Translation and Practice Theory

TRANSLATION AND PRACTICE THEORY Translation and Practice Theory is a timely and theoretically innovative study linking professional practice and translation theory, showing the usefulness of a practicetheoretical approach in addressing some of the challenges that the professional world of translation is currently facing, including, for example, the increasing deployment of machine translation. Focusing on the key aspects of translation practices, Olohan provides the reader with an in-depth understanding of how those practices are performed, as translators interact with people, technologies and other material resources in the translation workplace. The practice-theoretical perspective helps to describe and explain the socio-material complexities of present-day commercial translation practice but also offers a productive approach for studies of translation and interpreting practices in other settings and periods. This first book-length exploration of translation through the lens of practice theory is key reading for advanced students and researchers of Translation Theory. It will also be of interest in the area of professional communication within Communication Studies and Applied Linguistics. Maeve Olohan is Co-Director of the Centre for Translation and Intercultural Studies, University of Manchester, UK. She is the author of Introducing Corpora in Translation Studies (2004) and Scientific and Technical Translation (2016), and co-editor of a special issue of The Translator (2011) on the translation of science. TRANSLATION THEORIES EXPLORED Series Editor: Theo Hermans, UCL, UK Translation Theories Explored is a series designed to engage with the range and diversity of contemporary translation studies. Translation itself is as vital and as charged as ever. If anything, it has become more plural, more varied and more complex in today’s world. The study of translation has responded to these challenges with vigour. In recent decades the field has gained in depth, its scope continues to expand and it is increasingly interacting with other disciplines. The series sets out to reflect and foster these developments. It aims to keep track of theoretical developments, to explore new areas, approaches and issues, and generally to extend and enrich the intellectual horizon of translation studies. Special attention is paid to innovative ideas that may not as yet be widely known but deserve wider currency. Individual volumes explain and assess particular approaches. Each volume combines an overview of the relevant approach with case studies and critical reflection, placing its subject in a broad intellectual and historical context, illustrating the key ideas with examples, summarizing the main debates, accounting for specific methodologies, achievements and blind spots, and opening up new avenues for the future. Authors are selected not only on their close familiarity and personal affinity with a particular approach but also on their capacity for lucid exposition, critical assessment and imaginative thought.The series is aimed at researchers and graduate students who wish to learn about new approaches to translation in a comprehensive but accessible way. Translation as Metaphor Rainer Guldin Translation and Paratexts Kathryn Batchelor Translation and Style 2e Jean Boase-Beier Translation and Practice Theory Maeve Olohan For more information about this series, please visit: www.routledge.com/Translation-Theories-Explored/book-series/TTE TRANSLATION AND PRACTICE THEORY Maeve Olohan First published 2021 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2021 Maeve Olohan The right of Maeve Olohan to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by her in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Olohan, Maeve, author. Title: Translation and practice theory / Maeve Olohan. Description: London; New York : Routledge, 2020. | Series: Translation theories explored | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2020018533 | ISBN 9781138200296 (hardback) | ISBN 9781138200302 (paperback) | ISBN 9781315514772 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Translating and interpreting. | Translating and interpreting–Social aspects. Classification: LCC P306 .O46 2020 | DDC 418/.0201–dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020018533 ISBN: 978-1-138-20029-6 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-138-20030-2 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-315-51477-2 (ebk) Typeset in Bembo by Newgen Publishing UK In memory of Jimmy Olohan CONTENTS Acknowledgements List of abbreviations ix x Introduction 1 1 From product and process to practice 6 Products, processes and people 6 Workplaces 9 Practices 15 2 Theorizing practices 17 Practice thinking 18 The concept of practice 20 The three-elements model of practice 26 Practice-as-performance and practice-as-entity 27 Practices as interconnected 28 Types of practices 30 Looking through the practice lens 31 3 Materials 35 Bodies 35 Material entities 41 4 Competence Knowing-in-practice 58 57 viii Contents Knowledge and knowing in translation studies 61 Constituting knowing 67 Practices recruiting participants 69 5 Meaning 73 General understandings 74 Rules 77 Teleo-affectivity 82 6 Connected practices 88 Revising and reviewing 90 Project management 92 Vendor management 94 Publishing 94 The plenum of practices 95 Educating translators 97 Crossing points of practices 98 7 Evolving practices 102 Post-editing machine translation 103 Change 114 8 Researching translation practice 117 From theoretical to empirical perspectives 118 Ethnographic research 120 Methods 122 Challenges 126 An emerging research agenda 128 Bibliography Index 131 151 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This book would not have been possible if I had not been able to conduct fieldwork in several organizations where I was afforded the opportunity to interact with translators, project managers, senior managers, directors and a range of other people involved in the provision of translation services. Although I cannot divulge their identities, all those who allowed me to observe their practices and who allocated time from their busy schedules for discussions and interviews, both formal and informal, contributed in no small way to the book’s development, and I would like to thank them for their collaboration. Fieldwork was facilitated by a funding award from the Faculty of Humanities of the University of Manchester and institutional research leave but also relied very much on the enormous support of my colleagues in the Centre for Translation and Intercultural Studies, for which I am very grateful. I would like to thank all those in both academic and commercial settings who generously invited me to present aspects of this research or gave me feedback on it as it developed. I am also very appreciative of the support of the European Commission’s Directorate-General for Translation, in particular during my service on the Board of the European Master’s in Translation. Among other things, invitations to participate in the annual Translating Europe Forum in Brussels enabled me to follow developments in language services closely and to learn a lot from key stakeholders. Finally, I am very grateful to Theo Hermans as an incisive reader and encouraging series editor, and to Louisa Semlyen and Eleni Steck at Routledge for their patience and assistance. ABBREVIATIONS AI ANT ASR ASTTI ASTM ATA ATC CAT CEFR CPU CIUTI DGT DIN DTP ELIA EMT EUATC FAT FIT GALA GPU GT ICT ISO ITI LAN artificial intelligence actor-network theory automatic speech recognition Association suisse des traducteurs, terminologues et interprètes American Society for Testing and Materials American Translators Association Association of Translation Companies computer-assisted translation Common European Framework of Reference for Languages central processing unit Conférence internationale permanente d’instituts universitaires de traducteurs et interprètes Directorate-General for Translation Deutsches Insitut für Normung desktop publishing European Language Industry Association European Master’s in Translation (Network) European Union Association of Translation Companies fairness, accountability and transparency Fédération Internationale des Traducteurs Globalization and Localization Association graphical processing unit Google Translate information and communications technology International Organization for Standardization Institute for Translation and Interpreting local area network Abbreviations xi LIND LQA LSP MT MTI NAATI NMT PACTE PDF PEMT PM QA RSI SFT SMT ST TEP TM TMS TT TU WYSIWYG xAI Language Industry (Expert Group) linguistic quality assurance language service provider machine translation Master’s in Translation and Interpreting National Accreditation Authority for Translators and Interpreters neural machine translation Procés d’Adquisició de la Competència Traductora i Avaluació Portable Document Format post-editing machine translation project management; project manager quality assurance repetitive strain injury Société française des traducteurs statistical machine translation source text translation, editing, proofreading translation memory translation management system target text translation unit what you see is what you get explainable artificial intelligence INTRODUCTION Writing in The Paris Review, Lina Mounzer (2019) describes her experiences of working as a part-time freelance translator, translating what she calls ‘garbage’ to fund her own creative writing projects. In contrast to high-brow literary translation work held in lofty esteem, garbage is Mounzer’s designation for the genres she translates from Arabic and French into English from corporate, institutional and governmental clients, as well as what she describes as poor-quality, vacuous artwork descriptions and artist statements.The art texts, in particular, challenge her “to delicately transpose the impossibly thin veneer of a nothing-sentence into something that reads like a real sentence while preserving the crinkly emptiness it is wrapped around”. Mounzer’s translation experiences have not been particularly positive, and her description of them has prompted other translators who enjoy translation to call for her to quit (Berrill 2019). However, Mounzer’s account is a useful place from which to start an exploration of the practice of translating because it refers to many of the elements and aspects of the practice that this volume aims to address, in conceptual terms. The difficulty of confronting and meeting the challenges she faces is vividly described by Mounzer in bodily and affective terms. She aims to get a first draft done as efficiently as possible, so she keeps “the shudders and eye-rolling to a minimum, trying not to wear [herself] out before [she] has to really take in the full horror of what has been wrought”. She closes her eyes in ecstasy after cracking one particularly impenetrable art text formulation. Mounzer describes the rage she experiences when confronted with “the audacity” of poor writing: “Rage. Blustering, spitting, middle-age-ruddy-faced-white-man rage”. This is “writing that makes you hate writing”. Trying to find some sense of pleasure in the work, she resorts to comparing it to the “orgiastic loathing” of a sexual encounter that is driven by both hate and desire. 2 Introduction Mounzer outlines how she stumbled upon freelance translation almost by accident, but then thought it could be the ideal income-generating activity for an aspiring writer. She could apply what she describes as her “extremely narrow skill set”, and it would allow her to work in the medium she loves, with the freedom to organize her time and daily routines. However, her conception and the unfolding practice do not match up. She finds herself subjected to the pressures of the freelance market, with clients who want faster translations for less money and who believe they can always get this from other people in multilingual Beirut if Mounzer cannot or will not deliver it. She finds that it is the wealthiest organizations that haggle most over price. Disingenuous authors of official reports fabricate and obfuscate to place their institutions in a positive light. Attention-seeking artists misrepresent their works or claim dubious moral purposes for them. Sometimes Mounzer has queries for the artist or the curator and so she “translat[es] disdain or outrage or bafflement or sometimes all three into impeccable politesse”; her exasperation, otherwise expressed using expletives, is moderated into politely hedged requests for clarification from the client. She notes that, in these interpersonal interactions, and unlike her male peers, she can draw on “a woman’s entire lifetime’s experience of compressing outraged impatience into a sweet little bonbon of personal incomprehension”. Mounzer writes in some detail of the translational choices to be made. Do you improve on the poorly written source text? In doing so, are you collaborating and colluding with a text producer with whom you do not wish to be associated? The doublespeak of government officials, for instance, is important and needs to be preserved. Trends in language usage fill her with despair because the “white noise” of repeated words, phrases, ideas and conclusions renders all contributions dissonant, regardless of their intentions. In relation to art texts, she describes herself as being in a moral quandary and asks: “is my responsibility to the translation or to language itself?” These are issues for Mounzer also because she fears for her own reputation; the reader may decide that she is a poor translator, not that the source text author is a terrible writer. The situation is made worse by her sense of powerlessness over her compromised time and her low income. She feels like “a cog in this great economic machine powered by words that are making a lot of people a lot of money somewhere but ultimately empowering nothing”. The “all-powerful and invisible undertow” of the monoculture is sweeping everyone and all forms of writing along with it. This forces Mounzer to question why she wishes to write at all. But she concludes that bad writing intensifies the pleasure she gets from good writing. Bad writing makes good writing easier to recognize, and it makes her feel both “autonomous and communitarian” by enabling her continuously to refine her own definition of what good writing is not. Mounzer’s essay is an evocative narrative about translation, published in the Arts and Culture section of an esteemed literary magazine, The Paris Review. It is clearly not intended to be a comprehensive account of translating practice. Moreover, in writing this text, Mounzer is not translating, so it is not an instance or performance Introduction 3 of translating. However, this depiction of translation identifies a range of aspects that will be central in a practice-theoretical view of translating. I therefore use it here as a springboard, as a means of highlighting significant elements of translating practice before embarking on a deeper theoretical exploration of them in this volume. Some of those elements attract very little attention in scholarly accounts of translation but they come to the fore in Mounzer’s narrative, arguably because they are central to translating practice. They will also take centre stage in this book, since its principal aim is to demonstrate the usefulness of a practice-theoretical approach to translating. The first element, already highlighted in my retelling, is the body. Mounzer gives us an insight into corporeal and somatic involvement in translating: rolling eyes, closing eyes, shuddering, exploding with or suppressing rage. She describes aspects of both her body’s actions while drafting a translation and its reactions to other elements of the practice, e.g., the inept source text, the arrogant or dishonest author, the demanding client. Indisputably, the body performs translation, and the body interacts with other elements – things and people – in translating. However, translation theories have tended to overlook this dimension of translation, embracing a Cartesian distinction between mind and body, and then very much privileging the mind. A practice-theoretical approach, by contrast, rejects this mind/body dualism and seeks to understand how body, mind, people and objects are interwoven in practices. For most practice theorists, the body forms part of a wider category, that of materials. Like the body, the material objects, the things that are involved in translation practice, have also often been absent from studies of translating, except when the use of a specific tool or resource is the explicit focus of the study. Many translations, particularly in the literary domain, have been studied primarily as the product of the translator’s (disembodied) brain, as though they were accompanied by an imaginary disclaimer: “No things were involved in the making of this translation. Or if they were, they were inconsequential!” Practice theory recognizes and examines the significant role that materials – biological, chemical, physical, artefactual – play in practices. The now somewhat clichéd slogan used in numerous practice-oriented research publications stresses that “matter matters”. Materials, including the body, are the focus of Chapter 3. When writing first about her (mistaken) expectations of how freelance translation would fit into her writing life, and then about her experiences of the translation business, clients’ demands and reactions, etc., Mounzer identifies aspects of practices that will be discussed in Chapters 4 and 5, namely competences and meanings of practices. We see Mounzer’s motivations for engaging in the practice of translating and for perpetuating it as she does, and the affective dimensions that motivate the practice. We are made aware of the shared understandings that configure the translating practice and make it recognizable to her, to clients, to readers of her translations. These understandings and motivations are discussed in Chapter 5, while aspects of ‘knowing how’ to translate form the focus of Chapter 4. Mounzer also touches on procedures or points of reference for the practice that 4 Introduction enable judgements to be made about what constitutes an acceptable or unacceptable performance of it. The normative dimension of practices is also addressed in Chapter 5, where we consider the teleological and affective structuring of translating practice, in other words, how translation practice is guided by the desire to fulfil certain ends, which, in turn, are connected to emotions. As noted, Mounzer’s narrative is not an instance or a performance of translating. However, it is part of a performance of another practice: the practice of writing. We can see some similarities and links between those two practices. A key linking element is Mounzer herself. She translates and she writes about translating (and about other topics). As a practitioner of both practices, she is a ‘crossing point’ for both practices and she connects the two. Other shared elements are the time and space in which the practices unfold and some of the materials that participate in them. Both her writing and her translating are performed on a freelance basis, from home. She refers to the commute from bed to desk, and the opportunities to break for coffee and snacks whenever she pleases. Her initial intention, which she had difficulty realizing, was to write in the mornings and translate in the afternoons. It is plausible that she sits at this desk in a similar way, with furniture, computer, software, texts and other material objects, including her coffee cup, involved in similar ways when performing both practices. Mounzer draws on the same knowing about language and text construction, even if she aspires to produce better versions in her own writing than she encounters in the writing of others.These kinds of commonalities produce a strong connection between the practice of writing and the practice of translating. This connection is part of what prompts her to follow the freelance translator route. The interrelation between the practices is also what prompts her strong emotional response to the poorly written source texts for translation and the clients’ demands. Interconnecting practices are the focus of Chapter 6, while Chapter 7 examines how changes transpire in practices. To conclude our consideration of Mounzer’s essayistic representation of translating practice, we can note that it depicts the practice as situated, purposive and embodied. It thus draws our attention to a host of aspects that are worthy of further investigation. Practice theory provides a conceptual apparatus that enables us to attend to and give expression to those aspects and to learn more about how they figure in and shape translation practice. This book introduces practice theory and its key tenets to translation scholars. In exploring translation through the lens of practice theory, it aims to show the usefulness of a practice-theoretical approach in dealing, conceptually and empirically, with some of the challenges that the professional world of translation is currently facing. Using a practice-theoretical toolkit we can investigate and better understand ongoing and imminent changes in the practice. As will be explained, this entails a shift away from a focus on the individual and their behaviour, motivations and interests, and a shift away from a systems-oriented approach, towards a situational, contextual focus on practices in which people are engaged. Practices are understood as the fabric of which social life is made and they are therefore foregrounded in our studies of social life. Introduction 5 Thus, the focus of the book is conceptual. It explores specific aspects of translating practice, examining the roles of various elements in practices, the interconnections between practices, and the changing nature of practices.This exploration reflects an interest in the enactments of those practices, and in the elements that co-constitute the practices. As noted earlier, those elements include the human body and material objects, as well as shared understandings and know-how. Substantial attention is paid to materials, as these have been neglected in translation studies but assume central importance when considering how translation practices develop and evolve. The exploration, although conceptual, is highly situated and has been shaped by the trajectories of several practices that have produced it. Most notably, it emerged from my theoretical engagement with the notion of science as practice, sparked and informed by scholarship in science and technology studies. Having become convinced of the usefulness of a performative ontology for understanding science, I sought to apply this thinking to translation too. This led, in turn, to approximately 250 hours of fieldwork observations and interviews in four language service providers (LSPs) to gain an in-depth understanding of translation and projectmanaging practices (see Chapter 1 for more details). However, it is important to note that this book is not an ethnography or praxiography of translation. Nor is it a study of particular cases, although it could feasibly have developed in its early stages to become either of these things. It is, rather, a conceptual exploration designed to stretch the horizons of translation theory by proposing a holistic perspective that can help to explain the socio-material complexities of translation practice. Thus, the practice-theoretical account of translation that is constructed here is informed by my own empirical investigations, by other scholars’ research into translation and by sustained engagements with other stakeholders in translation, including freelance translators and representatives of LSPs and other employers of translators, translation technology companies and professional translator associations, particularly in UK and EU contexts. 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