JOURNAL OF VIROLOGY, June 2004, p. 6676–6681
0022-538X/04/$08.00⫹0 DOI: 10.1128/JVI.78.12.6676–6681.2004
Copyright © 2004, American Society for Microbiology. All Rights Reserved.
Vol. 78, No. 12
Rinderpest Virus Phosphoprotein Gene Is a Major Determinant of
Species-Specific Pathogenicity
Misako Yoneda,1 Ryuichi Miura,1 Thomas Barrett,2
Kyoko Tsukiyama-Kohara,1 and Chieko Kai1*
Laboratory Animal Research Center, Institute of Medical Science, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 108-8639,
Japan,1 and Institute for Animal Health, Pirbright, Woking, Surrey GU24 ONF, United Kingdom2
Received 3 July 2003/Accepted 3 March 2004
Rinderpest virus (RPV) is a single-stranded, negative-sense
RNA virus classified in the genus Morbillivirus in the family
Paramyxoviridae, order Mononegavirales. RPV is antigenically
closely related to other members of this genus, which include
human measles virus (MV), peste des petits ruminants virus in
sheep and goats, canine distemper virus (CDV), and phocid
distemper virus, which cause diseases in carnivore species, including seals. Since the late 1980s, novel CDV and related
morbillivirus infections have occurred worldwide and have
caused fatal disease in several species previously considered
immune to these viruses, including hyenas and various marine
mammals (5, 6). Two recent CDV epidemics in large cats have
been reported, one in California and the other in the
Serengeti, Tanzania (1, 25a). Both were characterized by significant fatality rates (23 and 30%, respectively). Recently, two
new emerging paramyxoviruses that were identified in cases of
severe respiratory and encephalitic diseases in animals and
humans have been described; they are now known as Hendra
virus (HeV) and Nipah virus (NiV) (12). Hendra virus
emerged in 1994 and was transmitted to humans by close
contact with horses; Nipah virus emerged in 1999 and was
passed from pigs to humans. Both are unusual among the
paramyxoviruses in their abilities to infect and cause potentially fatal disease in a number of host species, including humans, although their natural host is the fruit bat. From these
incidents it is clear that a high probability of cross-species
infection by paramyxoviruses exists, and so the determinants of
cross-species pathogenicity following infection with these viruses should be a high priority for research. As a first step
toward understanding these mechanisms, we studied the role
of the hemagglutinin (H) protein gene of RPV as a pathogenic
determinant in a rabbit model, since virus entry was considered
one of the key elements determining cross-species infectivity
(29). From these experiments it was clear that the H protein of
the lapinized strain played an important role in allowing infection to occur but was not a factor determining pathogenicity
for rabbits. It was then considered likely that one of the internal virus protein genes, or a combination of these genes from
the lapinized virus, was essential to produce clinical disease in
rabbits. The results of experiments in which the phosphoprotein (P) gene (recombinant RPV-lapPH [rRPV-lapPH]), alone
or together with the nucleocapsid (N) protein gene (lapNPH),
from RPV-Lv was additionally swapped into the RBOK backbone are presented in this report.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Cells. B95a cells, which are highly susceptible to RPV infection (18), were
propagated in RPMI 1640 medium (Sigma, St. Louis, Mo.) supplemented with
5% fetal calf serum in a humidified atmosphere containing 5% CO2. RPMI 1640
supplemented with 2% fetal calf serum was used as maintenance medium. The
antibiotics benzylpenicillin (100 U/ml) and streptomycin (100 U/ml) were used in
all media.
Construction of the full-length cDNA of RPV. The RPV-Lv strain, which is a
highly virulent for rabbits and was obtained by virus cloning from the RPV-L
strain (M. Shiotani et al., submitted for publication), was used in this study, along
with the rRPV-RBOK virus rescued from a full-length DNA copy (cDNA) of the
genome of the RBOK vaccine strain (3). Virus was also rescued from a plasmid
carrying the full genome of the rRPV-RBOK virus with the H protein gene
derived from RPV-Lv (rRPV-lapH) (29). This plasmid was used for constructions of full-length cDNAs in which the P gene alone or the N and P genes
* Corresponding author. Mailing address: Laboratory Animal Research Center, Institute of Medical Science, The University of Tokyo,
4-6-1 Sirokanedai, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-8639, Japan. Phone: 81-35449-5497. Fax: 81-3-5449-5397. E-mail: ckai@ims.u-tokyo.ac.jp.
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We previously demonstrated that the rinderpest virus (RPV) hemagglutinin (H) protein plays an important
role in determining host range but that other viral proteins are clearly required for full RPV pathogenicity to
be manifest in different species. To examine the effects of the RPV nucleocapsid (N) protein and phosphoprotein (P) genes on RPV cross-species pathogenicity, we constructed two new recombinant viruses in which the
H and P or the H, N, and P genes of the cattle-derived RPV RBOK vaccine were replaced with those from the
rabbit-adapted RPV-Lv strain, which is highly pathogenic in rabbits. The viruses rescued were designated
recombinant RPV-lapPH (rRPV-lapPH) and rRPV-lapNPH, respectively. Rabbits inoculated with RPV-Lv
become feverish and show leukopenia and a decrease in body weight gain, while clinical signs of infection are
never observed in rabbits inoculated with RPV-RBOK or with rRPV-lapH. However, rabbits inoculated with
either rRPV-lapPH or rRPV-lapNPH became pyrexic and showed leukopenia. Further, histopathological
lesions and high virus titers were clearly observed in the lymphoid tissues from animals infected with
rRPV-lapPH or rRPV-lapNPH, although they were not observed in rabbits infected with RPV-RBOK or
rRPV-lapH. The clinical, virological, and histopathological signs in rabbits infected with the two new recombinant viruses did not differ significantly; therefore, the RPV P gene was considered to be a key determinant
of cross-species pathogenicity.
RPV P PROTEIN AND HOST-SPECIFIC PATHOGENICITY
FIG. 1. Schematic representation showing constructions of recombinant viruses. White and dark bars represent the genes of RPVRBOK strain and RPV-Lv, respectively.
combined were derived from RPV-Lv. To enable replacement of the P gene in
the RPV-lapH cDNA, an FseI site was introduced just before the N-P intergenic
region and a PmeI site was introduced just before the P-M intergenic sequence.
The P gene from RPV-Lv was amplified by reverse transcription-PCR from total
RNA of RPV-Lv-infected B95a cells by using oligonucleotide primers with these
restriction enzyme sites and was inserted in place of the normal P gene in the
RPV-lapH cDNA to rescue a virus designated rRPV-lapHP. Similarly, the N
gene was inserted into the latter virus by using a ClaI site at the beginning of the
N gene of strain RPV-RBOK and the FseI site at the N-P intergenic region.
Rabbits, virus inocula, and samples. Two-month-old female albino rabbits
(JW-NIBS strain) with an average body weight of 1.6 kg, which are highly
sensitive to RPV-L (22), were obtained from the Nippon Institute for Biological
Science (Tokyo, Japan). One milliliter each of the rRPV-RBOK, rRPV-lapH,
rRPV-lapPH, rRPV-lapNPH, and RPV-Lv viruses, diluted to 104 50% tissue
culture infective doses (TCID50)/ml with maintenance medium, was inoculated
into rabbits, using two rabbits per experiment. The experiment was repeated
twice. One control rabbit was inoculated with 1 ml of maintenance medium. The
rabbits were euthanatized at 4 days postinoculation (dpi) by using Dormitor
(Orion, Espoo, Finland) and Dormicum (Roche, Basel, Switzerland), and selected tissues were collected for further investigation.
Clinical investigations. Inoculated rabbits were examined daily, and rectal
temperatures and body weights were recorded. Total white blood cell (WBC)
counts in the peripheral blood of the rabbits were determined with a commercial
kit (Unopette Test 58.56; Becton Dickinson).
Virological investigations. The rabbits were euthanatized at 4 dpi, and the
lymphoid tissues, consisting of the spleen, Peyer’s patches, mesenteric lymph
nodes, and appendices, were collected and weighed. Virus infectivity titers in
10% (wt/vol) homogenates of these tissues were determined in B95a cells and
expressed as TCID50 per milliliter.
Histopathological examination. The various lymphoid tissues and other organs
removed at autopsy were fixed in 10% formalin, dehydrated, and embedded in
paraffin by using routine techniques. Thin sections were stained with hematoxylin
and eosin.
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served from 2 dpi. Rabbits inoculated with either rRPVRBOK or rRPV-lapH showed no observable clinical signs of
infection, as observed in our previous study (29). In contrast,
rabbits inoculated with rRPV-lapPH or rRPV-lapNPH showed
high fever on 2 dpi and also mild leukopenia, although body
weight loss was not observed.
Virus growth in lymphoid tissues. The virus present in each
of the lymphoid tissues examined was determined by titration
in B95a cells, and the data are summarized in Table 1. High
virus titers, ranging from 3.0 to 4.9 log TCID50/ml, were detected in the mesenteric lymph nodes, superficial lymph nodes,
appendices, spleens, and Peyer’s patches of all rabbits inoculated with RPV-Lv. In contrast, no virus was detected in lymphoid tissues of rabbits inoculated with either rRPV-RBOK or
rRPV-lapH, as previously noted (29). High virus titers were
detected in all of the tissues of one rabbit inoculated with
rRPV-lapPH. In the other rabbit, virus was detected only in the
spleen and in Peyer’s patches. Similarly, high virus titers were
measured in the lymphoid tissues collected from rabbits infected with rRPV-lapNPH.
Histopathology of lymphoid tissues. All of the lymphoid
tissues collected were examined for gross pathological changes,
and those from rabbits inoculated with rRPV-RBOK were
normal in every respect. In agreement with the clinical disease
seen, severe necrotic lesions, infiltration of inflammatory cells,
and multinuclear giant cells, which are characteristics of
RPV-Lv infection, were also observed in tissues from rabbits
infected with rRPV-lapPH or rRPV-lapNPH (Fig. 3). The
“starry-sky” effect, which was observed in the spleens of rabbits
infected with rRPV-lapH (29), was also seen in the present
experiments.
DISCUSSION
The H protein of a neuroadapted mouse strain of MV has
been shown to determine virus neurotropism (11), and in a
previous study we showed that the H protein of RPV-Lv was
required to allow the bovine cell culture-derived PRV-RBOK
vaccine strain to infect rabbits; however, the virus produced
was not capable of causing disease in that species (29). It was
RESULTS
Rescue of rRPV-lapPH and rRPV-lapNPH. rRPV-lapPH
and rRPV-lapNPH were successfully rescued from their respective full-length cDNAs in 293 cells (Fig. 1). After 3 days of
coculture of the transfected 293 cells with B95a cells, a number
of small syncytia were observed. No difference in virus phenotype was observed in B95a cells infected with these new recombinant viruses, and the cytopathic effect was similar to that
shown by rRPV-lapH and rRPV-RBOK (data not shown).
Clinical signs following virus inoculation into rabbits. Rabbits inoculated with the RPV-Lv strain show severe disease,
with clinical signs such as pyrexia, leukopenia, and failure to
gain body weight. Eight rabbits (two per virus strain) were
inoculated with the four strains of RPV, and the experiment
was carried out three times. The clinical disease seen with each
virus type was very reproducible, as shown in Fig. 2. Rabbits
inoculated with 104TCID50 of RPV-Lv per ml became pyrexic
from 1 dpi, while body weight loss and leukopenia were ob-
TABLE 1. Virus titers in rabbit lymphoid tissues
Virus titer (log10 TCID50/ml) at 4 dpi in:
Inoculated virus
Rabbit Mesenteric Superficial
Peyer’s
no.
lymph
lymph
Appendix Spleen
patch
node
node
RPV-Lv
1
2
4.8
4.7
3.9
3.1
4.9
4.0
3.0
3.0
3.5
3.9
RPV-RBOK
3
—a
—
—
—
—
RPV-lapH
4
5
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
RPV-lapHP
6
7
—
3.8
—
2.0
—
4.0
1.5
3.0
2.5
4.0
RPV-lapNHP
8
9
2.1
2.0
—
—
3.8
1.8
1.0
2.0
4.0
2.7
a
—, not detected.
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FIG. 2. Clinical signs following virus inoculation into rabbits. All viruses were inoculated intravenously into rabbits in a 1.0-ml volume
containing 104.0 TCID50 of the respective virus. Body weight (a), rectal temperature (b), and WBC count (c) were recorded daily throughout the
experiment. The levels have been standardized, with those on the first day being 1. Values are means ⫾ standard deviations from six rabbits.
RPV P PROTEIN AND HOST-SPECIFIC PATHOGENICITY
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FIG. 3. Histopathology in lymphoid tissues. Thin sections of lymphoid tissues were stained with hematoxylin and eosin. Representative lesions
observed in Peyer’s patches are shown for each virus. Magnifications, ⫻200 (left panels) and ⫻400 (right panels).
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VOL. 78, 2004
YONEDA ET AL.
therefore clear that virus entry alone was not sufficient to
ensure that a virus is pathogenic in the nonnatural host. We
then focused on two of the internal virus protein genes, the N
and P genes, as possible determinants of virus virulence for
rabbits, as the other envelope-associated proteins, the F and M
proteins were not likely to be involved in this function. The
genomes of single-stranded, negative-sense RNA viruses are
tightly encapsidated by the N protein, and the N-RNA complex
serves as the template for both virus transcription and replication. Within the virion, the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (L protein) is associated with the N-RNA template through
an interaction with the P protein to form the transcribing
ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complex (21). Upon entry, virus
transcription and replication of the RNP take place in the
cytoplasm of infected cells. During transcription (as opposed
to replication, where a full-length antigenome RNA is transcribed), the gene start and stop signals are recognized, and
monocistronic, capped, and polyadenylated mRNAs for each
virus protein are produced. The intracellular concentration of
unassembled N protein, which exists as a soluble N-P complex,
is considered one factor which regulates the switch from transcription to replication (2, 7, 19, 24).
The P proteins of paramyxoviruses are known to perform
multiple functions during virus replication, and many of these
functions are mediated through its association with the N and
L proteins. The P proteins of negative-stranded RNA viruses
are activated by phosphorylation and, in association with the N
and L proteins and genome RNA, form the replicase complex,
which is essential for progeny virus production. It has been
shown for vesicular stomatitis virus and Sendai virus that the N
protein must be complexed with P to keep it soluble for RNA
encapsidation and prevent the N protein from aggregating to
form RNP-like structures lacking RNA (8, 9, 20). In addition,
Sendai virus P protein was shown to form tetramer (27).
We succeeded in rescuing recombinants in which the H and
P genes or the N, H, and P genes of the RPV-RBOK strain
were replaced with those derived from the RPV-Lv strain
(rRPV-lapPH and rRPV-lapNPH), and we compared their
pathogenicities for rabbits with those of the two parent strains
and the rRPV-LapH recombinant, which was previously rescued. While neither rRPV-RBOK nor rRPV-lapH was virulent
in rabbits, those inoculated with either RPV-Lv, rRPV-lapPH,
or rRPV-lapNPH became pyrexic and showed a significant
reduction in WBC counts. While rRPV-lapH could not be
detected in homogenates of lymphoid organs from infected
rabbits, high titers of both rRPV-lapPH and rRPV-lapNPH
were detected in almost all of the lymphoid tissues from infected rabbits analyzed. These data supported a role for the P
gene as an important factor determining efficient species-specific virus replication. Only the starry-sky effect, which indicated the occurrence of immune responses such as activation
of macrophages and propagation of lymphocytes (13), was
observed in lymphoid tissues of rRPV-lapH-infected rabbits,
which, as reported previously, showed not other observable
signs of infection.
Since the replication of rRPV-lapPH and rRPV-lapNPH
occurred to similar degrees in rabbit organs, species-specific
interaction of the RPV-Lv N and P proteins does not appear to
be required for pathogenesis, and other, possibly host cell,
factors may be implicated. An important fact to bear in mind
J. VIROL.
is that the P genes of most paramyxoviruses, including all
morbilliviruses, additionally code for the two nonstructural
proteins C and V (19), which are not essential for replication
in tissue culture cells (4, 25, 26) but which are known to be
virulence determinants through their ability to counteract the
innate immune responses to virus infection. Compared to the
parent MV, the V-defective virus causes milder clinical symptoms and lower mortality rates in a human CD46-transgenic
mouse model (23) and prolonged thymocyte survival in a
mouse-engrafted human thymus-liver implant model (28). In
particular, C and V have been shown to be necessary to counteract the effects of interferon induction in response to virus
infection (10, 14–17). The identities between predicted amino
acid sequences of the P, C, and V proteins of RPV-RBOK and
those of RPV-L were 80 to 86% (unpublished data). Which
protein among these three plays the key role in cross-species
pathogenicity is now under investigation.
While the replacement of the P gene of RPV-RBOK, along
with the H gene, with those from RPV-Lv resulted in a level of
virulence for rabbits that was very close to that caused by
RPV-Lv itself, it was not identical in that there was no decrease
in the body weights of infected rabbits, and so another virus
gene(s), most probably the L gene, might also be required to
confer full pathogenicity in this species. Experiments to produce an rRPV-lapNPHL recombinant to test this hypothesis
and to investigate the host cell factors that may interact with P,
and the P gene-associated C and V proteins, to determine
virulence for rabbits are under way.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study was supported by grants-in-aid from the Ministry of
Education, Science, Culture, and Sports, Japan, and by a grant from
the Program for Promotion of Basic Research Activities for Innovative
Biosciences, Japan.
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