SAQQARA
EGYPT
PRELIMINARY REPORT ON
GEOARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH
IN WEST SAQQARA
Jerzy Trzciński, Kamil O. Kuraszkiewicz, Fabian Welc
Previous geological research in the area
(including sedimentological and petrographical analyses) has demonstrated its
usefulness for in-depth archaeological
investigations conducted in the necropolis
of west Saqqara (Mycielska-Dowgiałło and
Woronko 1998: 106–115). An examination
of rock layers reveals, among others, the
geomorphological processes that shaped the
natural environment at the time (MycielskaDowgiałło and Woronko 1999: 107–112).
The layers which are the effect of these
processes and the ancient topography are
closely interrelated with archaeological
features observed in the examined part of
the Saqqara necropolis. Indeed, one
observes distinctly the impact distribution
of rock units and geomorphological
processes exerted on human activities in the
necropolis during its functioning
(Mycielska-Dowgiałło, Szafrański and
Woronko 1999: 167–178).
GEOARCHAEOLOGICAL AND GEOMORPHOLOGICAL
INVESTIGATIONS IN THE NECROPOLIS
In the 2007 season, comprehensive
geoarchaeological and geomorphological
research was carried out, concentrating on
the examination of exposures (sections)
from both earlier and current fieldwork.
The chief objective of the examination was
to identify genetically individual rock layers
and to determine their age, as well as
reconstruct ancient topography and
climate. In the end it proved possible to
establish
the
relations
between
geomorphology and the geological and
archaeological layers in the excavated area.
The present research included the
following:
— geomorphological analysis of the
excavated area and immediately adjacent
ground,
— geological research on exposures in the
excavated area (sedimentological, petrographical analyses),
— field documentation of the exposures.
The research was carried out at the
southeastern edge of the excavated area
(squares 2001, 2002, 2101, 2102; for
location of squares on the site plan,
cf. Myśliwiec et alii 2004: Pls I, II, IV) in the
immediate vicinity of the foundation of the
Netjerykhet enclosure wall. Altogether
14 exposures were analyzed in this area
[Figs 1, 2]. Two new exposures were also
examined in the northern part of the
194
Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean 19, Reports 2007
SAQQARA
EGYPT
excavated area (squares 1804, 1805 and
1907) [Figs 3, 4–5]. A lithostratigraphic
profile of these analyses was prepared. The
relations between natural and anthropogenic
layers were determined taking into account
their chronology.
Moreover, a preliminary analysis was
carried out of the rock layers in the cleared
burial shafts in order to trace the dependence
between geological bedrock structure and
the techniques used to cut such shafts. The
fill inside the shafts was also examined in
detail, providing additional data necessary
for a reconstruction of climatic conditions in
the area of the necropolis in historical
periods.
The results justify further compre-hensive
geoarchaeological and geomorphological
research in the area excavated by the Polish
mission in West Saqqara. New data will
answer many questions from the
borderland of geology and archaeology in
the region, including:
— the origins and age of geological
deposits and landforms,
— reconstruction of geomorphological processes shaping the area of
the necropolis,
— lithostratigraphic profile of natural
and anthropogenic layers from the
excavated area.
The results of this research will lead to
a paleoclimatic and paleogeographic
reconstruction of the natural environment
in the context of human activities in the
area of the necropolis.
DESCRIPTION OF THE EXPOSURES
Geoarchaeological research carried out in
2007 on layers uncovered in squares 2001,
2002, 2101, 2102, 1804, 1805, 1907
[cf Figs 1–5] was aimed at reconstructing
natural morphodynamic processes, ancient
climate and processes of anthropogenic
transfor-mation of the area in question
during the early and late phases, I and II
respectively, of the functioning of the socalled Lower Necropolis (for the stratigraphy
and preliminary assessment of the
chronology of the Lower Necropolis, see
Szafrański 1999; Ćwiek 2000; Kuraszkiewicz
2007; for earlier geoarchaeological research,
see Mycielska-Dowgiałło, Woronko 1998;
1999; Mycielska–Dowgiałło, Szafrański,
Woronko 1999).
Shafts 63 and 101 (from the Late Old
Kingdom) in the west. A sequence of natural
strata was revealed, as well as strata of
anthropogenic nature (see exposures nos 5, 6,
6a, 7, Figs 1, 2). A thin mud floor (silt, clay
and colloid fractions) lay directly on
bedrock, which is a local type of Eocene
limestone designated as the Saqqara Member
of the Maadi Formation (cf. Said 1962: 99,
322). This floor (F1) was uncovered to the
east of Shafts 63 and 101 (cf. Welc 2009)
[Fig. 6]. The limestone is heavily eroded and
weathered on the surface. Above this is
a layer of light gray–red sand and very fine
gravel (L1). Superimposed is another mud
floor (F2), which was whitewashed. Layer
L2, found on top of it, is formed of sand and
limestone, the latter both fine and medium
angular gravel and very fine rounded gravel.
This layer is covered with sand of red color
rich in iron (Fe3+) and quartz gravel with
cobbles from 1 to 15 cm in diameter; the
layer is strongly cemented with calcium
PHASE I (c. 2700–2600 BC)
In squares 2001 and 2002 [Fig. 1], the area
investigated extended from the stone
foundation of the Step Pyramid enclosure
wall (of Third Dynasty date) in the east to
195
Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean 19, Reports 2007
SAQQARA
EGYPT
carbonate (CaCO3) — this is the so-called
lower red layer — L3 (Welc 2009: 176,
Fig. 4). The next layer, L4, which is of
gray–green color, is composed of local
limestone (angular, ranging from gravel to
Fig. 1.
boulder), fine rounded gravel of quartz
grains, fragments of crushed mud-brick
mixed with sand and fine-grained local
limestone. Closing this sequence is the socalled upper red layer (L5), composed of red
Area adjoining the foundation of the Netjerykhet enclosure wall examined in 2007: dashed line
marks edge exposures, numbers with arrows identify individual exposures
(Drawing K.O. Kuraszkiewicz, J. Trzciński)
196
Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean 19, Reports 2007
SAQQARA
EGYPT
Fig. 2.
Southeastern part of the excavated area covered by geoarchaeological research (exposure numbers
from Fig. 1), view from the south (top) and from the north; EWF – Step Pyramid enclosure wall
foundation, EW – enclosure wall, WM – Western Massif (Photo J. Dąbrowski, J. Trzciński)
197
Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean 19, Reports 2007
SAQQARA
EGYPT
198
Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean 19, Reports 2007
SAQQARA
EGYPT
Fig. 5.
Part of exposure no. 9 ( for location, see Fig. 3), view from the south
(Photo F. Welc)
Opposite page:
⊳ Fig. 3. Plan of excavations in the northern part of the necropolis: dashed line marks edge exposures,
numbers with arrows identify individual exposures
(Drawing K.O. Kuraszkiewicz, J. Trzciński)
⊳ Fig. 4. Part of exposure no. 8 ( for location, see Fig. 3), view from the east
(Photo J. Trzciński)
199
Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean 19, Reports 2007
SAQQARA
EGYPT
200
Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean 19, Reports 2007
SAQQARA
EGYPT
Fig. 7.
Sequence of strata in exposure no. 4 in squares 2101 and 2102 (see Figs 1, 2) above Shafts 96, 97
and 98, view from the west: L6 – layer no. 6, L7 – layer no. 7, description of layers in the text; photo
shows the section above shaft 98, arrow indicates spot where a fragment of the upper surface of the
lamina shown in Fig. 8 was discovered (Drawing F. Welc, J. Trzciński; photo F. Welc)
Opposite page:
⊳Fig. 6. Sequence of strata in squares 2001 and 2002 next to the foundation, under their level and under
the level of the foundations of the Step Pyramid enclosure wall (Third Dynasty), view from the east
(top) and north (bottom): F1 – floor no. 1; L1 – layer no. 1; F2 – floor no. 2 (whitewashed); L2 –
layer no. 2; L3 – layer no. 3 (lower red layer); L4 – layer no. 4; L5 – layer no. 5 (upper red layer);
M-BW – mud-brick wall; EWF – Step Pyramid enclosure wall foundation; description of layers
in the text (Photo F. Welc)
201
Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean 19, Reports 2007
SAQQARA
EGYPT
rounded mud-brick and tafl fragments. The
cementing material is locally layered sand
and silt with fine gravel of limestone. In the
southern part of exposure no. 4, that is,
sand rich in iron (Fe3+) cemented with
calcium carbonate (CaCO3), featuring
embedded quartz gravel with cobbles 1–10
cm in diameter and single angular coarse
gravel of limestone up to 3 cm in diameter
(Welc 2009: 175–177, Fig. 4). Erected on
top of this layer is a mud-brick wall aligned
E–W and the stone enclosure wall of the Step
Pyramid (Welc 2009: 176–177, Figs 5, 6).
PHASE II (c. 2300–2000 BC)
Exposures nos 4a, 4b [Figs 1, 2] in squares
2101 and 2102 show layers L1 through L5
and floor F2 superimposed on bedrock (see
description of exposures for Phase I).
Directly on bedrock and on top of the fill of
shaft 97 there lies layer L6, which takes on
a synclinal form, that is, a downwardcurving fold with the axis nearer to the
northern edge of the shaft [Fig. 7]. The layer
is composed of local limestone (rounded
pebbles, ranging from gravel to boulder) and
Fig. 9.
Fig. 8.
Top surface of lamina with evident
polygonal desiccation cracks showing
slightly upturned edges (location of
uncovered fragment marked in photo in
Fig. 7) (Photo J. Trzciński)
Sequence of strata in squares 2101 and 2102 above Shafts 96, 97 and 98, view from the west
(continuation of section shown in Fig. 7): L6 – layer no. 6; L7 – layer no. 7; L8 – layer no. 8; L9
– layer no. 9; L10 – layer no. 10; L11 – layer no. 11 (description of layers in the text), M-BP –
mud-brick platform, EW – enclosure wall, WM – Western Massif (Photo and interpretation
J. Trzciński)
202
Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean 19, Reports 2007
SAQQARA
EGYPT
above shaft 96, this layer passes horizontally
into a laminated sediment with a large
content of rounded fine and medium quartz
gravel and angular fine and medium
limestone (L7). This is also synclinal in
form, reaches below the top of Shaft 96
[Fig. 7]. The silty–clayey laminated
sediment is of varied thickness of laminas,
from 1 to 7 cm, thinning toward the top.
The lamina surface is often cracked [Fig. 8].
The maximum number of laminas is
about 80.1 Above this there is layer L8 which
is much more extensive than layer L7, but
the character of the sedimentation is the
same [Fig. 9]. The laminas are thinner, from
1 to 2 cm, containing mostly silty grains.
The number of laminas are 30 at the most.
The laminas thin away to the north, that is,
approximately even with the northern edge
of Shaft 97. Superimposed is layer L9 of the
same extent, made up of yellow–brown sand
characterized by horizontal, parallel layering
and a large content of rounded fine quartz
gravel, as well as angular and flat coarse gravel
of limestone spall. Found at the northern end
of the described exposure is layer L10 which
is discontinuous with layer L9; it is
superimposed directly on the synclinal form
of layer L6. It is made up of rounded pebbles
of quartz, angular limestone spall and chert
mixed with sand and silt of yellowish-gray
color. The sequence is covered with finegrained, horizontally layered yellow sand,
which has been designated as layer L11. It is
on this sand layer that the mud-brick
platform was erected.
INTERPRETATION OF
GEOARCHAEOLOGICAL RESULTS
PHASE I
Analysis of the profile and mutual
stratigraphic relations of the above layers led
to a reconstruction of the geodynamic
processes that shaped the natural
environment reaching indirectly to human
activity in the area. Archaeological
interpretation of the findings indicates that
these processes could have taken place in the
first phase of use of the Lower Necropolis,
that is, between 2700 and 2600 BC.
At the beginning of this phase the climate
appears to have changed from drier and
warmer to cooler and wetter (observations
confirmed by earlier geoarchaeological
research, cf. Mycielska-Dowgiałło, Woronko,
1
1999: 111; Mycielska-Dowgiałło, Szafrański,
Woronko 1999: 178). The kind of
weathering observed on the surface of the
limestone points to a warm climate
characterized by cyclic periods of humidity
and dryness with the latter predominating
[cf. Fig. 2, top, Fig. 6]. Floors F1 and F2,
which are the earliest testimony of human
activity in this part of the Lower Necropolis,
appeared at this time (Welc 2009: 177).
Deposits of evidently rain-flow origin found
on top of these floors attest to a climate
characterized by frequent but moderate rain.
Layers L1 and L2 are the result of short-lived
rubble flows of low intensity and extent,
caused by rainfall. No evident traces of
Deposits of a similar character and form, but of smaller size, can be seen also in the northern part of the exposure, directly
above the southern edge of the casing wall of Shaft 96 [Figs 2, 7] and west of Shaft 98 [Fig. 2]; deposits of bigger size were
noted in exposures nos 8 and 9 [Figs 3, 4].
203
Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean 19, Reports 2007
SAQQARA
EGYPT
erosion of the two layers show that the time
gap between particular water-flows could not
have been extensive.
The structure and lithological composition of layers found above this leave no
doubt that the water-flows down the slope
became much more intensive in later times.
Proof of this is supplied by the strongly
cemented structure of the lower red layer
(L3) [cf. Fig. 6]. The cementing is due to
cyclical watering of the layers coupled with
intensive evaporation. High iron (Fe3+)
content suggests intensive weathering of the
primary layers in conditions of a warm and
fairly humid environment. Next, water
started collecting in hollows in the rock
massif, testifying to a distinct intensification
of rainfall in the area. Corresponding to this
phase is layer L4, which is in essence the
bottom of a small reservoir filled with
crushed stone brought there by intensive
mud and rubble flows. The upper red layer
(layer L5), which ends the studied sequence
of strata attributed to Phase I is no longer as
strongly cemented structurally as the lower
red layer (L3).2 It means that the intensity of
rainfall and water-flows lessened over time.
In all likelihood, the latter episode
corresponds to the beginnings or the first
half of the Third Dynasty.
It can be said in conclusion that the
climate during the first phase of the
functioning of the cemetery was
characterized by considerable changeability;
furthermore, repeated cycles of dry periods
2
3
4
and periods of intensive rainfall occurred
alternately over a relatively short time. This
reconstruction of events is confirmed by
geoarchaeological research carried out,
among others, in the eastern part of the Nile
Delta, where it was found that in the said
period, that is, around 2600 BC, the level of
water in the Nile fluctuated considerably due
to an unstable climate characterized by
transient periods of high and low rainfall
intensity (cf. De Wit 1993: 317).3
PHASE II
It is difficult to be sure of the climatic
conditions in the time following the Third
Dynasty through the end of the Fifth
Dynasty, because any strata corresponding to
this period were destroyed by the
superstructures of Sixth Dynasty mastabas
(those of Shafts 51, 101, 63, 96, 97, 98).
Observation and analysis of the
stratigraphical sequence in section 4 [Fig. 7]
in square 2102, permitted a provisional
reconstruction of site history at the time of
the end of the Lower Necropolis, which is
put in the Late Old Kingdom and the
beginning of the First Intermediate Period
(see above). The building of the enclosure
wall of the Step Pyramid on the surface of
layer L5 probably stopped for a while the
mud and rubble flows engulfing the Lower
Necropolis.
Layer L6 is connected most likely with
the destruction of the Sixth Dynasty mudbrick mastabas,4 caused by the extensive
Layers L3 and L5 are the result of a redeposition of gravels originating from an active phase of the Nile in the Quartenary period.
Gravels of this kind are present in large areas of central Saqqara and around Abusir: Said 1962: 194; El-Qady, Sakamoto,
Ushijima 1999: 1093. The nearest area with such gravel occurs in the upper part of the southern face of the southern section of
the so-called “dry moat”. On this structure, cf., among others, Swelim 1988; 2006; Myśliwiec 2006a.
With regard to the entire Near East in a broader time range, that is from 7000 to 4500 BC, this period is referred to as a
pluvial, cf. Horowitz 1979.
Earlier damage of tomb structures has also been noted in the necropolis (e.g. phase B in Kuraszkiewicz 2007: 174), but it
seems that the destruction which resulted in the formation of layer L6 was a cataclysm on an unprecedented scale, which
ultimately put an end to the functioning of the Lower Necropolis.
204
Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean 19, Reports 2007
SAQQARA
EGYPT
water, mud and rubble streams flowing into
this area from the east, that is, from the
Netjerykhet complex [cf. Fig. 7]. This would
also indicate that the enclosure wall of the
Step Pyramid was in a state of disrepair at the
time. The water with mud and rubble flows
filled the hollows in the rock massif, among
others the shafts mentioned above. This is
suggested by the synclinal depressions above
Shaft 97. These phenomena should be
connected with the beginning of a rainy
period which occurred most likely in the end
of the Old Kingdom and the beginning of
the First Intermediate Period. There were
evidently no new mastabas erected after the
formation of this layer, but at least some of
the burial shafts were robbed and left open
(this sequence of events is especially well
attested in the case of Shafts 97 and 98 in
square 2102) [Figs 1, 7].
The next layer L8, of synclinal laminated
deposits indicates the existence in the study
area of small-sized land-locked reservoirs
where accumulations of fine-grained
material formed. The fact that these
reservoirs were filled with water indicates
that the area was heavily watered and its
retention capacity did not allow further
infiltration of water into the rock massif.
Water collected in existing depressions, and
sedimentation occurred in stagnant water.
Single lamina, consisting of lower silty and
upper clayey layers, were the result of one
rainfall cycle and the filling of a reservoir
with a water suspension [cf. Figs 7, 8]. The
thickness of the lamina is indicative of the
length and intensity of rainfall, and by the
same the intensity of erosion and waterflows. Cracks appeared on the top surfaces of
the laminas when the reservoirs dried up,
testifying to seasonal periods of intense
evaporation. The desiccation cracks are not
present in all of the laminas, but they occur a
number of times throughout the thickness of
the layer. The number of laminas proves the
intensity and long-lasting character of
rainfall.
Layer L8 is a continuation of layer L7
[cf. Fig. 9]. After the existing depressions
were filled, shallow reservoirs appeared in
nearby low-lying areas over a much larger
extent. Layer L8 reflects this process and the
thinner lamina are proof that the area of
water-filled reservoirs increased rather than
that the intensity of rainfall dropped. On the
other hand, the smaller overall number of
lamina is proof of a decline in rainfall cycles.
Superimposed on layer L8 is layer L9 of
well sorted sand of aeolian origin, that is,
transported by winds [cf. Fig. 9]. The dark
brown coloring of the layer indicates also
very fine material being carried by the winds,
while the coarse material in it suggests heavy
storms capable of moving also small rubble
and stones. A deposit of this kind attests to
a drier and warmer climate characterized by
no rainfall accompanying its formation.
The erosional dissection of layers L8 and
L9 by the deposit designated as L10, which
can be interpreted as a mud and rubble
stream, suggests a temporary return of flash
floods connected with sudden violent
rainstorms [cf. Fig. 9]. A stream of this kind
ran directly over the synclinal form of layer
L6. The surface of the area was subsequently
leveled by winds which deposited well-sorted
sand. The light color and absence of coarse
material are proof of stable aeolian transport
conditions and a dry and hot climate.
Layers L6 through L11 can be dated by
the brick platform covering them in squares
2101–2102 (on the platform, see Myśliwiec
2002b; 2005a) [cf. Figs 1, 9]. The platform
should be dated in all probability to the early
Nineteenth Dynasty, hence the maximum
time range for the formation of these layers
should be assumed as being from the end of
the Sixth through of the Nineteenth Dynasty.
205
Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean 19, Reports 2007
SAQQARA
EGYPT
CONCLUSIONS
Observations of strata making up the
exposures of Phase I have led to some general
conclusions concerning the functioning of
the Lower Necropolis in the hundred years
between 2700 and 2600 BC. This regards in
particular the unfinished tomb with ramp
discovered in the western part of sector 2002
(on this tomb, cf. Myśliwiec 2005a; 2005b;
2006b, Welc 2007). Assuming that the
dating of the structure to the end of Second
or beginning of the Third Dynasty is correct
(Myśliwiec 2005a; 2007; Welc 2007; Welc
2009: 177–178; see also suggestion of a later
dating to the close of the Third and early
Fourth Dynasty, Kuraszkiewicz 2009: 170),
the cessation of work on this hypogeum may
be connected with its unfortunate location
on the slope and in the line of concentrated
flows from the east, from the complex of
Netjerykhet. In effect, the planned tomb
would have been threatened by frequent
flooding and filling with recurring mud and
rubble flows.
Pebble long-axis analyses carried out for
the upper red layer (L3) and the lower red
layer (L5) have contributed important data
on the ground relief in the area at the time.
The mud and rubble flows which are
responsible for the formation of these layers
flowed mainly from the east. This means
that there was no physical barrier in that
direction. This refutes the theory that the
so-called Western Massif, the west face of
which is found just beyond the enclosure
wall, was constructed earlier than the Step
Pyramid complex.5
5
Had such a monumental structure
existed in this location before the time of
the Third Dynasty, the water-flow pattern
in this part of the site would have been
different from that recorded by the present
research.
In summary, based on the analysis of
deposits making up the profile of Phase II, it
can be supposed that the Lower Necropolis
went out of use mainly due to the effects of
climatic changes which took place at the
turn of the Old Kingdom and the First
Intermediate Period. In the initial phase of
these environmental changes, the climate
was very humid and characterized by
intensive rainfall. An extended period of
intensive rainfall resulted in the destruction
of the mastaba superstructures and
penetration by the rainwater of at least some
shafts which remained open after
plundering. The waters stagnated in many
seasonal reservoirs all over the area of the
necropolis.
Under such conditions the necropolis
could not have been used for burial
purposes any longer. In successive stages, the
climate became drier and characterized by
heavy winds. No building activities took
place within the confines of the study area
until the appearance of the mud-brick
platform, presumably in the beginnings of
the Nineteenth Dynasty. The area of this
necropolis started to be used intensively
again for burials in the Ptolemaic age
(cf. Myśliwiec 2002a; Myśliwiec et alii
2008: 11–13).
According to R. Stadelmann, the Western Massif is an independent architectural structure predating the building of the Step
Pyramid, cf. Stadelmann 1985. New ceramological analyses have shown, however, that the westernmost projection of the
Western Massif was built or at least rebuilt during the reign of Netjerykhet, see T.I. Rzeuska and F. Welc, in this volume.
206
Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean 19, Reports 2007
SAQQARA
EGYPT
REFERENCES
Ćwiek, A.
2000 The stratigraphy of West Saqqara. Preliminary remarks, PAM XI [=Reports 1999],
109–117
De Wit, H.E.
1993 The evolution of the Eastern Nile Delta as a factor in the development of human culture
[in:] L. Krzyżaniak, M. Kobusiewicz, J. Aleksander (eds), Environmental Change and
Human Culture in the Nile Basin and Northern Africa Until the Second Millennium B.C.,
Poznań, 305–320
El-Qady, G., Sakamoto, Ch., Ushijima, K.
1999 2-D inversion of VES data in Saqqara archaeological area, Egypt, Earth Planets Space, 51,
1093
Horowitz, A.
1979 The Quaternary of Israel, New York: Academic Press
Kuraszkiewicz, K.
2007 Remarks on the development of the Old Kingdom Necropolis, PAM XVII [=Reports
2005], 169–175
2009 More remarks on late Old Kingdom mastabas west of the Step Pyramid, PAM XVIII
[=Reports 2006], 165–173
Mycielska-Dowgiałło, E., Woronko, B.
1998 Analysis of mineral deposits in the Northern Wall of Pit I, PAM IX [=Reports 1997],
106–115
1999 Genetic-climatic interpretation of mineral deposits uncovered in section N and sections
perpendicular to it, PAM X [=Reports 1998], 107–112
Mycielska-Dowgiałło, E., Szafrański, Z.E., Woronko, B.
1999 Reconstruction of morpho-dynamic processes during the last 4700 years period in the
archaeological site (Area I) at Saqqara (Egypt), Geoarqueologia i Quaternari Litoral.
Memorial M.P. Fumanal, València, 167–178
Myśliwiec, K.
2002a The Ptolemaic Period Cemetery in West Saqqara, [in:] A Tribute to Excellence. Studies
Offered in Honor of E. Gaál, U. Luft and L. Török [=Studia Aegyptiaca 17], Budapest,
349–359
2002b West Saqqara. Excavations 2001, PAM XIII [=Reports 2001], 135–138
2005a Eine geheimnisvolle Rampe und Plattform an der Westseite der Pyramide des Djoser,
Sokar 11/2, 6–7
2005b West Saqqara 2004, PAM XVI [=Reports 2004], 152
2006a “Dry Moat” west of the Netjerykhet enclosure [in:] M. Barta (ed.), The Old Kingdom Art
and Archaeology, Proceedings of the Conference Held in Prague, May 31–June 4, 2004,
Prague: Czech Institute of Egyptology, Charles University in Prague and Academia,
233–237
2006b Saqqara. Archaeological Activities, 2005, PAM XVII [=Reports 2005], 160–168
2007 Saqqara [in:] Seventy Years of Polish Archaeology in Egypt, Warsaw: PCMA, University of
Warsaw, 79–81
207
Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean 19, Reports 2007
SAQQARA
EGYPT
Myśliwiec, K., Kuraszkiewicz, K., Czerwik, D. Rzeuska, T.I., Kaczmarek M., Kowalska, A.,
Radomska, M., Godziejewski, Z.
2004 The Tomb of Merefnebef, Saqqara I, Warsaw: ZAŚ PAN and Neriton
Myśliwiec, K. et alii
2008 The Upper Necropolis, Saqqara III , Part I, Warsaw: ZAŚ PAN and Neriton
Rzeuska, T. I., Welc, F.
2010 Some remarks on the Western Massif in the Step Pyramid complex, PAM XIX [=Reports
2007], 209–214
Said, R.
1962 The Geology of Egypt, Amsterdam–New York: Elsevier
Stadelmann, R.
1985 Die Oberbauten der Königsgräber der 2. Dynastie in Sakkara, Mélanges Mokhtar II
[=BdE 97], Cairo: IFAO, 295–307
Swelim, N.
1988 The Dry Moat of the Netjerykhet complex [in:] J. Baines, T.G.H. James, A. Leahy and
A.F. Shore (eds), Pyramid Studies and Other Essays Presented to I.E.S. Edwards, London:
Egypt Exploration Society, 12–22
2006 Dry Moat. The south rock wall of the Inner South Channel [in:] E. Czerny, I. Hein,
H. Hunger, D. Melman, A. Schwab (eds), Timelines: Studies in Honour of Manfred Bietak
[=Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 149], Louvain-la-Neuve: Peeters, 363–376
Szafrański, Z.E.
1999 West Saqqara, Observations on stratigraphy. North-west part of area I/E-F (former Pit
I/E-F), PAM X [=Reports 1998], 91–96
Welc, F.
2007 Exploration of an Archaic (?) funerary structure in Sector 2002, PAM XVII [=Reports
2005], 176–181
2009 Some remarks on the early Old Kingdom structures adjoining on the west enclosure wall
of the Netjerykhet funerary complex, PAM XVIII [=Reports 2006], 174–179
208
Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean 19, Reports 2007