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Year: 2020
Diagnosis as dialogue: historical and current perspectives
Hoff, Paul ; Maatz, Anke ; Vetter, Johannes Simon
DOI: https://doi.org/10.31887/DCNS.2020.22.1/phoff
Posted at the Zurich Open Repository and Archive, University of Zurich
ZORA URL: https://doi.org/10.5167/uzh-186485
Journal Article
Published Version
Originally published at:
Hoff, Paul; Maatz, Anke; Vetter, Johannes Simon (2020). Diagnosis as dialogue: historical and current
perspectives. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 22(1):27-35.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.31887/DCNS.2020.22.1/phoff
Original article
Diagnosis as dialogue: historical and
current perspectives
Paul Hoff, MD, PhD; Anke Maatz, MD, PhD; Johannes Simon Vetter, MSc, PhD
Ever since psychiatry emerged as a clinical discipline and field of scientific inquiry in the late 18th century, debates
about diagnosis have been at its very heart. Considered by many a requirement for clinical communication as well as for
systematic study, others have critiqued psychiatric diagnosis for being modeled on a medical conception of disease that
is ill-suited to the specific nature of mental disorders. Based on a review of seminal positions in the conceptual history of
psychiatry and an examination of their epistemological underpinnings, we propose to consider diagnosis as dialogue. Such
understanding, we argue, can serve as a meta-framework that provides a conceptual and practical umbrella to encourage
open-minded conversation across the diverse conceptual and experiential frameworks that are characteristic of psychiatry. In
this perspective psychopathology will also reinforce the interpersonal realm as a necessary element of any clinical encounter,
be it diagnostic in purpose or otherwise. Current challenges to traditional diagnostic systems like Research Domain Criteria
(RDoC) and Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP) are discussed in light of these considerations.
© 2019, AICH - Servier Group
Dialogues Clin Neurosci. 2020;22(1):27-35. doi:10.31887/DCNS.2020.22.1/phoff
Keywords: psychiatric diagnosis; dialogue; psychopathology; ICD-11; RDoC; HiTOP; denosologization
Ever since psychiatry emerged as an independent clinical
discipline and field of scientific inquiry in the late 18 th
century, debates about the concept (and content) of diagnosis have been at its very heart. Considered by many a
requirement for clinical communication as well as for
systematic study, others have critiqued psychiatric diagnosis
for being modeled on a medical—in the sense of somatic—
conception of disease that is ill-suited to the specific nature
of mental disorders. Proponents of this latter position argue
that psychiatric diagnosis disregards the complex individuality of any given person as well as cultural influences
on diagnostic conceptions.1 Taking this critical perspective
further, “anti-psychiatrists” have claimed that psychiatric
diagnosis is entirely normative—as opposed to descrip-
tive—and a means of societal oppression.2 A different, but
related, point of critique has been the worry that psychiatric
diagnosis rests too much on the assessment of the individual
clinician, and that it grossly overrates intuition and personal
experience, thereby giving an unacceptably high degree of
power to the diagnostician and making diagnosis unreliable.
Whilst some criticisms, especially the lack of reliability,
have been addressed by more recent research on and
developments of diagnostic systems, the general points of
contention remain: The epistemological dichotomy between
conceptions of psychiatry as a quantifying nomothetic
science searching for general rules behind the individual
case on the one hand, and the (much older) “ars medicaapproach” with its focus on qualitative, subjective
phenomena to do with the individual person and thus
being idiographic in nature on the other hand, results in
Author affiliations: University Hospital of Psychiatry Zurich, Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Lenggstrasse 31, P.O. Box 363, 8032
Zurich, Switzerland. Address for correspondence: Prof Paul Hoff, MD PhD, University Hospital of Psychiatry Zurich, Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and
Psychosomatics, Lenggstrasse 31, 8032 Zurich, Switzerland (email: paul.hoff@puk.zh.ch)
DIALOGUES IN CLINICAL NEUROSCIENCE • Vol 22 • No. 1 • 2020 • 27
Copyright © 2019 AICH - Servier Group. All rights reserved. www.dialogues-cns.org
Introduction: The entangled nature of
psychiatric diagnosis
Original article
Diagnosis as dialogue - Hoff et al
conceptions of psychiatric diagnosis as “carving nature at
its joints”3 as opposed to views according to which psychiatric diagnosis is per se unfounded.4 Debates about diagnosis can thus not be separated from debates about broader
nosological and epistemological frameworks, and diagnosis
necessarily mirrors the entangled nature of mental disorders.
What are we to do then if we take up a pragmatic position
of minimal epistemological consensus and agree that diagnosis can indeed be helpful to condense information and
thereby ensure reliable communication in clinical, research,
and teaching contexts?
In this article, we propose to consider diagnosis as dialogue.
This implies that we ought to be aware, and teach awareness, that diagnosis cannot be reduced to clear-cut, unequivocally applicable algorithms, but needs to be accompanied
by reflection and discussion of its nosological, epistemological, and anthropological underpinnings.
To argue for such a conception, we first give an overview of
landmark positions on diagnosis in the conceptual history
of Western psychiatry. We then work out the general nosological frameworks underlying these positions, highlighting
their implications for the epistemological status of diagnosis. Finally, current approaches to diagnosis are reviewed
in light of these considerations. Diagnosis as dialogue, as we
understand it, can serve as a meta-framework not to blur the
lines where there are ontological or epistemological incommensurabilities between diagnostic systems, but to provide a
conceptual and practical umbrella to make underlying theoretical assumptions explicit and to encourage open-minded
conversation across diverse conceptual and experiential
frameworks, both amongst clinicians and researchers as
well as between clinicians and patients.
Landmark positions on diagnosis in the
conceptual history of Western psychiatry
Two markedly different anthropological approaches accompanied and influenced the very beginning of psychiatry as
a medical discipline: The era of Enlightenment in the 18th
century brought forward a strongly rational understanding
of personhood and citizenship as well as an optimistic
stance on the scientific comprehensibility, not to say mastery
of our world. Autonomous and responsible decision making
became one of the hallmarks of being a person. In turn, not
28 • DIALOGUES IN CLINICAL NEUROSCIENCE • Vol 22 • No. 1 • 2020
being able to make use of one’s own rational powers was
increasingly conceptualized not only as a deficit, but as an
illness calling for medical diagnosis and treatment. Thus,
the conceptual framework for establishing psychiatric diagnosis was rationalism.
Some decades later, at the beginning of the 19th century,
romanticism regarded a rationalistic attitude as simplifying
and laid emphasis on the affective, not to say the irrational,
dimension of human experience and behavior. Mental
disorders were now regarded as consequences of excessive
or otherwise disturbed affective states: Some authors saw
a direct link between such affective instabilities and the
person’s attitudes and lifestyle, thus attributing at least a
significant part of the responsibility for becoming mentally
ill to the patient himself or herself. The scope of psychiatric
diagnosis thereby became broader and more value-laden
as it conceived of mental illness as an aberration from the
proper way of life. Here, the individual biography, personal
attitudes, and accepted moral values of a given cultural
context shaped the process of generating a psychiatric diagnosis.
Wilhelm Griesinger (1817-1868), a central figure in the
conceptual history of psychiatry, pursued the understanding of psychiatry as an integral part of medicine,
thus strictly departing from speculative philosophical
approaches that had prevailed in the romantic era. Psychiatry should adopt empirical research methods, especially
concerning the brain: Griesinger was therefore one of
the founders of neuroscience, but he also insisted on the
limitations of such an approach and warned not to prematurely accept oversimplifying views.5 As for nosology, he
vouched for the existence of just one all-embracing mental
illness, the “unitary psychosis” (“Einheitspsychose”). He
argued that there exists only one single mental disorder
that in its different stages may exhibit the whole spectrum
of psychopathological phenomena.6 Hence, for Griesinger,
diagnosis was centered around the clinical picture, its
course in time, and possible correlations with brain
dysfunctions, but not around presumably distinct nosological entities.
Based on Karl Ludwig Kahlbaum’s (1828-1899)
proposal7 to direct psychiatric research towards specific
patterns in the temporality of defined clinical syndromes
(“syndrome-course-entities”, “Syndrom-Verlaufs-Ein-
Original article
Diagnosis as dialogue - Hoff et al
heiten”), Emil Kraepelin (1856-1926) strongly and neatly separated from therapy since the prominent role of
sustainably favored the idea of the existence and scien- interpretation both of the patient’s narratives and the thertific detectability of “natural disease entities” (“natürliche apeutic relationship essentially influences any single act
Krankheitseinheiten”).8,9 He saw these entities as objec- within psychotherapy. As opposed to this, behaviorism, at
tive parts of nature, as given things, although he accepted least in its early phase, placed emphasis on the patient’s
different scientific ways to detect them: research on etiology, empirically observable and, therefore, quantifiable behavior,
on pathological anatomy, or on clinthus keeping its distance from the
ical course. From this perspective,
hermeneutical approach as well as
Recent approaches raise from possible neurobiological underpsychiatric diagnoses were tools to
get as close as possible to “real”
pinnings. Anthropological psychifundamental questions
nosological entities.
atry emerged after World War II and,
about psychiatric nosology in fact, dominated psychiatric literand the epistemological
Eugen Bleuler’s influential innovaature for a couple of years. It radition in the present context—especally opposed the crude biologism
status of diagnosis
cially regarding “dementia praecox,”
and social Darwinism of psychiatry
reconceptualized by him as “group
during the era of national socialism.
of schizophrenias”—was to explicAuthors like Ludwig Binswanger
itly acknowledge a hermeneutical—specifically: a psycho- (1881-1966)13 and Wolfgang Blankenburg (1928-2002)14
analytical—approach as a scientific element of psychiatric advocated a person- and biography-oriented approach,
diagnosis, therapy, and research, notably without deempha- partly resembling, but not identical with the psychoanasizing the role of descriptive and neurobiological factors.10 lytic one, that searched for a meaningful link between the
Bleuler enriched the scope of diagnosis by the psychody- patient’s mental disorder and his or her individual life. Note
namic dimension, in this specific respect resembling ideas that the neurobiological dimension was not neglected in this
of “romantic psychiatry” a century before (see above).
view. It was credited as necessary, but not sufficient, not as
the essential precondition of adequately dealing with the
The assumption that mental disorders were manifestations phenomenon of mental illness.
of a transgenerational process of “degeneration” (“Entartung”), although lacking a sound scientific basis and Systemic psychotherapy with its partly eclectic approach
conceptual rigor, became highly influential in medicine in enriched the scope of psychotherapy by emphasizing the
the late 19th century.11 Psychiatry was no exception; on the relevance of the patient’s social context, especially his or her
contrary: Most contemporary textbooks introduced chap- family and occupational situation. Diagnosis had to encomters on “degenerative psychoses” or similar terms. Here, the pass a much broader range of relevant information than,
process of diagnosis in a way succumbed to the underlying eg, in descriptive clinical psychopathology. (This outline of
dogma by focusing on the detection of (somatic or psycho- major theoretical approaches in psychotherapy focuses on
pathological) “stigmata degenerationis” (Cesare Lombro- the perspective of conceptual history. Towards the end of the
so’s (1835-1909) “Criminal anthropology”12 is a prominent 20th century, eclectic models were developed that explicexample for this approach, but by far not the only one), itly drew on different schools of thought, eg, the Cognitive
thus grossly disregarding the subjective and interpersonal Behavioral Analysis System of Psychotherapy15).
dimensions. This may be a drastic example of neglecting the
patient’s individuality, of the very opposite of person-cen- Concurrent to the discovery of new and effective psychoteredness. However, any diagnostic approach in psychiatry pharmacological agents and their subsequent implementation into psychiatric practice starting from about 1950
does, in principle, carry this risk.
onwards, the disadvantages of the highly heterogeneous
Considering the conceptual cornerstones of what became field of psychiatric diagnosis (and nosology) became
known as “psychotherapy” during the 20th century, further obvious. Large-scale international clinical studies depended
frameworks, embedding the diagnostic process, emerged: on a common diagnostic language and especially on its
In the psychoanalytical perspective, diagnosis cannot be reliability in order to quantify therapeutic response, side
DIALOGUES IN CLINICAL NEUROSCIENCE • Vol 22 • No. 1 • 2020 • 29
Original article
Diagnosis as dialogue - Hoff et al
effects, and course of illness under treatment. This situation
(together with the arrival of modern neuroscientific research
methods as biochemistry or brain imaging) prompted the
development of operationalized rating scales and, ultimately, diagnostic manuals such as ICD-1016 or DSM-III.17
They strongly focus on reliability and, in order to achieve
it, on precise definitions of psychopathological terms and
diagnostic algorithms. This descriptive approach endeavors
to avoid implicit theoretical presuppositions, especially
regarding etiology and treatment of mental disorders. Not
what, eg, schizophrenia “really is” or how it should be
optimally treated, but how the term schizophrenia can be
defined and used in a reliable way, is the very core of operationalized diagnosis in psychiatry (nominalistic approach,
see below). Not leaving these common grounds, but as an
amplification of ICD-10, additional concepts have been
proposed and clinically adapted, for instance, the “Operationalized Psychodynamic Diagnosis.”18
In a remarkable step beyond the “atheoretical” ambition of
ICD-10, ICD-11 arranges disorders on the basis of shared
putative etiological and pathophysiological features (eg,
disorders associated with stress) as well as shared clinical phenomenology (eg, dissociative disorders).19 Besides
several new diagnoses and alterations to existing criteria of
disorders, innovations in ICD-11 comprise the description
of essential features of each disorder and the integration of
a lifespan approach as well as culture-related information.
Also, as in DSM-5, disorder groupings were ordered to be
related to developmental psychopathology (eg, neurodevelopmental disorders are enlisted first and neurocognitive
disorders at the end). A major innovation is the incorporation of dimensional approaches within the framework
of a categorical system with explicit taxonomic restrictions, especially applied in the classification of personality
disorders20 (and also partially for schizophrenia and other
primary psychotic disorders).
Still, and like DSM-5, ICD-11 in many ways offers no strict
alternative to the current descriptive-phenomenological
approach, and has not introduced fundamental conceptual
alterations. One may argue, that ICD-11’s main advance
is a technological one, ie, the transition to an electronic
conceptual infrastructure, to a database that reflects the hierarchical structure of the classification and integrates within
a single logical model all categories, conceptions, entities,
groups, synonyms, and exclusion criteria as well as their
30 • DIALOGUES IN CLINICAL NEUROSCIENCE • Vol 22 • No. 1 • 2020
relations (“foundation component”21). The coding of diagnoses is altered, offering more precise and differentiated
combinations. The documentation, multilingual utilization,
and translations as well as linkage to other terminologies
are facilitated.
Finally, two distinctively critical lines of thought towards
psychiatric diagnosis in general shall be mentioned: Firstly,
authors who reproached psychiatry for following a much too
narrow medical model of mental disorders and for uncritically accepting the role of a social control agent (“anti-psychiatry”), regarded psychiatric diagnoses as pars pro toto
for the alleged fundamental shortcomings of psychiatry.2
The field of social psychiatry, emerging after 1960, took
up, in a more moderate and pragmatic way, some of these
arguments, especially concerning the medical model and its
implicit risk of fostering rigid, stigmatizing and deindividualized diagnoses.22
Secondly, since about 1980 a profoundly skeptical attitude
arose towards nosological entities in psychiatry—and, consequently, towards diagnostic procedures codifying them—in
the context of an increasingly neuroscientifically oriented
self-understanding of psychiatry, in some respects revitalizing ideas Wilhelm Griesinger (and others) had proposed
more than a century ago (see above). This position strongly
gained momentum and condensed in a new term, “denosologization.” Van Praag’s plea from 198723 triggered this
debate that has been going on up to the present day; in fact,
it was markedly boosted by recent concepts such as Research
Domain Criteria (RDoC)24 or Hierarchical Taxonomy of
Psychopathology (HiTOP)25,26 and, generally, by the claim
of the emerging fields of social neuroscience and computational psychiatry to generate “a new understanding of mental
disorders.”27 This will be addressed in more detail below.
General nosological frameworks and their
implications for the epistemological status of
psychiatric diagnosis
From the conceptions of diagnosis sketched above, that have
become influential in the history of Western psychiatry, the
following three general nosological frameworks can be
distilled. They differ markedly in terms of their implications
for the epistemological status of diagnosis and entail equally
different approaches to the diagnostic process (Figures 1
and 2).
Original article
Diagnosis as dialogue - Hoff et al
Figure 1. Distinctive consequences of the epistemic approach
for the diagnostic process.
Figure 2. Overstretching methods: the risks.
Framework 1
Mental illness is a malfunction of certain parts, domains, or
networks of the central nervous system that can be detected
using neuroscientific methods.
social competences. The underlying basis of diagnosis is
thus conceptualized as mental phenomena that have to be
interpreted or understood. Hence, hermeneutical methods
constitute the center of this framework, which may be called
the biographical view.
Epistemologically, this approach is close to the classical
medical model of somatic disorders. The factual existence of mental illness “within” the patient is regarded as
completely independent from the experts’ conceptualization. The clinician just has to “detect” (and then, of course,
treat) the illness, and the researcher strives to “carve nature
at its joints.”3 In philosophical terms, this is the naturalistic-realistic view. (“Realism” is here to be understood in an
epistemological sense, ie, as the assumption that “natural
objects” or “nature” exist completely independently from
human beings and their cognitive acts). It typically implies
a “reification” of mental illness.28
Framework 2
Mental illness is an individual reaction to stressful life
events or episodes.
The brain’s relevance as a necessary condition for any
mental phenomenon is not contested here. However, in
contrast to framework 1, the central nervous system is
not seen as the essential etiological factor. Rather, these
are the patient’s life experiences, personality traits, and
Framework 3
Mental illness is a concept based on descriptive psychopathological findings rather than on etiological assumptions.
The definitions of symptoms and syndromes as well as
diagnostic algorithms are products of an expert consensus,
taking epidemiological and other scientific data into account
wherever possible.
Diagnoses in this context do not claim to represent “real”
entities that independently exist “behind” the clinical picture
(as opposed especially to framework 1) but are conceptual
conventions on how to use diagnostic terms. Hence, framework 3 can be called the nominalistic view. Such a view
was prominently adopted by operationalized diagnostic
manuals, eg, ICD-10 and DSM-5. As discussed above,
ICD-11 partially moves away from this position.
Implications for diagnosis
What are the implications of each of these frameworks for
the epistemological status of psychiatric diagnosis and for
the clinical process of diagnosing?
DIALOGUES IN CLINICAL NEUROSCIENCE • Vol 22 • No. 1 • 2020 • 31
Original article
Diagnosis as dialogue - Hoff et al
In a strictly naturalistic view, that claims to exhaustively
explain mental illness as brain disorder, diagnoses represent
“natural kinds.” To diagnose accordingly means to depict
given facts in a way that is as objective, ie, researcher- or
clinician-independent, as possible. Critics of this viewpoint
note the naturalistic fallacy, ie, the risk of unreflected identification of (neuro-)biological with mental phenomena.29
In the biographical view, diagnoses are patterns of experience and interindividually valid categories of meaning. In
the diagnostic process, the clinician thus seeks to understand and interpret the patient’s personal history as well as
his or her intra- and interpersonal situation. Emphasizing
the explanatory power of these factors bears the risk of a
hermeneutic fallacy, ie, the unreflected identification of a
coherent psychological model with the etiology and pathogenesis of a given mental disorder.
Operational diagnostic manuals in psychiatry, like ICD-10
or DSM-5, do not claim to address “real” nosological entities and therefore refrain from “reifying” mental illness.
Instead, they construct diagnostic terms by defining rules
or algorithms such that these terms can be reliably applied.
One of their principal aims is not to make unnecessary theoretical assumptions, eg about the etiology or the “nature” of
mental disorders, in order to be compatible with different
methodological and cultural backgrounds. Taking this
approach too far may result in a formalistic fallacy, ie, the
unreflected identification of operationalized psychopathological criteria with the multifaceted mental suffering of the
individual person.
As can be seen, there is a considerable link between nosological assumptions, be they explicitly stated or only
implicitly influential, and practical diagnostic procedures.
Any diagnostic approach comes with theoretical baggage,
any one has its blind spots, and none therefore ought to be
regarded as or used as a stand-alone-technique.
Why this is relevant for the ongoing
debate
Conceptual history of psychiatry is not “l’art pour l’art.”
Close readings and thorough reflections on “classical”
psychiatric positions as, for example, in the works of
Wilhelm Griesinger, Emil Kraepelin, Sigmund Freud, or
Eugen Bleuler, facilitate and enrich the present debate
32 • DIALOGUES IN CLINICAL NEUROSCIENCE • Vol 22 • No. 1 • 2020
on psychiatric diagnosis. This argument becomes even
stronger in view of the immense heterogeneity and
dynamics of this debate. It is situated (and, in a way,
oscillates) between two poles: Emil Kraepelin’s notion of
scientifically detectable “natural disease entities” based
on philosophical realism on the one hand,30 and the epistemologically more modest nominalistic approach of
modern diagnostic manuals on the other hand. In recent
years, both poles have been subjected to fierce criticism:
From the 1980s onwards, the concept of “denosologization” has increasingly (re-)gained acceptance. More
recently, it was integrated into the evolving paradigms
of computational and dimensional psychiatry.27 “Denosologization” is spurred by the worry that conventional
psychiatric diagnoses—which are still based on Kraepelin’s nosology19 —are neither sufficiently valid nor reliable, but in fact obstruct clinical work as well as scientific
research by narrowing down the conceptual horizon. The
poor acceptance of diagnoses by patients, relatives, and
the general public to do with their stigmatizing potential
is another common argument in favor of denosologization.
This complex issue may be condensed in one question: Do
we need a “transdiagnostic psychiatry”31 that departs from
traditional nosological frameworks? Two recent examples of
concepts following such a transdiagnostic path are RDoC24
and HiTOP.25,26
RDoC epistemologically stands closer to Kraepelin’s
postulate of the existence and scientific detectability of
natural disease entities than to descriptive and hermeneutical concepts. However, its authors claim that nosology
has to be data-based rather than, as conventional diagnosis, symptom-based. The substantial heterogeneity of
a group of patients diagnosed with, eg, major depressive
disorder according to ICD-10, is sought to be overcome
by integrating all available data from the domains genetic
risk, brain activity, physiology, behavioral processes and
life experiences, aiming to reveal data-based categories or
clusters. These are expected to represent more homogenous groups of patients than, for example, ICD-10 categories. Ultimately, the new systematics is hoped to facilitate
specifically targeted research on future pharmacological and
psychotherapeutic strategies.
HiTOP shares RDoC’s criticisms of the classical taxonomies as neither sufficiently reliable nor valid. In response,
Original article
Diagnosis as dialogue - Hoff et al
it offers a data-driven psychometric methodology that
attempts to advance consensus dimensional classification
and thus enhance conventional diagnostic systems (like
ICD and DSM).25 The objective is to define an inner structure of psychopathology. Using a quantitative higher-order
dimensional and hierarchical structure of psychopathology,
it aims at revealing underlying dimensions of psychopathology and decrease artefactual comorbidity.32 In this way,
arbitrary boundaries between disorders as well as insufficient reliability of categorical diagnoses are meant to be
overcome.26 Within-disorder heterogeneity is addressed by
developing dimensions based on covariations of symptoms
thereby detecting coherent constructs. At its core, HiTOP
proposes that psychopathological dimensions can be organized in a hierarchical order that ranges from “spectra” (eg,
“internalizing” or “thought disorder”), to specific clusters
of symptoms.32
The ambition to debate diagnosis in the abovementioned sense is supported by many seminal figures in
the psychopathological tradition, especially Karl Jaspers
(1883-1969). He declared a multidimensional, ie, epistemologically open-minded approach that engages in a critical dialogue between competing positions as necessary
requirement of person-centered psychiatry. If we understand psychopathology in this Jaspersian sense, ie, as a
comprehensive intellectual framework rather than only
a technical guidance for descriptive symptomatology, it
might well regain the function of a conceptual bracket
for psychiatry.35,36 Given the fragile sense of professional
identity within psychiatry we presently witness, such a
bracket is very much needed.
The already thriving field of social neuroscience, dimensional and computational psychiatry will presumably be
further enlarged and differentiated in the foreseeable future.
There is no doubt that this is a scientifically desirable and
promising development. However, the following caveat
should be considered: The debate on future directions of
psychiatric diagnosis critically depends on a sustained and
substantial reflection on the epistemological frameworks
involved. For example, how shall we integrate the notions
of subjectivity, autonomy, and personhood with neuroscientific data? In order to justify the designation of an important
realm of current psychiatric research as social neuroscience,
this question has to be answered. The proposals of “firstperson neuroscience”33 and “two-person neuroscience”34 are
attempts to get ahead with this issue.
What is diagnosis in 21st century psychiatry all about,
and what ought it to be about? From a conceptual history
perspective, in view of the many competing and at least
partly incommensurable approaches to diagnosis that
psychiatry has seen over the centuries, one cannot help but
have the impression that psychiatric diagnosis is essentially
about debate: This debate has been ongoing at least since
the seminal work of Emil Kraepelin and, after a comparably stable phase of international implementation of the
two operationalized diagnostic manuals DSM-III17 and
ICD-10,16 the field has become dynamic and substantially
controversial again in recent years.
Generally speaking, any nosological and diagnostic
approach developed by psychiatry ever since its beginning carries, more or less, the risk of becoming rigid and
dogmatic. Therefore, the essential ambition of the ongoing
debate on psychiatric diagnosis should not be to ignore
or just to replace previous concepts. This would indefensibly narrow down the scientific scope of our field. Instead,
social neuroscience, taken here as pars pro toto for recent
conceptual and methodological advances in psychiatric
research, should establish a conceptual dialogue, critical
and constructive, with “classical” psychopathological
concepts. The latter should not be scientifically devaluated
only because they are part of a specific intellectual tradition.
Conclusion: what psychiatric diagnosis in
the 21st century is all about
An essential background of this development is to be seen
in new perspectives like computational and dimensional
psychiatry, social neuroscience, or, generally speaking, in
options for mental health issues that have arisen by “big
data” and artificial intelligence. At first sight, these recent
approaches might be regarded as predominantly methodological in nature; however, they do raise fundamental questions about psychiatric nosology and the epistemological
status of diagnosis. This, for sure, is a positive development,
since critical evaluation of any given concept is the very
core of scientific progress. Therefore, RDoC, HiTOP, and
comparable approaches are promising precisely by challenging traditional nosological and diagnostic concepts.
We have to be cautious however that their critique does not
become dogmatic but is itself critically debated. As it stands
DIALOGUES IN CLINICAL NEUROSCIENCE • Vol 22 • No. 1 • 2020 • 33
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Diagnosis as dialogue - Hoff et al
(November 2019), such critical debate certainly takes place
about the scientifically promising and practically relevant
ICD-11. Psychiatry, being as complex and entangled with
a large variety of “external” factors as it is (and probably
always will be), needs a substantial and sustained debate
that addresses the foundations, including the conceptual
history, of its nosological assumptions and diagnostic
procedures. The latter are not only scientifically relevant,
but also—explicitly or implicitly—underlie and thus guide
everyday clinical work. The question should not be if we
need a neurobiological, computational, or a psychopathological approach in psychiatry, but how to establish and
foster a critical dialogue between these (and other) different
perspectives.37
For practical diagnostic work, this means that psychiatric
diagnosis encompasses more than technical aspects of
symptomatology and patient interviewing, and that psychiatric diagnosis is never an end in itself, neither in clinical
practice nor in research about diagnostic processes. Of
course, it does include technique—eg, knowing the definitions of psychopathological terms like delusional ideas,
hallucinations, stupor etc, and knowing how to establish a
therapeutic relationship so that the patient feels comfortable telling the interviewer about personal issues that are
typically part of his or her private sphere. 38 But just as
diagnostic systems are situated in a historical and cultural
context, so is practical diagnosis situated in a cultural and—
most importantly—interpersonal context. The act of diagnosis must thus be seen as an interpersonal act. This act too
ought to be dialogical.
Understanding diagnosis as dialogue fits well with a Jaspersian understanding of what psychopathology basically is
about: Psychopathology, we suggest, offers a conceptual
bracket that allows keeping together the necessarily different
scientific perspectives of psychiatry condensing in manifold
debates about diagnosis. It also offers a framework positioning the interpersonal realm at the heart of any clinical
encounter, be it diagnostic in purpose or otherwise. Furthermore, it can serve as an epistemological barrier against unreflected or undetected simplifications of psychiatry. n
Acknowledgments/Disclosures: The authors declare that
they have no conflict of interest regarding the content of
this article.
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