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Womanist interpretations
of the BiBle
semeia studies
steed V. davidson, General editor
Editorial Board:
pablo r. andiñach
fiona Black
denise K. Buell
Gay l. Byron
masiiwa ragies Gunda
monica Jyotsna melanchthon
Yak-hwee tan
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number 85
Womanist interpretations
of the BiBle
expanding the discourse
Edited by
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Gay l. Byron and Vanessa lovelace
Atlanta
Copyright © 2016 by sBl press
all rights reserved. no part of this work may be reproduced or transmitted in any form
or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or by
means of any information storage or retrieval system, except as may be expressly permitted by the 1976 Copyright act or in writing from the publisher. requests for permission
should be addressed in writing to the rights and permissions office, sBl press, 825 houston mill road, atlanta, Ga 30329 usa.
library of Congress Cataloging-in-publication data
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names: Byron, Gay l., editor. | lovelace, Vanessa, editor.
title: Womanist interpretations of the Bible : expanding the discourse / edited by Gay l.
Byron and Vanessa lovelace.
description: atlanta : sBl press, [2016] | series: semeia studies ; number 85 | includes
bibliographical references and index.
identifiers: lCCn 2016040615 (print) | lCCn 2016040794 (ebook) | isBn 9781628371529
(pbk. : alk. paper) | isBn 9780884141853 (hardcover) | isBn 9780884141846 (ebook)
subjects: lCsh: Bible—feminist criticism.
Classification: lCC Bs521.4 .W66 2016 (print) | lCC Bs521.4 (ebook) | ddC 220.6082—
dc23
lC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016040615
printed on acid-free paper.
Contents
acknowledgments ............................................................................................ix
abbreviations ....................................................................................................xi
introduction: methods and the making of Womanist Biblical
hermeneutics
Gay l. Byron and Vanessa lovelace.........................................................1
part 1: Gender and sexuality
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The invisible Women: numbers 30 and the politics of singleness
in africana Communities
stacy davis ................................................................................................21
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a Womanist midrash of delilah: don’t hate the playa hate the Game
Wil Gafney ................................................................................................49
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The song of songs: redeeming Gender Constructions in the age
of aids
Cheryl B. anderson .................................................................................73
part 2: agency and advocacy
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race, Gender, and the politics of “sass”: reading mark 7:24–30
through a Womanist lens of intersectionality and
inter(con)textuality
mitzi J. smith ............................................................................................95
antitypes, stereotypes, and antetypes: Jezebel, the sun Woman,
and Contemporary Black Women
love l. sechrest ......................................................................................113
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Contents
one more time with assata on my mind: a Womanist rereading
of the escape to egypt (matt 2:13–23) in dialogue with an
african american Woman fugitive narrative
shively t. J. smith ...................................................................................139
“Battered love”: exposing abuse in the Book of Job
marlene underwood..............................................................................165
part 3: foregrounding Women on the margins
Black Collectors and Keepers of tradition: resources for a Womanist
Biblical ethic of (re)interpretation
Gay l. Byron ...........................................................................................187
flowing from Breast to Breast: an examination of dis/placed
motherhood in african american and indian Wet nurses
sharon Jacob and Jennifer t. Kaalund .................................................209
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“We don’t Give Birth to Thugs”: family Values, respectability
politics, and Jephthah’s mother
Vanessa lovelace ....................................................................................239
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part 4: illuminating Biblical Children/Childhood
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outrageous, audacious, Courageous, Willful: reading the
enslaved Girl of acts 12
margaret aymer......................................................................................265
“nobody’s free until everybody’s free”: exploring Gender and
Class injustice in a story about Children (luke 18:15–17)
Bridgett a. Green ...................................................................................291
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“i Will make Boys Their princes”: a Womanist reading of
Children in the Book of isaiah
Valerie Bridgeman ..................................................................................311
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part 5: in response
miracles and Gifts: a Womanist reading of John 14:12–14 and
ephesians 4:11–16
layli maparyan .......................................................................................331
looking forward from the horizon: a response in africana
sisterhood and solidarity
althea spencer-miller............................................................................339
Challenged and Changed
Katharine doob sakenfeld ....................................................................349
The road We are traveling
emilie m. townes ...................................................................................359
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Contributors ...................................................................................................369
ancient sources index ..................................................................................375
subject index ..................................................................................................384
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acknowledgments
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We are honored that so many of our colleagues responded enthusiastically to our invitation to contribute to this volume. for their commitment
and willingness to press the boundaries of womanist hermeneutics, we are
grateful. We are also honored that this volume includes responses by some
of the leading scholars who have embraced womanist theory and praxis
and who value the spirit of collaboration this volume represents.
We stand on the shoulders of womanist theologians, ethicists, religious scholars, cultural critics, and biblical interpreters who dared to read
their way through the struggle and to offer rich trajectories and paths for
our own explorations. indeed, “if it wasn’t for the(se) women,” to borrow
a phrase from Cheryl townsend Gilkes, this volume would have never
emerged from its dark womb of knowing. in particular we are grateful for
renita J. Weems and Clarice J. martin, who have inspired our efforts and
much of the scholarship reflected in this volume and continue to remind
us that we are “just a sister away.” We are also grateful for the early support of Cheryl Kirk-duggan and Bridgett Green, who embraced the idea
of a womanist volume when we first conceived of it. Cheryl suggested an
outline and Bridgett offered to contact potential editors, including Gay
Byron who was serving on the semeia studies editorial board. although
the initial outline did not come to fruition, we are appreciative of Cheryl’s
support and encouragement in pursuing this project.
We thank the semeia studies editorial Board for their acceptance of
these essays for publication and the very constructive feedback offered
during the early phase of conceptualizing the volume. in particular, general editor Gerald West, offered great encouragement and sound advice.
steed davidson, who succeeded Gerald as general editor, offered timely
and keen editorial support as the volume progressed toward publication.
We also express our gratitude to the entire staff of sBl press, especially
Bob Buller and nicole tilford, for their expert assistance throughout
the publication process. in addition, we acknowledge Barbara fears,
-ix-
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aCKnoWledGments
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Jonathan mcphee, and rickdrieka sanders for their assistance with this
volume.
We are grateful for our families and other networks of support—especially Wilfred Bentley, patient spouse to Vanessa, who endured our many
conference calls. finally, we dedicate this volume to our children: Christopher, shauna, Khalil, lloyd, and pJ—who constantly remind us why such
a volume on expanding the discourse about womanist biblical interpretation is not an optional academic exercise but a necessary life-affirming
reflection of our commitment to wholeness of our entire community and
peace throughout the world.
Gay l. Byron, Washington, dC
Vanessa lovelace, atlanta, Ga
abbreviations
primary sources
s
es
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Hist. rom.
let. aris.
Leuc. Clit.
Ling.
naz.
num. rab.
Physiogn.
Poet.
Pol.
Pr
Hist.
Josephus, Against Apion
Josephus, Jewish Antiquities
Bablyonian talmud
Baba Batra
Berakhot
Josephus, Bellum judaicum
origen, Contra Celsum
philo, On the Embassy to Gaius
pliny the Younger, Epistulae ad Trajanum
eruvin
philo, Against Flaccus
Genesis rabbah
strabo, Geography
Gospel of mary
salvian, The Governance of God
rufinus, Eusebii Historia ecclesiastica a Rufino translata et
continuata
rufinus, Eusebii Historia ecclesiastica a Rufino translata et
continuata; tacitus, Historiae
dio Cassius, Historiae romanae
letter of aristeas
achilles tatius, Leucippe et Clitophon
Varro, De lingua latina
nazir
numbers rabbah
pseudo-aristotle, Physiognomonica
aristotle, Poetics
aristotle, Politics
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Ag. Ap.
Ant.
b.
B. Bat.
Ber.
B.J.
Cels.
Embassy
Ep. Tra.
‘erub.
Flaccus
Gen. rab.
Geogr.
Gos. mary
Gub. Dei
Hist.
-xi-
xii
Šabb.
sanh.
Sat.
aBBreViations
shabbat
sanhedrin
Juvenal, Satires
secondary resources
s
SB
BeCnt
BibInt
BJs
BSac
CBQ
CdC
Cet
CJ
CurTM
DBI
es
BdB
Pr
BASOR
BdaG
american academy of religion Cultural Criticism series
anchor Bible
ancient israel and its literature
Association for Jewish Studies Review
american schools of oriental research
american standard Version
american Theological library association
Bauer, Walter, William f. arndt, f. Wilbur Gingrich, and
frederick W. danker. Greek-English Lexicon of the New
Testament and Other Early Christian Literature. 2nd ed.
Chicago: university of Chicago press, 1979.
Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research
danker, frederick W., Walter Bauer, William f. arndt,
and f. Wilbur Gingrich. Greek-English Lexicon of the New
Testament and Other Early Christian Literature. 3rd ed.
Chicago: university of Chicago press, 2000.
Brown, francis, s. r. driver, and Charles a. Briggs. A
Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament. peabody, ma: hendrickson, 1996.
Baker exegetical Commentary on the new testament
Biblical Interpretation
Brown Judaic studies
Bibliotheca Sacra
Catholic Biblical Quarterly
Centers for disease Control
Common english translation
The Classical Journal
Currents in Theology and Mission
Dictionary of Biblical Interpretation. edited by John hays.
2 vols. nashville: abingdon, 1999.
Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible. edited by david noel
freedman. Grand rapids: eerdmans, 2000.
Expository Times
L
aarCCs
aB
ail
AJSR
asor
asV
atla
BaGd
EDB
ExpTim
xiii
aBBreViations
SB
JRA
JRS
JRT
JSB
s
IEJ
JAH
JAOS
JBL
JBQ
JFA
JFSR
JITC
JNE
JNH
Jps
es
HAR
hBm
Historia
hmml
HTR
husd
iBC
Pr
GR
Gss
HALOT
feminist Companion to the Bible
feminist Companion to the new testament and early
Christian Writings
Greece and Rome
General social survey
Koehler, ludwig, and Walter Baumgartner. The Hebrew
and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament. translated
and edited by mervyn e. J. richardson. study ed. 2 vols.
leiden: Brill, 2001.
Hebrew Annual Review
hebrew Bible monographs
Historia: Zeitschrift für alte Geschichte
hill museum and manuscript library
Harvard Theological Review
howard university school of divinity
interpretation: a Bible Commentary for teaching and
preaching
Israel Exploration Journal
Journal of American History
Journal of the American Oriental Society
Journal of Biblical Literature
Jewish Bible Quarterly
Journal of Field Archaeology
Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion
Journal of the Interdenominational Theological Center
The Journal of Negro Education
Journal of Negro History
Tanakh: A New Translation of the Holy Scriptures according to the Traditional Hebrew Text. philadelphia: Jewish
publication society, 1985.
Journal of Religion in Africa
Journal of Roman Studies
Journal of Religious Thought
Jewish Study Bible. edited by adele Berlin, marc Zvi Brettler, and michael fishbane. oxford: oxford university
press, 2004.
Journal for the Study of the Old Testament
Journal for the study of the old testament supplement
series
L
fCB
fCnteCW
JSOT
Jsotsup
xiv
s
es
SB
VT
WBC
Pr
niCnt
niGtC
niV
nrsV
ntl
NTS
nWpC
otl
paCs
pepfar
pl
ptms
Pneuma
semeiast
shBC
snCC
sntsms
sp
Spectrum
syms
TTR
unesCo
Journal for the Study of the New Testament
James Weldon Johnson manuscripts
King James Version
loeb Classical library
septuagint
masoretic text
Novum Testamentum Graece, nestle-aland, 28th ed.
Neotestamentica
new english translation
The New Interpreter’s Bible. edited by leander e. Keck. 12
vols. nashville: abingdon, 1994–2004.
new international Commentary on the new testament
new international Greek testament Commentary
new international Version
new revised standard Version
new testament library
New Testament Studies
national Women’s political Caucus
old testament library
philo of alexandria Commentary series
president’s emergency plan for aids relief
patrologia latina
princeton Theological monograph series
Pneuma: Journal for the Society of Pentecostal Studies
semeia studies
smyth & helwys Bible Commentary
student nonviolent Coordinating Committee
society for new testament studies monograph series
sacra pagina
Spectrum: A Journal on Black Men
symposium series
Teaching Theology & Religion
united nations educational, scientific, and Cultural
organization
Vetus Testamentum
Word Biblical Commentary
L
JSNT
JWJ mss
KJV
lCl
lXX
mt
na28
Neot
net
NIB
aBBreViations
introduction:
methods and the making of
Womanist Biblical hermeneutics
Gay L. Byron and Vanessa Lovelace
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Womanist Interpretations of the Bible: Expanding the Discourse is a longawaited collection of original essays that features bold new womanist
approaches to biblical hermeneutics. We first conceived of this volume
through a series of conversations, which first began at the 2011 annual
meeting of the society of Biblical literature in san francisco. at that time,
Vanessa lovelace shared with a group of colleagues her desire to publish
a volume of womanist interpretations of the Bible to honor the trailblazing scholarship of renita J. Weems and Clarice martin. around the same
time, Gay l. Byron was serving on the semeia studies editorial board and
having conversations with board members and other colleagues about
editing a volume showcasing womanist readings of the Bible. our mutual
friend and editor, Bridgett Green, was privy to both of these conversations
and connected us together. once we realized that we shared the same idea
and a commitment to womanist biblical scholarship, it seemed natural for
the two of us to collaborate and serve as coeditors of this volume.
We both have generated various essays and articles using gender criticism, critical race theory, and other theories and methods dealing with
the interlocking oppressions of black women. Though in some cases not
explicitly identifying a womanist hermeneutic, we have been greatly influenced by the writings of author, poet, and activist alice Walker. she is
often credited with coining the term womanist, which she first used in
her essay “Coming apart” published in the 1979 anthology Take Back the
Night. in this essay, Walker wrote that a “ ‘womanist’ is a feminist, only
more common.” she elaborated in a footnote:
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“Womanist” encompasses “feminist” as it is defined in Webster’s, but also
means instinctively pro-woman. it is not in the dictionary at all. nonetheless, it has a strong root in black women’s culture. it comes (to me)
from the word “womanish,” a word our mothers used to describe, and
attempt to inhibit, strong, outrageous or outspoken behavior when we
were children: “You’re acting womanish!” a labeling that failed, for the
most part to keep us from acting “womanish” whenever we could, that is
to say, like our mothers themselves, and like other women we admired.
(Walker 1979, 100)1
Walker refined her description of womanist in her classic four-part poetic
definition of the term in the preface to her 1983 book In Search of Our
Mothers’ Gardens:
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1. from womanish. (opp. of “girlish,” i.e., frivolous, irresponsible, not
serious.) a black feminist of color. from the black folk expression of
mothers to female children, “You acting womanish,” i.e., like a woman.
usually referring to outrageous, audacious, courageous or willful behavior. Wanting to know more and in greater depth than is considered
“good” for one. interested in grown-up doings. acting grown up. Being
grown up. interchangeable with another black folk expression: ‘You
trying to be grown.’ responsible. in charge. serious. 2. Also: a woman
who loves other women, sexually and/or nonsexually. appreciates and
prefers women’s culture, women’s emotional flexibility (values tears as
natural counterbalance of laughter), and women’s strength. sometimes
loves individual men, sexually and/or nonsexually. Committed to survival and wholeness of entire people, male and female. not a separatist,
except periodically, for health. traditionally a universalist, as in: “mama,
why are we brown, pink, and yellow, and our cousins are white, beige,
and black?” ans. “Well, you know the colored race is just like a flower
garden, with every color flower represented.” traditionally capable, as in:
“mama, i’m walking to Canada and i’m taking you and a bunch of other
slaves with me.” reply: “it wouldn’t be the first time.” 3. loves music.
loves dance. loves the moon. Loves the spirit. loves love and food and
roundness. loves struggle. Loves the folk. loves herself. Regardless. 4.
Womanist is to feminist as purple is to lavender. (Walker 1983, xi)
1. two lesser-known progenitors of the notion and terminology of womanism,
independent of Walker, are Chikwenye okonjo ogunyemi (1985) and Clenora hudson-Weems (1998). see layli phillips 2006.
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shortly after the publication of In Search of Our Mothers’ Gardens, the
term womanist began to appear in the discipline of religious studies. a
group of black female theological students at union Theological seminary
in the City of new York studying with dr. James Cone were the first to
begin to express new black liberationist theology that was also inclusive of
their particular experiences of sexism and racism in the academy and the
church, perpetuated even by their own black male colleagues. The group
consisted of doctoral students Jacquelyn Grant and Katie Geneva Cannon
and master of divinity students delores Williams and Kelly Brown douglas. They began to raise critical questions regarding the absence of black
women’s voices in black and feminist theological discourses. it was their
exploration of black women’s tridimensional oppression of gender, race,
and class that led them to embrace the term womanist to identify their
religious thought.
Womanist theological discourse expanded in 1985 when a number
of black women members of the american academy of religion and the
society of Biblical literature gathered at the first session of Womanist
approaches to religion and society, convened by Cheryl townsend Gilkes.
This was the beginning of womanist theological, ethical, and biblical interpretation in the academy. That same year Cannon (1985) published the
formative essay “Black feminist Consciousness,” in which she used the
terms black womanist and womanist to speak of black women’s biblical
interpretive tradition to confront racism and other forms of oppression.
This was followed by Williams’s (1987) seminal essay on “Womanist Theology,” which identified the sources and methods for this new area of theological inquiry.2
also among this budding group of womanist religious scholars was
martin, who earned her doctorate in new testament (Christian scriptures)
in 1985 and Weems, who earned her doctorate in old testament (hebrew
Bible) in 1989.3 Weems published the monograph Just a Sister Away: A
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2. We recognize that nineteenth-century black women such as Jarena lee,
sojourner truth, and maria stewart have a documented history of engaging in biblical interpretation in their social activism. moreover, contemporary womanist religious scholars such as Grant, Cannon, and Williams use the Bible in their ethical and
theological formulations. however, unlike Grant, Cannon, and Williams, the former
would not be considered womanists since the term postdates them.
3. it is not evident from their dissertation titles whether martin and Weems refer
to a black woman’s or womanist perspective: “The function of acts 8:26–40 within the
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Womanist Vision of Women’s Relationships in the Bible in 1988. Weems
combined feminist biblical criticism with african american oral tradition
to construct a womanist interpretation of stories of biblical women, such
as sarah and hagar (Gen 16 and 21) and mary and martha (luke 10), and
their relationships with one another. her other writings include “reading
Her Way through the struggle: african american Women and the Bible”
(1991), which addresses the significance of the Bible for african american female readers despite its patriarchy and use in racial and gender
oppression, and “Womanist reflections on Biblical hermeneutics” (1993),
where Weems gives her critique of the shortcomings of historical critical
and feminist biblical criticism and offers womanist biblical criticism as an
alternative for african american women biblical scholars.4
martin’s essays included “Womanist interpretations of the new testament: The Quest for holistic and inclusive translation and interpretation”
(1990), where she placed the interpretive interests of women of color in
general and black women in particular at the forefront; “The Haustafeln
(household Codes) in african american Biblical interpretation” (1991),
which advocated for african american women and men to adopt more
liberative biblical traditions in response to the traditionally hierarchical
approaches to the enslaved-woman regulation in the Haustafeln; and “Biblical Theodicy and Black Women’s spiritual autobiography” (1993), which
appears in A Troubling in My Soul: Womanist Perspectives on Evil and Suffering, edited by emilie townes (1993).5 in addition martin provided the
first comprehensive working definition of womanist biblical interpretation, which consists of four tasks:
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1) the recovery of women’s history in the Judeo-Christian tradition by
expanding on earlier works and using appropriate methods of recovery, analysis, and reconstruction of the biblical texts and their worlds; 2)
reclamation of neglected histories and stories of the presence and func-
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narrative structure of the Book of acts: The significance of the eunuch’s provenance
for acts 1:8c” and “sexual Violence as an image for divine retribution in the prophetic Writings,” respectively.
4. Weems does not use an explicitly womanist approach in her monograph Battered Love (1995). for further review of this book, see underwood’s essay in this
volume.
5. townes was also among the group of first-generation womanists to attend the
inaugural consultation of the american academy of religion and the society of Biblical literature in 1985.
5
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tion of black peoples within divergent biblical traditions; 3) critique the
persistent and still normative narrowness of vision of feminist theologians and biblical interpreters on the subject of race; 4) retrieval and
documentary analysis of the effective history of the Bible in Western
culture in general and on peoples of african descent in Black diasporic
communities in particular. (1999, 655)
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other black women slowly began to pursue doctoral degrees in biblical
studies. however, by the end of the 1990s, there were still only eleven who
had completed their studies and earned degrees (Bailey 2000, 696, 707).
nearly thirty years have now passed since martin and Weems introduced readers to womanist biblical hermeneutics—biblical interpretation
that incorporated african american women’s lived experiences; and yet
the appearance of womanist biblical interpretation in books and articles
have been few and far between, despite the new addition of black women
earning terminal degrees in hebrew Bible/old testament and new testament/early Christianity. This was due in part, as nyasha Junior outlined in
an essay on womanist biblical interpretation, to a number of circumstances.
for one, while there are several works of womanist biblical interpretation, Junior noted that the preponderance has been by scholars outside
the field of biblical studies, such as Williams (1993), Cannon (1995), and
Cheryl Kirk-duggan (1997). moreover, biblical criticism by self-identified
womanist scholars has not always reflected an explicitly womanist methodological approach (Byron 2002; anderson 2004). finally, and probably
the greatest factor, is that while black women continue to join the growing
ranks of blacks and women of color in biblical studies, black women biblical scholars are still underrepresented (Junior 2006, 40–41, 43).6 even with
the increasing numbers, all black women scholars, as Junior herself noted,
do not choose to identify as a womanist or feminist.
despite the circumstances and challenges noted above, recent african american commentaries such as True to our Native Land (Blount et
al. 2007) and The Africana Bible (page 2010) and feminist commentaries
such as The Women’s Bible Commentary (newsom, ringe, lapsey 2012)
and a feminist Companion to the Bible series have included contributions by womanist and other black women scholars. There has also been
a growing number of articles, essays, and books by black women using a
6. society of Biblical literature us members of african descent are only 3.8 percent, which means that black women are even fewer (society of Biblical literature 2015).
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womanist hermeneutic. When Momma Speaks: The Bible and Motherhood
from a Womanist Perspective (2016) by stephanie Buckhanon Crowder
engages a womanist reading of biblical mothers, including rizpah, hagar,
Bathsheba, mary, the Canaanite woman, and Zebedee’s wife, to argue that
their stories can be beneficial to contemporary women who are seeking
models for self-identification and empowerment. in addition, Wil Gafney’s forthcoming Womanist Midrash: A Reintroduction to the Women
of the Torah and The Throne uses a midrashic interpretation rooted in
african american preaching traditions and imagination to bring to life
both familiar and often overlooked female characters in the hebrew Bible.
other recent publications include mitzi J. smith’s I Found God in Me: A
Womanist Reader (2015), nyasha Junior’s An Introduction to Womanist
Biblical Interpretation (2015), and shanell smith’s The Woman Babylon
and the Marks of Empire: Reading Revelation with a Postcolonial Womanist Hermeneutics of Ambiveilence (2014), the first womanist monograph
since raquel st. Clair’s Call and Consequences: A Womanist Reading of
Mark (2008).
mitzi smith and Junior’s recent works deserve a little more attention in relation to our volume. Both scholars expressed that a motivating
factor for writing their respective books was the lack of a textbook on
womanist biblical scholarship when they were seminary students. smith’s
(2015) edited volume provides the reader with a brief introduction to the
development of womanist biblical interpretation and its growth from the
pioneering works of martin and Weems, to subsequent groups or “generations” of womanist biblical scholars, such as the second-generation
scholars Gay Byron, Cheryl anderson, and Valerie Bridgeman, thirdgeneration scholars margaret aymer, Wil Gafney, and love l. sechrest,
and fourth- and recent-generation scholars shanell smith and Bridgett
Green (m. smith 2015, 5–7).7 The remainder of mitzi smith’s volume is
divided into two parts: reprinted essays of significance for an introduction to womanist biblical interpretation and womanist readings of biblical texts, both reprints and original essays.
7. historians usually speak of the feminist movement in terms of “waves” to
define the different periods in the movement: first wave (nineteenth to early twentieth
century), second wave (1960s to 1980s), third wave (1990s to present). for more on
the differences between feminists’ use of waves and womanists’ use of generations, see
stacey floyd-Thomas (2006) and monica Coleman (2013).
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Junior’s (2015) book is intended as an introductory-level resource on
womanist biblical interpretation for graduate students. it traces the trajectory of womanist biblical interpretation from its early roots in us black
women’s activism and biblical interpretation around issues of race and
gender by both nonprofessionals and professionals, its development independent of feminist biblical interpretation, and its emphasis on womanist
reading strategies by scholars outside of biblical studies. Junior’s monograph offers the reader a comparative analysis of feminist and womanist biblical interpretation. in particular, the book devotes several chapters
to analyzing the different waves of feminism, feminist forerunners, and
feminist biblical interpretation.8 The novice reader should understand that
Junior’s book is an introduction to both the use of feminist and womanist
approaches across disciplines rather than a generative example of womanist biblical interpretation.
diverse range of interpretations: expanding the discourse
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Given the growing body of literature, this volume expands on the recent
publications on womanist biblical criticism in the following ways. first,
it is intentional in naming themes and interpretive trajectories that characterize womanist hermeneutics. in this regard, our purpose is to build
upon the scholarship that has already been generated and extend the
conversations and interpretive frameworks among biblical critics and all
interested readers concerned with contemporary injustices perpetrated
against african american and other people of color throughout the world.
second, it offers a comprehensive, global, and interdisciplinary compilation of essays from the hebrew Bible, new testament, and extracanonical sources, including books that have never been treated to a womanist
interpretation, as these readings interface with the experiences of black
and other women of color. These essays feature a range of methodological approaches such as postcolonial, sociological, psychological, gender
and race theory, literary and rhetorical theories, and the like. Third, the
range of contributors is indicative of the wide breadth of scholars who
8. see chapter 5, “feminist Biblical interpretation” (76–94), in which several contemporary feminist biblical critics and their methodologies are provided. for example, scholars such as mary ann tolbert, elisabeth schüssler fiorenza, and Katharine
doob sakenfeld have outlined different tasks and forms of engagement for feminist
biblical criticism.
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are now applying womanist theories to their interpretations of the Bible.
Thus, included in this volume are emerging scholars (including those in
their early years of teaching or completing their dissertations), independent scholar-activists, and those along various stages of their academic
careers who are teaching in theological schools and departments of religion across the united states.
it is not our intention to offer an all-inclusive survey of womanist
biblical scholarship. We are featuring broad methodological, geographical, and ideological approaches to womanist criticism. We also choose to
include women who do not self-identify as womanist but who foreground
black and other women of color’s experiences in their interpretive process. Therefore, we have stacy davis who in her article self-identifies as a
black feminist, margaret aymer reading from her particularity as a black
“Caribbean, naturalized, economic migrant” woman in america, and
sharon Jacob’s interpretation of sacred hindu texts as an indian immigrant living in the united states.
We contend with scholars such as layli phillips (2006, xxii, xxxvi)
that womanism is an ethnically and culturally situated but not bounded
perspective that allows room for black and other women of color who
self-identify as womanist. for example, sarojini nadar (2001), a south
african indian who uses a womanist approach to her biblical interpretation, is explicit in acknowledging her ethnic and cultural location. nevertheless, we maintain that although womanists and black feminists share
a common cultural and historical heritage and certain political concerns,
womanism and black feminism are not interchangeable; indeed, marking the distinctions between the two is an ongoing debate among feminist and womanist critics (West 2006). They “favor” each other, to use a
family metaphor (phillips 2006); but in contrast to womanism, feminism
is still generally regarded as the “universal” experience of white women,
which invariably leads to inequitable power dynamics that are often too
difficult to overcome and best expressed in the classic text on black women’s studies by Gloria t. hull, patricia Bell scott, and Barbara smith: All
the Women Are White, All the Blacks Are Men, But Some of Us Are Brave
(1982).
in light of this, we believe that what makes these essays womanist is,
first, the intentionality with which the contributors in this volume bring
into sharp focus the multilayered and interlocking systems of oppression
and microaggressions that keep all women of color, locally and globally,
stymied in racialized pits of poverty, violence, and despair. second is the
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way in which these contributors draw upon sources from black cultural
traditions such as the activism of fannie lou hamer or assata shakur,
the hip hop lyrics of Beyoncé or rihanna, and the courageous women of
the Civil rights or #Blacklivesmatter movements. They recognize that,
without a womanist hermeneutic, the mothers, children, infants, single
women, power brokers, bibliophiles, activists, moral agents, landowners, strategists, and other carriers of life and hope would remain invisible,
ignored, and marginalized in biblical narratives. Third, is the commitment
with which these contributors bring their experiences as black and brown
women to name and work towards ending the multidimensional oppression faced by women of color that limit the progress of all humanity. Thus,
our goal in pulling together this volume is to provide a sample of essays
that represent some of the best in womanist scholarship using interdisciplinary approaches for reading biblical texts. in this regard, we seek to
expand the discourse among womanist biblical scholars and invite other
interested interpreters to the table.
The book is organized into four parts that reflect some of the overarching themes of womanist biblical interpretation. This organizational
schema does not account for the myriad themes and commitments that are
evident among the contributors. for example, the themes of respectability
politics, sexual independence, and political and social activism appear, to
some degree, in all of the essays. Yet, we have identified the following key
subheadings that have emerged from the content of the various essays:
(1) Gender and sexuality; (2) agency and advocacy; (3) foregrounding
Women on the margins; and (4) illuminating Biblical Children/Childhood. The final section includes the responses to the essays from four leading womanist and feminist scholars.
part 1: Gender and sexuality
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in several ways the articles by davis, Gafney, and anderson each examine
issues of race, gender, and sexuality especially around the theme of independent women, sexuality, and the need by some interpreters to use the
Bible both to celebrate black women’s independence and to police their
sexuality, especially if they are unmarried.
davis takes on the biblical anomaly of the unmarried woman in her
article, “The invisible Women: numbers 30 and the politics of singleness
in african american Communities.” she reads the passage about women’s
vows in num 30 to show how women typically are defined by one of four
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categories in the biblical text: wife, minor daughter, widow, or divorcée.
however, missing is the adult daughter who has never married. davis
approaches the passage from the perspective of a never-married african
american woman, using womanist theory, masculinity studies, and queer
theory to highlight the ways unmarried biblical women and contemporary
women, especially black women are discriminated against.
Gafney applies her distinctive womanist midrash to the biblical figure
delilah (Judg 16) in her essay, “a Womanist midrash of delilah: don’t hate
the playa hate the Game.” Gafney combines a womanist biblical hermeneutic informed by hip hop lyrics and rhetoric and the rabbinic midrash
tradition of filling in what the text omitted to paint a portrait of delilah
as a subject of her own story, who makes her own choices about her body
and life, while besting the men in the story. Gafney exposes heteropatriarchal interpretations of delilah as a “playa hata” seeking to bring down the
valiant samson to reveal the truth of the story—that samson engages in a
twisted game of bloodsport that is lethal to the women in his life.
anderson proposes a different biblical gender and sexuality paradigm
for the african american church to confront the transmission of hiV in
her article, “The song of songs: redeeming Gender Constructions in the
age of aids.” anderson contends that leadership on this issue has been
lagging in the african american church due to an emphasis on race as its
primary concern and its reluctance to address sexuality and sexual expression. she argues that the church’s teaching on sex is limited to traditional
hierarchical gender and sexuality constructions based on Gen 2–3 that are
undermining african american well-being in the age of aids. anderson
offers the mutuality paradigm in the song of songs as an alternative to
help prevent new hiV infections in the african american community.
part 2: agency and advocacy
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a few of the articles express a solidarity with or indirect reference to the
#Blacklivesmatter social justice movement, begun after the acquittal of
George Zimmerman, neighborhood watch volunteer, who shot and killed
black teenager trayvon martin. each article in this section emphasizes
some form of agency, in which the biblical characters or contemporary
activists express the ability to transform their social circumstances.
mitzi smith approaches her article, “race, Gender, and the politics of
‘sass’: reading mark 7:24–30 through a Womanist lens of intersectionality and inter(con)textuality,” from the womanist hermeneutic of “sass/talk
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back.” she engages the story of sandra Bland, the black female motorist
whose arrest led to her shocking death in jail. smith puts Bland in dialog
with the Greek syro-phoenician woman in this markan text. she also
combines sass and mikhail Bakhtin’s heteroglossia to give resistance speech
to the syro-phoenician woman and contemporary women of color who
would dare to raise their consciousness by talking back to those in authority at the risk of condemnation or death.
sechrest’s article, “antitypes, stereotypes, and antetypes: Jezebel, the
sun Woman, and Contemporary Black Women,” examines the role of
women’s agency in the book of revelation by comparing and contrasting
the figures Jezebel and the sun Woman in rev 2 and 12, respectively, with
contemporary black women activists in the Civil rights and #Blacklivesmatter movements. sechrest explores how John, the writer of revelation’s
use of stereotypes about “good” and “bad” women in the public square
to describe Jezebel and the sun Woman, obscures the reader’s vision of
feminine agency in the text. similarly, she argues that such stereotypes
associated with the imagery and language in revelation are used to shape
and constrain women of color’s agency today.
We affirm the new generation of black women religious scholars who
have adopted the #Blacklivesmatter’s call to action against antiblack racism
without regard to the respectability politics revolving around sexual orientation. The #Blacklivesmatter was founded by three queer black women
activists who decried the violence against black people saying, “our lives
matter, black lives matter.”9 This is, ironically, in contrast to the earlier
rejection of womanism by some black women Christian ethicists and theologians because Walker’s poetic definition included “loves other women
sexually and/or nonsexually.” although the articles in this section do not
explicitly address lGBtQ perspectives, this omission was not intentional.
The contributors in this volume focused more on their own sociopolitical location. nevertheless, we acknowledge the importance of the women
loving women aspect of Walker’s definition.
We also affirm the historical precursors that are referenced in the
#Blacklivesmatter movement. Cofounder alicia Garza wrote, “When
Black people get free, everybody gets free,” a paraphrase of the famous
line by civil rights activist hamer. Garza also draws inspiration from black
9. Black lives matter was founded by alicia Garza, patrisse Cullors, and opal
tometi (“a herstory of the #Blacklivesmatter movement,” n.d.)
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liberation and Black panther activist shakur in her own activism against
antiblack racism, whom she quotes: “it is our duty to fight for our freedom,
it is our duty to win. We must love each other and support each other. We
have nothing to lose but our chains.”10 shakur is the subject of shively t.
J. smith’s article.
shivley smith’s “one more time with assata on my mind: a Womanist rereading of the escape to egypt (matt 2:13–23) in dialogue with
an african american Woman fugitive narrative” examines how shakur’s
account of her transition and assimilation from life in the united states to
life in Cuba, issues related to the reasons for political flight, changing territorial relations, and the challenges of cultural adaptation. These themes
resonate with the biblical story of the flight of Jesus’s family from Judea
to egypt in matt 2:13–23. smith argues that using shakur’s story to read
matt 2 afresh expands the breadth of african american women’s experiences and history that womanist biblical readings engage in its interpretative work.
finally, marlene underwood’s essay, “ ‘Battered love’: exposing abuse
in the Book of Job,” engages the social cycle theory developed by psychologist lenore Walker called “cycle of abuse.” Contrasting the retributive justice implied in YhWh’s punishment of israel in the marriage metaphor
with the unmerited suffering of Job, underwood exposes the abuse perpetrated by YhWh against Job as a form of domestic violence. after taking
the reader through Job’s various cycles of abuse at the hand of YhWh
(tension building, acute battering incident, loving-contrition), she highlights Job’s agency throughout his trials, including maintaining his innocence despite his friends’ protests and his calls for justice.
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part 3: foregrounding Women on the margins
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most womanist interpretations have focused on hebrew Bible and new
testament canonical sources. although feminist and womanist interpreters have called for an expansion of texts, there still remains a significant
gap in the scholarship. Byron’s essay, “Black Collectors and Keepers of
tradition: resources for a Womanist Biblical ethic of (re)interpretation,”
illuminates the rich tradition of black bibliophiles and collectors such as
10. assata shakur, unisex, liberation ink (quoted on “Get involved in the fight
for Black lives,” n.d.).
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dorothy porter Wesley, mayme Clayton, arthur schomburg, and others
who have amassed archival artifacts and sources that offer a new world
of source material for the biblical critic. in particular, she discusses dr.
andré reynolds tweed, who amassed during his lifetime one of the largest
collections of ethiopic manuscripts and artifacts in the united states. she
theorizes how “living sources” such as the experiences of these virtually
overlooked black bibliophiles and the often-ignored experiences of black
women in biblical and other early Christian sources open a more critical
and expansive lens for understanding early Christianity.
Byron is not the only contributor foregrounding women on the margins. two essays call attention to the marginalized roles of mothers, in particular the deleterious impact of their social status on their children’s lives
and the displaced (surrogate) nature of their maternal contributions to
society. sharon Jacob and Jennifer t. Kaalund’s essay “flowing from Breast
to Breast: an examination of dis/placed motherhood in african american and indian Wet nurses” uses the sun Woman in the book of revelation in conversation with the hindu text linga purana to explore the phenomenon of black and indian women being forced to nurture empire with
their breasts in the contexts of antebellum slavery in the united states and
the British colonization of india. Jacob and Kaalund demonstrate how the
wet nurse illuminates not only the violent nature of surrogate motherhood
in hegemonic systems, but also the role that class, or socioeconomic status,
plays in the displacement of motherhood.
lovelace critiques interpreters of Judg 11 who maintain that Jephthah
is doomed to fail because he is the son of an unmarried woman. in her
essay “ ‘We don’t Give Birth to Thugs’: family Values, respectability politics, and Jephthah’s mother,” she approaches the text from a functionalist
perspective on the family with a womanist hermeneutic, which asserts that
commentaries on Jephthah and his mother depict them as lacking traditional family values. This sounds much like the functionalist argument
that children born to single mothers become juvenile delinquents and
create social instability. This rhetoric, targeted mostly at black children, is
the same language used to describe Jephthah, which in turn functions to
racialize Jephthah and his mother as black.
part 4: illuminating Biblical Children/Childhood
The next section of this volume illuminates the experiences of children
in biblical narratives and adds to the ongoing dialogues among biblical
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scholars who are highlighting the multilayered dimensions of children
in the biblical world. The essays in this section challenge some of the
assumptions contemporary readers have about children, such as their
youth, innocence, and vulnerability.
in “outrageous, audacious, Courageous, Willful: reading the
enslaved Girl of acts 12,” margaret aymer examines the enslaved girl
rhoda in luke’s narrative and reads her story intersectionally, darkly, and
ambiveilently (using shanell smith’s term) to allow the subaltern to speak.
aymer’s womanist reading of rhoda attends to the issues of trauma arising from the darkness of the intersectional oppression based on racism/
ethnocentrism, sexism, classism, and ageism considering rhoda’s youth.
she also raises questions about the ancient text and modern forced migration and human trafficking. aymer challenges the early church’s idealized
narrative that luke’s Gospel is sympathetic to women while listening for
rhoda’s silenced cry for liberation.
Valerie Bridgeman likewise examines the plight of children in her
essay, “ ‘i Will make Boys Their princes’: a Womanist reading of Children in the Book of isaiah.” she adds to the growing body of literature
on children in the world of the Bible with her piece on how the book of
isaiah contributes to the ways the writer symbolically portrays israel as a
wayward child that needs punishment for correction. Bridgeman lifts up
the danger of a literal reading of the text that may lead the contemporary
reader to conclude that the Bible condones child abuse.
Bridgett Green focuses on children (more specifically, infants) in
the Gospel of luke. her article, “ ‘nobody’s free until everybody’s free’:
exploring Gender and Class injustice in a story about Children (luke
18:15–17),” interprets the story of Jesus blessing the children through civil
rights’ activist hamer’s gender, class, and race analysis of power dynamics
that legitimated interlocking systems of oppression. using hamer’s speech
“nobody’s free until everybody’s free” delivered at the founding meeting
of the national Women’s political Caucus as a hermeneutical guide, Green
reads luke’s version of the blessing of the children for a liberative thrust
that empowers the marginalized and admonishes the privileged.
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part 5: in response
The final part of the book offers responses from four leading womanist
and feminist scholars who each bring a unique perspective for setting in
context the diverse essays included in this volume: layli maparyan, Katha-
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rine doob sakenfeld, townes, and althea spencer-miller. Their insights
highlight the theoretical, interdisciplinary, global, pedagogical, and practical implications of the different essays and articulate new horizons for
womanist biblical interpretation.
Concluding thoughts
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as we developed this volume through our own dialogues and through
conversations with the contributors, we realized that collaboration and
sharing is at the heart of womanist doings and ways of being in the world.
We recognize that interpreting sacred texts cannot be done independent of
the communities with whom we read and to whom we are accountable. all
of the essays demonstrate that our black bodies and our black lives cannot
be left outside of the interpretive process. likewise, the bodies and lives of
all interpreters are integral in the interpretive process.
furthermore, we acknowledge that injustices and challenges in our
contemporary world are an indispensible component of womanist hermeneutics and not matters to be left solely for theologians, ethicists, policy
analysts, or other scholars committed to social justice. The contributors to
this volume have consistently emphasized their responsibility to speak out
against the deep, systemic nature of the interlocking systems of oppression related to race, ethnicity, class, gender, sexuality, et cetera that cannot
be ignored by biblical interpreters—not just black women biblical interpreters. all interpreters of sacred texts are responsible for exposing and
analyzing the power dynamics in both the ancient texts and the interpretations of the texts that have been used to further injustices and global
systemic challenges.
The question of where we go from here was raised in regard to the
insights in these womanist ways of reading the Bible and other sacred
texts. one of the desirable outcomes from this volume would be that readers come away with a new understanding of womanist readings of sacred
texts that highlight the myriad perspectives that black and other women
of color bring to interpreting these texts. in addition, that more interpreters (including those outside the discipline of biblical studies) would
be emboldened to read the texts from their own social location and be
empowered to take action and work toward building new relationships
and coalitions that can transform the injustices in our society and across
the globe. finally, we hope that this volume will lead to further collaborative efforts and conversations that will keep the interests of black women
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and other women of color at the forefront of interpretations of biblical and
extrabiblical sources.
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part 1
Gender and sexuality