1 j"" " , ,, ,,,,,, r,,,. Buc killl'!h ,ulI. ti l\: Or-J Universlry 1'r('S.<; I I.S . Ilt'" anmt>1lt of rAhwa liun. (:.'11111 t. f."m/llfr/ h." of Ti'/r J .lrrlllll"ffililillj S." .",II ' ", ." ",,,/ 81'"1"'"1 1"'1' 11....-nn-» f;f{t.r1... (T.'\.<;'<;/f.') - Fir ..t ' .I I"".rp"d i/lfl·"'. Washill!o!TOf1. IlC: Aut ho r. I t.S ｬ ｾ ｬ ＺｴｲＱ ｬｻＧ ｮ ｴ o f rA11I("a linn . (2flll'). S/fl l r miff /..n ll ; ml o/" I/""" ',";',,, '!( II w ,\ '" J: .1rn"' ''' f,lJil it.1/ 11"'/' -'"X I 'I.1l (;" ""-;111 ,...( 7//1<1 1..:11 ! lrl,; ml . k l, 1''''1 J. wa..hington. 0(': AUlhor. \ 'OMIIII, \ '., " J a g:o. A. C:WO'). TIl(' roll' o f s itH.'\t ion in )(w l,·rs hip. ,t "w/i ....", ! 's IJ· /"/", 1.", ;.<;/. fi.'{ I), 1'; - 21. ""/1",,,.. Jacobson. S. I... &. Urysd a!f'. L. (2Ot)'j ). ｾ ｉ｡ ｫｩｬ a lliIT('rl'II('(' in c balhigh-poverty sc hoo l..: Succ essful princ ipal.. in till' tIS A. ｅ ｮｾ ｬ｡ ｮ ､ Ｎ a nd ,\ u<;l ralia_-".-lUI'" f.:!TH',j''f·lIr . .ｾ " ,,<1 .'';l'1m,,1 11111'/1''''·'''''/I' . 1.'01(4 ). :l61....1A1. Yuki. fl . ( If)!:l l) . Ｑ Ｂ ｾＢ Ｂ ＧＬ Ｂｓ Ｂ ｩ ｊｬ in ｭｾＢ ｬｉ ｩ ｺ ｴｬ ｩｴＢＬＮ ＼［ (3 rd 1'11.). ":nllll' wnull Cliffs. N.' : I'rt 'lll ic(' Hall. Yukl. It., & Lepsmger. R, (2HH!)). Why tmegranng the Il'ad ing a mi ｭ ｡ｮ ｡ ｬｩｮ ｾ ro ll' is essential for orgnni znnonal ('ffN 'l h-l' nl'SS. ＨＩＧ ｾＢ Ｇ ｦｬ ｩ ｺ Ｂｦ ｪ ＢＬ Ｌ Ｑ 1J.lf llt l lll ;r s. Ｚ Ｑ ｾＨ Ｔ ＩＮ :IIH ....']7". Ylnuak t. R. ｫ ｬＱｾ ｾ ｴＮ ｩｬｬｾ Ｎ Kara S , Finn igan . an assistant p rofessor In the ec uceto neueaoersmo progr am 01 the UnlverSlly of Rcchesters Warner Scroor of Edcc anon. spec ializes In educatonat policy WIth an emphasIs on accountab ility. organizatIOnal Change. and urba n scroors. Ttic la J . Stewart a ooctoret student III eo ucaeonat policy. IS a VISI ting assistant profes sor at the Warner SchOOl Of Edueahon ct me Umverslty Of Rochester . COPYRIGHT INFORMATION Author: Finnigan, Kara S.; Stewart, Tricia J. Title: Leading Change Under Pressure: An Examination of Principal Leadership in Low-Performing Schools Source: J Sch Leadership 19 no5 S 2009 p. 586-618 ISSN: 1052-6846 Publisher: Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lenham, Maryland 20706 The magazine publisher is the copyright holder of this article and it is reproduced with permission. Further reproduction of this article in violation of the copyright is prohibited. To contact the publisher: http://www.rowmaneducation.com/Journals/JSL/ This article may be used for research, teaching and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, re-distribution, re-selling, loan or sublicensing, systematic supply or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. 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