Technological Educational Institution of Epirus Department of Applied Foreign Languages in Management and Commerce FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING IN TERTIARY EDUCATION III: CURRENT TRENDS Conference Proceedings Edited by Themistokles Gogas and Periklis Tagkas FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING IN TERTIARY EDUCATION III: CURRENT TRENDS Conference Proceedings Edited by Themistokles Gogas and Periklis Tagkas TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION OF EPIRUS DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED FOREIGN LANGUAGES IN MANAGEMENT AND COMMERCE FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING IN TERTIARY EDUCATION III: CURRENT TRENDS Conference Proceedings Edited by Themistokles Gogas and Periklis Tagkas Copyright © Themistokles Gogas and Periklis Tagkas (eds) Foreign Language Teaching in Tertiary Education III: Current Trends, Athens, 2011 Copyright © , , 2011 DTP - | re:create ISBN | 978-960-6619-68-7 Απα π α α α υ α απα α ω υ πα π , α α φ α υ υ Ν. 100/ 1975. Επ απα α α απα α ω α α υ υ φω υπ , Ά 51 υ Ν. 2121/ 1993. . υ π χ π α , π . . 42, , 106 78 Fax: 210 38 01 777, e-mail: dionicos@otenet.gr υ ω π α απα α ω π , υ π υ υ ωφ υ , π υ υ α φω α H E M. SALAMA – CARR N. REINHOLD . . . . . . . / SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE University of Salford Moscow State University for the Humanities Université Montpellier III University of Rome La Sapienza . . . . . . . . / . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . N. CERAMELLA . . . . . . . . . . Ω H H H . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . / ORGANIZING COMMITTEE FOREWORD ............................................................................................................... 13 Ω Ω Ω - FL CURRICULUM ISSUES 1. DE L’ÉCRITURE LPHABÉTIQUE Constantin Angélopoulos ................................................................................... 15 2. ESAP CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT: AN EXAMPLE FROM TERTIARY EDUCATION IN CYPRUS Stavroula Angelidou, Eleni Nikiforou, Marianna Kyprianou ............... 28 Ω 3. Ω : , Ω HITI ........................ 47 , – TEACHING TRANSLATION 4. TRANSLATION AS AN ADDITIONAL LEARNING STRATEGY IN THE FRAME ERASMUS INTENSIVE LANGUAGE COURSES (EILC) Eda Buyuknisan Bakiner, Emra Buyuknisan ............................................ 66 OF 5. CREATIVITY- ASED RANSLATION LEARNING: THROWING SOME LIGHT BLACK BOX Stefanos Vlachopoulos ....................................................................................... 75 INTO THE 6. DES PRÉFACES DES DICTIONNAIRES GÉNÉRAUX FRANÇAIS-GREC DU XXE SIÈCLE: UNE PREMIÈRE APPROCHE Théodore Vyzas ..................................................................................................... 87 Ω 7. Ω Ω ........................................................................................... 100 8. HOW DO TRANSLATION STUDENTS REACT UNDER TIME PRESSURE? SOME CLAIMS AND REALITIES Kyriaki Kourouni .............................................................................................. 111 10 FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING Ω N TERTIARY EDUCATION I : CURRENT TRENDS Ω Ω - MOTIVATING FL STUDENTS 9. USING MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE TO ENGAGE ADULT LEARNERS IN THE WRITING/ESL CLASSROOM Katerina Andriotis-Baitinger ......................................................................... 119 10. , Ω Ω Ω - Ω ...................................................................................... 130 11. INCORPORATING ACADEMIC WRITING INTO AN ESP/EAP CLASS. A LANGUAGE VARIETY THAT MOTIVATES Makrina Zafiri, Evmorphia Panourgia ...................................................... 143 K K - READING, WRITING AND LISTENING SKILLS 12. SCIENTIFIC READING AND WRITING Gesa Singer ......................................................................................................... 157 13. E A O I H Ω Ω , Aytac Celtek ................................................ 164 , 14. LE MODÈLE DES CLASSES D’OBJETS COMME OUTIL POUVANT FACILITER PRODUCTION “DES DÉRIVÉS SÉMANTIQUES” VERBAUX NON STANDARDS CHEZ LES APPRENANTS AVANCÉS DE FLE: UNE PREMIÈRE APPROCHE Efi Lamprou, Thierry Petitpas ...................................................................... 182 LA 15. L’APPORT DE LA DIVERSITÉ LINGUISTIQUE ET CULTURELLE DANS LA DIDACTIQUE DU FRANÇAIS LANGUE-CULTURE ÉTRANGÈRE Rineta Kiyitsioglou-Vlachou ....................................................................... 195 16. READING ACCESSIBILITY OF DEAF STUDENTS IN HEARING SCHOOLS Eleni Kassapi ...................................................................................................... 204 17. Ω Ω Ω Ω Ω Ω - Ω Tina Kanta, Véronique Rey ............................................................................ 218 18. L’ACQUISITION DE L’OPPOSITION +VOISÉ/-VOISÉ DANS LES OCCLUSIVES: APPRENANTS HELLÉNOPHONES CHYPRIOTES Monique Monville-Burston, Fryni Kakoyianni-Doa, ....................... 227 11 Conference Proceedings Ω - COMMUNICATION SKILLS 19. COMMUNICATION SKILLS FOR PROFESSIONAL LANGUAGE EXPERTS: THE INTERACTION BETWEEN COGNITIVE AND META-COGNITIVE PROCESSES Periclis Tagkas ................................................................................................. 242 20. MULTIMODALITY AND THE TEACHING OF LANGUAGES IN TERTIARY EDUCATION Maria Dimasi, Makrina Zafiri, Gregoria-Carolina Konstantinidou .... 250 21. A PRELIMINARY STUDY OF LEARNING STRATEGIES IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION: UNIVERSITY STUDENTS’ BELIEFS ABOUT STRATEGY USE Alexandros Papanis .......................................................................................... 264 Ω 22. . Ω Ω ........................................................................................... 275 23. INTERACTION ETWEEN ENGLISH AND IMC: ADVERTISING, PR, PROMOTION Nick Ceramella .................................................................................................. 298 FOREIGN LANGUAGES, INTERCULTURALISM Ω , ND POLITICS - 24. RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN RUSSIAN UNIVERSITIES: FOREIGN LANGUAGE AND TRANSLATION TEACHING THROUGH THE LENS OF THE ONGOING INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION Natalya Reinhold .............................................................................................. 316 25. THE ROLE OF ”TURKISH CULTURE” IN THE SYLLABUS OF INTENSIVE LANGUAGE COURSES IN THE FRAME OF TURKISH FOREIGN LANGUAGE Eda Buyuknisan Bakiner, Celik Yazici Ilkay ........................................... 338 26. : Ω Ω ‘ ’ ................................................................................ 345 27. THE ALBANIAN LANGUAGE AS A SECOND ONE IN THE GREEK MINORITY AREAS Edlira Mantho .................................................................................................... 364 12 FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING N TERTIARY EDUCATION I : CURRENT TRENDS 28. LANGUAGE DISCOURSES AT THE HEART OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION Blerta Xheko .................................................................................................... 375 29. LE RÔLE DE LA LANGUE DANS LA TRADUCTION PUBLICITAIRE: APPROCHES INTERCULTURELLES Elisa Hatzidaki .................................................................................................. 386 30. FOREIGN LANGUAGES IN THE PUBLIC SPHERE Themistokles Gogas .......................................................................................... 396 K Ω / - INFORMATION ND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES N FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING/LEARNING Ω Ω Ω 31. EXPLOITING THE POTENTIAL OF COMPUTER-MEDIATED COMMUNICATION PROGRAMS TO SUPPORT COMMUNICATIVE ORAL/ URAL SKILLS DEVELOPMENT Jack Burston ...................................................................................................... 408 32. W 3.0 Ω - ................................... 418 , 33. Ω . LES OUTILS DE PARTAGE DE SIGNETS À LA RECHERCHE DE RESSOURCES EN MILIEU ÉDUCATIF ET PROFESSIONNEL: DES PRATIQUES INFORMATIONNELLES LANGAGIÈRES Elefthéria Dogoriti .......................................................................................... 435 ET 34. THE USE OF MOODLE AS A SUPPORTER IN A WRITING SKILL COURSE: THE METHODOLOGY SUGGESTED WITH ITS APPLICATION Şaziye Yaman, Tülin Arslan ......................................................................... 445 35. CONNECT, COMMUNICATE, COLLABORATE, CREATE: THE 4 CS FRAMEWORK OF WEB 2.0 IN EDUCATION Marina Karvouni, Magdalene Siatouni ................................................... 458 Ω 36. Ω : , .................................................... 475 FOREWORD T HE DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED FOREIGN Languages in Management and Commerce of the Technological Educational Institution of Epirus, Greece, organised its 3rd International Conference at its campus in Igoumenitsa from 9th to 11th October, 2009. The theme of the Conference was: “Foreign Language Teaching in Tertiary Education III”. Having attracted a diverse group of delegates-scholars and researchers from Greece and abroad, we delved into the intricacies of language and culture, covering the whole span of problematic related not only to teaching in Higher Education, but also to professional aspects of language application, new challenges in translation studies, enhancement of communication skills, incorporation of new advances in CALL, as well as theoretical and ideological aspects involved in the critical role of languages in the “public sphere”. Re-establishing the significance of the role of special language pervading contemporary business transactions, we witnessed yet another fervent desire to explore all facets of communication – something which for us creates, incrementally, an additional precedent on the way to organizing our 4th international conference. Evidently, the unquenched fermentation in language studies in South-eastern Europe has transformed our first tentative steps into confident leaps bridging the gap between the small town hosting our campus, the beautiful port of Igoumenitsa, and the rest of the world. The Conference focused on the following topics: (Re)-structuring of curricula, dealing with the methodology, experience, and feedback from an initial curriculum introduction and the restructuring of both undergraduate and postgraduate curricula involving the study of languages. Teaching linguistic skills in tertiary education, which covered the teaching of linguistic skills in tertiary education fall within the framework of this subject area. The term linguistic skills should be conceived in a wider sense encompassing not only the traditional skills (listening, reading, writing and speaking) but also communication techniques such as translation, interpreting, and the application of Information and Communication Technology in class. Intercultural aspects of Foreign Language Teaching. In the third subject area papers dealt with the teaching of foreign languages, focused on the cultural aspects of interlingual communication. 14 FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING N TERTIARY EDUCATION I : CURRENT TRENDS Interdisciplinary aspects of Foreign Language Teaching, related to Marketing, the Mass Media, Public Relations. This area dealt with the relationship between foreign languages and the managerial and economic activities in the public as well as in the private sector. The proposed papers should go into the interaction between foreign languages and Marketing, the Mass Media and Public Relations. Foreign Languages and the ‘Public Sphere’. The concept of Public Sphere is that of a theater in modern societies in which political participation is enacted through the medium of speech. Papers in this area examine the formation of a critical discourse, the exploration of ideas and the crystallization of a public view over Foreign Language Teaching. The Conference contributed to the creative exchange of ideas on the theme of Foreign Language Teaching in tertiary education, offering thus a stepping stone for a more intensive analysis and research into issues pertaining to language teaching in higher education, as well as allowing for the emergence of points that need further elaboration. The present volume comprises papers written by scholars both from Greece and abroad, which have undergone a rigorous reviewing process. The editors would like to thank all the participants for their contribution; the members of the scientific committee and the reviewers of the papers as well as the members of the organizing committee. The publication was made feasible thanks to the generous contribution of the Technological Educational institution of Epirus. We intend to keep thinking global, as this nowadays, in the new globalized environment, proves to be the only way to serve the local element, too. In that sense, our extrovert spirit longs for the next gathering that will bring together dedicated friends, old and new, from various institutions, forming a culturally diverse, challenging and thought- provoking team of ardent seekers of our own “Holy Grail” – each and every one struggling to unveil a secret, unspoken or re-formulated “truth”. The Editors Themistokles Gogas and Periklis Tagkas DE L’ÉCRITURE ALPHABÉTIQUE Constantin Angélopoulos, Université Paul-Valéry de Montpellier, France J’ AIMERAIS D’ABORD SALUER ET remercier les membres du comité organisateur du colloque, ainsi que tous les collègues enseignants du département de traduction de m’avoir invité et considéré comme intervenant principal. Parmi eux, j’ai vu des amis dont certains étaient anciens collègues au département d’études néohellénique de l’université Montpellier III. Cette communication repose sur la problématique suivante: la confrontation de deux langues, du grec et du français, conduit-elle à dégager des différences ou des ressemblances culturelles? L’enseignement d’une langue étrangère repose fondamentalement sur la transmission d’une culture à travers sa confrontation avec celle des élèves. Étudier en France la langue grecque, véhicule d’une culture, signifie accepter de la confondre avec la culture française portée par la langue française. Cette communication, cependant, ne mettra pas en exergue des différences culturelles, mais plus particulièrement, des ressemblances! Des ressemblances qui reposent sur la structure de son écriture alphabétique considérée comme un phénomène qui est resté constant à travers le temps. Aucune modification n’est intervenue depuis la fin du VIe siècle av. J. C. aussi bien apparente qu’imperceptible dotant cette écriture d’une force qui lui a permis de franchir les frontières du monde grec et atteindre celles de l’Occident tout entier. Si transformation il y a eu, elle ne peut que concerner des fluctuations d’amplitudes diverses qui se sont manifestées dans un cadre plutôt conjoncturel. De ce point de vue, il est question des contraintes, des barrages, des limites que l’écriture de la langue grecque a imposé à toutes les langues occidentales et donc à la langue française en imposant un cadre aux frontières infranchissables. Une des premières leçons que j’ai suivie au département d’études néo-helléniques de l’Université Paul Valéry de Montpellier, en 1981, était sur … la langue grecque ! Il s’agissait de la part du professeur, d’un hymne au grec qui montait de partout et s’introduisait dans mon héritage scolaire le suppléant grâce à sa passion et à la justesse de ses explications. J’ai encore étudié, entre tant d’autres choses, que le thème de l’aoriste, temps du passé, exprime le ponctuel et que celui du présent la durée, ce qui implique un choix imposé en fonction du sens de l’action verbale. L’imparfait exprime la durée ou la répétition, ce qui impose l’emploi du 16 - FL Curriculum Issues thème du présent. Le futur peut avoir donc un sens ponctuel (demain, je lirai le journal) ou duratif (chaque jour, je lirai le journal), ce qui impose respectivement l’emploi du thème de l’aoriste ou du présent… Cependant, c’était la première fois que l’on m’a dévoilé l’importance non pas seulement de la langue grecque, mais aussi de l’écriture. Inoubliable est pour moi ce cours sur la différence des sons vocaliques en grec et en français. Il n’y en a que cinq en grec contre seize en français qui furent représentés par écrit associés à leur graphie en grec, au tout début des années 1980, sur le tableau de la bibliothèque Louis Roussel. Et d’un coup, tout ce qui était en moi sous forme latente émergea dans la lumière d’une prise de conscience car, enfin, je venais de concevoir le grec comme un système d’écriture d’une justesse inégalée, d’une richesse rare. Il ne s’agissait donc pas seulement de communiquer, ce qui était pour moi tellement naturel, disons culturel, mais aussi et surtout, de comprendre le fonctionnement de cet outil extraordinaire de communication qui existe depuis deux mille six cent ans et inspira, marqua à travers sa forme écrite inchangée la pensée occidentale. A) NAISSANCE Il faut préalablement résoudre un problème de caractère terminologique. Le plus souvent, le terme employé pour se référer à une écriture, est alphabet. Il s’agit d’un mot composé qui comporte les deux premières lettres de l’alphabet grec, l’alpha et le bêta. L’alpha est une voyelle et le bêta une consonne. Un alphabet est donc un ensemble des voyelles et des consonnes d’une écriture dont le nombre est consigné. Une écriture qui ne comporte pas de voyelles ne peut donc pas bénéficier d’un groupement de lettres ou signes qui la constituent sur une liste qu’on appellerait, un alphabet. Cependant, l’emploi de ce terme peut être autorisé pour se référer même à une écriture consonantique, si le mot alphabet vient des lettres phéniciennes aleph et beit, qui sont devenues plus tard, grâce aux Grecs, alpha et bêta. L’écriture phénicienne était cependant, consonantique, car on ne notait que les consonnes. L’écriture alphabétique grecque apparut vers le milieu du VIème siècle avant notre ère, mais, même si elle représenta une révolution grâce aux voyelles qu’elle comporta, elle fut l’aboutissement d’une très longue évolution. C’est la Mésopotamie, qui est considérée, faute d’autres preuves, comme le berceau de l’écriture, car, au cours de la seconde moitié du IVème millénaire avant notre ère, y fut inventée la première écriture dite cunéiforme (en forme de clou). Dans l’Antiquité, une des «trois1 1 Les deux autres furent Babylone, au cœur de la plaine alluviale et l’Assyrie, au nord, qui s’épanouirent aux IIème et au Ier millénaires. Constantin Angélopoulos 17 grandes civilisations tout à la fois très différentes et très proches tant les contacts entre elles sont étroits» (Glassner, 2003: 20). s’y épanouit: «Sumer et Akkad, dans la partie méridionale, qui fleurissent entre le IVème et le début du IIème millénaire». C’est à Sumer, entre le Tigre et l’Euphrate que les Hommes notèrent à l’aide d’un calame dont un des deux côtés était biseautée, des signes sur la surface molle d’une sphère en argile. Ces signes furent des pictogrammes dont la fonction de signe-image imitait des formes réelles des objets ou des êtres; ou des idéogrammes ou signes-idées qui reposaient sur l’association des plusieurs pictogrammes dont la réunion permettait d’exprimer une idée. Il s’agissait d’une écriture qui permit d’exprimer tout; d’un relevé comptable jusqu’à l’épopée akkadienne de Gilgamesh, vers 2600 avant notre ère, qui constitue l’œuvre littéraire mésopotamienne la mieux achevée et qui comportait environ trois mille cinq cent vers dont seule la moitié nous est parvenue à ce jour. L’écriture cunéiforme, comporte entre 300 et 900 signes qui furent notés d’abord de droite à gauche et en colonnes, et ensuite, vers 2400 avant notre ère, de gauche à droite et en lignes. Au IVème millénaire avant notre ère, vers 3200, les chercheurs font aussi remonter les hiéroglyphes, mot composé de racine grecque; hiéros, sacré et glyphein ( ) en grec ancien, graver. Indifféremment de leur fonction, les hiéroglyphes avaient une forme figurative représentant le plus souvent quelque chose de facilement reconnaissable. Cette écriture ne suit pas un sens spatial codifié. Elle peut ainsi être notée de droite à gauche, de gauche à droite ou de haut en bas, mais pas de bas en haut. Parfois même, pour des raisons d’esthétique, une partie de l’écrit doit être lu de gauche à droite et l’autre partie de droite à gauche. Selon Champollion considéré comme celui qui déchiffra ce système d’écriture, les hiéroglyphes sont une écriture à la fois figurative, symbolique et phonétique même s’il est «incontestable que ce système n’est point une écriture purement alphabétique, si l’on doit entendre en effet par alphabétique une écriture représentant rigoureusement, et chacun dans leur ordre propre, tous les sons et toutes les articulations qui forment les mots d’une langue. Nous voyons, en effet, l’écriture phonétique égyptienne, pour représenter le mot César, d’après le génitif grec KAÏSAROS, se contenter souvent d’assembler les signes des consonnes, K, S, R, S, sans s’inquiéter de la diphtongue ni des deux voyelles que l’orthographe grecque exige impérieusement […]. On peut donc assimiler l’écriture phonétique égyptienne, à celle des anciens Phéniciens, aux écritures dites hébraïque, syriaque, samaritaine, à l’arabe cufique, et à l’arabe actuel; écritures que l’on pourrait nommer semi-alphabétiques, parce qu’elles n’offrent, en quelque sorte à l’œil que le squelette seul des mots, les consonnes et les 18 - FL Curriculum Issues voyelles longues, laissant à la science du lecteur le soin de suppléer les voyelles brèves […].» (Champollion, 1822). Ainsi, les Phéniciens n’inventèrent pas le principe de l’alphabet, mais ils posèrent les bases qui furent reprises par les Grecs pour constituer, ensuite, l’écriture qui est la nôtre aujourd’hui dans le monde occidental. Les premières traces d’une écriture alphabétique remontent au IIème millénaire et elles forment deux groupes distincts, les inscriptions protosinaïtiques et protocananéennes. Bien que jusqu’au début du XXème siècle la stèle de Mesha (pierre moabite) datée de 850 avant notre ère, ait été considérée comme l’inscription alphabétique la plus ancienne, c’est grâce à la découverte d’un petit sphinx daté vers 1500 avant notre ère, par Sir William Flinders Petrie à Serabit-el-Khadim, dans le Sinaï, que nous possédons les premières traces d’une écriture fondée exclusivement sur trente caractères différents. Ce nombre précis de caractères consignés excluait ainsi un système syllabique ou pictogrammique, ce qui permit à Sir William Flinders Petrie de le considérer comme alphabétique; il le nomma protosinaïtique. En 1916, une autre découverte fut aussi de taille lorsque Sir Alan Gardiner conclut que les signes sinaïtiques furent créées en reformant des signes hiéroglyphiques et en se fondant sur leur valeur acrophonique. L’acrophonie consiste à utiliser pour noter un son consonantique le dessin simplifié d’un objet dont le nom commence par le son. Par exemple, pour noter le son b, on utilise le signe qui symbolise la maison, beit. Les inscriptions protocananéennes découvertes gravées sur des poteries et des casques dans une région très vaste du Levant, entre le Liban et la Palestine, présentent des similitudes avec les protosinaïtiques, mais elles sont antérieures; les plus anciens écrits protocanéens sont datés entre le XVIIIème et le XVIII siècle avant notre ère. Le nombre de lettres utilisé est supérieur à trente, mais le matériel dont on dispose est actuellement tellement hétérogène qu’il n’existe pas encore de certitude qu’il s’agit bien d’un alphabet. Jusqu’à cette étape de notre analyse, nous avons pris la précaution d’utiliser le terme inscription, plutôt qu’alphabet, ce qui n’est plus possible lorsque nous nous référons à l’écriture phénicienne. Cette impossibilité est due à l’emploi constant du terme alphabet par les spécialistes des écritures. … L’alphabet phénicien apparut vers l’an 1000 avant notre ère, issu des premières écritures citées précédemment. Il comporte vingt deux lettres et correspond à un système phonétique qui repose sur l’acrophonie dont il se sert pour ne noter que les sons consonantiques. Bien que l’écriture de l’idée qui suit immédiatement continue à provoquer en nous des réticences dues à son sens terminologique, l’alphabet (?) phénicien ne comporte que des consonnes ! Dans la langue Constantin Angélopoulos 19 phénicienne, cependant, cette absence n’était pas rédhibitoire, parce que les syllabes ne connaissaient pas de diphtongues. Plus précisément, les racines des mots d’origine sémitique ne se composent généralement que de trois consonnes qui, associées à une flexion vocalique, indiquent les variations sémantiques de cette même racine. Ainsi, «la racine trilitère est essentiellement constituée par des consonnes; les voyelles n’interviennent que pour indiquer des variations sémantiques à l’intérieur de cette même racine. Ceci est d’une grande conséquence pour l’évolution des langues sémitiques: les voyelles sont des phonèmes que l’on peut dire qualitativement inférieurs aux consonnes; les consonnes seront davantage protégées, les voyelles plus atteintes, aussi constatet-on dans l’histoire des langues sémitiques par exemple, entre l’arabe classique et les dialectes, que les variations vocaliques sont plus grandes que les altérations consonantiques» (Fleisch, 1947: 146). Il s’ensuit que si la racine trilitère spr est utilisée pour représenter le concept d’écrire ou de conter, c’est grâce à la vocalisation qui permet de lire, écrire, écrivain, écrit… Une dernière information est nécessaire pour clore la présentation de l’écriture phénicienne: elle est notée de droite à gauche. À cette étape de notre étude, nous pouvons faire deux constatations: premièrement, aucune écriture antérieure à l’écriture grecque, ne comporta de voyelles, «les langues sémitiques ne consignent que les consonnes et c’est une source de confusion, d’amphigourisation de la lecture (…)» (Chaunu, 1974: 30), et deuxièmement, aucune ne fut notée de manière codifiée, de gauche à droite. C’est bien évidemment autour de la cité grecque, entre 530 et 400 avant Jésus-Christ, «entre l’Ionie et Athènes, que le miracle historiographique s’intègre au miracle de la connaissance. Un groupe de plusieurs centaines de milliers d’hommes qui possèdent ce surmultiplicateur de la communication, une écriture alphabétique avec consignation des consonnes et des voyelles (…) vivant sur une terre pénétrée par la mer, multiplicateur à un certain niveau de capacité technique des moyens de transport; le miracle grec, c’est d’abord et surtout, une densité de cerveaux communiquant entre eux (…)» (Chaunu, 1974: 30-31). D’un autre point de vue, compte tenu de la définition de l’alphabet rencontrée dans les pages précédentes, c’est-à-dire une écriture représentant rigoureusement, tous les sons et toutes les articulations qui forment les mots d’une langue, l’alphabet grec ne constituait-il pas le centre d’un cercle dont la circonférence est justement cet ensemble de tous les sons et toutes les articulations qui formaient les mots de la langue grecque? En d’autres termes, l’invention de l’écriture alphabétique grecque ne seraitelle pas, elle aussi, la conséquence de l’évolution sociale de l’agora? Il ne nous appartient pas d’y répondre pour l’instant, mais nous aimerions 20 - FL Curriculum Issues simplement noter que l’invention de l’écriture alphabétique coïncida avec la présentation par les physiciens d’Ionie au VIème siècle avant notre ère d’une théoria ( ) «c’est-à-dire d’une vision, d’une conception générale qui rend le monde explicable sans aucune préoccupation d’ordre religieux, sans la moindre référence à des divinités ou à des pratiques rituelles» (Vernant, 1996: 204). Dans cette perspective, ils cherchèrent l’élément originel du monde à l’intérieur d’une volonté «de rendre raison de l’ordonnance de l’univers d’une façon purement positive et rationnelle» (Vernant, 1996: 204). Pour Anaximandre, par exemple, «si la terre ne tombe pas, c’est parce qu’étant à égale distance de tous les points de la circonférence céleste, elle n’a pas plus de raison d’aller à droite qu’à gauche, ni en haut qu’en bas. (…) Il s’agit bien d’un espace essentiellement défini par des rapports de distance et de position, un espace permettant de fonder la stabilité de la terre sur la définition géométrique du centre dans ses relations avec la circonférence» (Vernant, 1996: 206). Les Grecs furent très pragmatiques et transformèrent l’alphabet phénicien en l’adaptant à leurs propres besoins linguistiques. Ils affectèrent ainsi à certaines consonnes de l’alphabet phénicien, des valeurs à peu près similaires en grec. Par exemple, le signe du sâmekh, fut affecté à la consonne grecque de prononciation très proche, «S». La forme du sigma grec que nous connaissons est, cependant le fruit d’une longue évolution. De même, le zain sémitique, servit à noter le son grec dz sous la forme «Z» … Néanmoins, la révolution grecque est celle de l’attribution à certaines consonnes phéniciennes dont ils n’avaient pas l’usage, la valeur de voyelles. Ainsi, «la consonne alef qui notait simplement l’ouverture de la bouche est devenu une voyelle (a) sous le nom d’alpha» (Tonnet, 1993: 12). C’est ainsi que naquirent aussi l’epsilon «E», l’omicron «O» et l’upsilon «Y». Pour le son (i), par contre, ils furent obligés d’inventer le iota «I». Cette invention, cette «lumière des voyelles» écrit René Etiemble (Etiemble, 1973: 190) constitua l’apport décisif que les Grecs offrirent à l’histoire de notre civilisation. Pour quelle raison? Et bien, parce que les écritures de l’Occident influencées directement du grec, comme l’écriture cyrillique, ou indirectement par l’intermédiaire du latin, comportent encore des voyelles et des consonnes et sont encore notées de haut en bas et de gauche à droite. Comment pourrait-on ne pas accepter que cette même écriture imposa une conception de l’espace grâce à son sens de haut en bas et de gauche à droite; et une conception du temps à travers la succession éclair des consonnes et des voyelles ajoutées par les Grecs? Nous aimerions attirer l’attention du lecteur de la présente étude sur le fait qu’il ne s’agit pas là d’une impression nationale ou nationaliste, mais plutôt d’une conviction intellectuelle nourrie grâce à de connaissances et d’expériences qui Constantin Angélopoulos 21 permirent la comparaison entre, par exemple, le grec et le français; entre les écritures européennes et l’arabe, l’hébreux, le chinois … Il ne s’agit pas, culturellement, de fonder la suprématie de l’écriture grecque sur les autres, mais tout simplement, de la présenter comme différente et la mettre en rapport avec celles de l’Occident à travers le temps. Il est indéniable que cette présentation impose l’idée selon laquelle l’écriture alphabétique grecque, ainsi que toutes les écritures qu’elle influença, conservèrent jusqu’à nos jours la même forme, la même structure. B) STRUCTURE Pour Braudel, qui fonde sa conception du temps dans la préface de La Méditerranée et le monde méditerranéen à l’époque de Philippe II, le temps de l’histoire est universel, cadre de tous les phénomènes et qui s’articule autour de trois temps: l’évenementiel, les conjonctures et les structures. Le temps événementiel est le temps court qui est celui vécu par l’individu. Le temps des conjonctures, c’est le temps «social» au sens très large. C’est le temps des cycles dont la durée se mesure en dizaine, vingtaine, cinquantaine d’années. La longue durée, le temps des structures, est un temps épais, «presque immobile», «lent à couler». Il est le temps des rapports de l’Homme, au sens de l’anthropologie et non pas de l’individu, et de son milieu naturel. C’est le temps des civilisations. Cependant, bien que la présentation de la notion du temps soit inspirée de la tripartition braudélienne, nous avons introduit l’analyse de CharlesOlivier Carbonell qui, lui, la transforma en quatre temps (Carbonell, 1981: 117-118). Le temps court, celui de l’histoire événementielle, le temps vécu par chaque individu. Le temps de la conjoncture ou des conjonctures, le temps social, celui des cycles et qui se mesure en plusieurs dizaines d’années. Le temps des structures, la longue durée à l’intérieur de laquelle se situent les civilisations et qui se mesure en siècles. Le temps enfin, presque immobile, celui de l’anthropologie, de l’Homme dans ses rapports avec la terre. La structure ou les structures sont des phénomènes qui restent inchangés pendant une longue période ou qui n’évoluent que d’une manière imperceptible. De ce point de vue, la structure «est définie implicitement en tant qu’un ensemble de contraintes, de limites ou de barrières, qui interdisent aux différentes variables, dont les fluctuations constituent la conjoncture, de s’élever au-dessus d’un certain plafond» (Pomian, 1978: 125). Ainsi la conjoncture, ce sont des changements qui s’opèrent à l’intérieur de la structure. En ce qui concerne l’écriture alphabétique, elle représente un phénomène structurel étant donnée sa nature inchangée depuis la fin du VIème siècle avant notre ère. Cela permet deux observations. 22 - FL Curriculum Issues Premièrement, toute écriture alphabétique continue encore à avoir cette même spécificité spatiale et temporelle, car elle est écrite de haut en bas et de gauche à droite et parce qu’elle comporte des consonnes et des voyelles qui se succèdent rapidement pour former des mots qui, eux seulement, ont un sens. Étant donné que «les changements de structure, qui consistent en des innovations permettant de transcender les anciennes contraintes, ont un caractère de transformations qualitatives, de ruptures de continuité» (Pomian, 1978: 125), nous pourrions conclure qu’en absence de changement structurel, il est possible de soutenir l’idée de continuité de l’hellénisme lorsque nous nous référons à l’écriture grecque. Deuxièmement, étant donné que la langue grecque influença le latin et donc toutes les autres langues occidentales, nous pouvons soutenir que ces mêmes écritures occidentales comme le français, l’allemand, l’anglais, l’italien, le bulgare, le russe…, sont encore écrites … à la grecque ! Telle est notre conviction en ce qui concerne la structure de l’écriture alphabétique grecque considérée comme le cadre structurel des écritures occidentales. Bien que l’envie ne fasse pas défaut, nous ne soutenons l’idée d’après laquelle cette même écriture constitue le soubassement de la pensée occidentale qu’après avoir invoqué la controverse sur la dépendance de l’organisation du savoir de sa représentation écrite (Goody 1977, 1986, 1994, 2001). L’invention de l’écriture impose-t-elle aussi celle des démarches mentales nécessaires au développement de savoirs dominés par la raison? En d’autres termes, l’invention de l’écriture impose-t-elle aussi celle des démarches mentales nécessaires au développement de la pensée et de l’esprit scientifiques? C) MAÎTRESSE DE L’ESPRIT En fait, «l’intérêt pour les règles du raisonnement ou pour les fondements de la connaissance semble bien naître, quoique moins directement, de la formalisation des messages (et donc des assertions et des croyances) inhérente à l’écriture. Le discours philosophique représente tout à fait le genre de formalisation qu’on est en droit d’attendre de l’utilisation de l’écriture. Les sociétés traditionnelles se distinguent non pas tant par le manque de pensée réflexive que par le manque d’outils appropriés à cet exercice de rumination constructive» (Goody, 1977: 97). Cependant, si nous acceptons cette thèse, et si nous supposons que l’écriture alphabétique grecque domina le monde occidental depuis 2600 ans, nous pourrions faire des observations très audacieuses, ce qui n’est pas l’objectif de la présente étude. D’autant plus que la thèse précédente suscita des nombreuses critiques qui furent tout à fait fondées, comme, par exemple, celle formulée par David Olson: démontrer la supériorité de l’écrit sur l’oral contribuerait à considérer les sociétés de culture orale Constantin Angélopoulos 23 comme inférieures (Olson, 1999). D’autre part, des anthropologues et des historiens montrèrent que les procédés mnémotechniques utilisés dans des cultures orales s’établissent grâce à des représentations graphiques ou mentales comparables à celles des sociétés dont le développement dépend de l’écrit. Néanmoins, nous ne pouvons pas ne pas invoquer la coïncidence entre l’apparition de l’écriture alphabétique grecque et la révolution intellectuelle opérée à partir de la fin du VIème siècle avant notre ère. Celle marquée par la raison fondée sur une langue et une écriture précise, sur ce «surmultiplicateur» (Chaunu, 1974: 101) de la communication, comme l’écrit Pierre Chaunu. Bien sûr, la société athénienne du Vème siècle qui confia au dialogue la manifestation la plus vive de l’esprit, nous rappelle «que l’existence de l’écrit n’a pas empêché la longue permanence d’une culture orale dominante» (Havelock, 1981). Socrate refusa d’écrire, Platon fonda son enseignement sur le dialogue et Aristote bavarda avec ses élèves en se promenant ! Mais, aujourd’hui, dans notre société où l’écrit et l’oral coexistent, où l’écrit permet de lutter contre l’oubli, où l’ordinateur plus que jamais impose l’écrit comme moyen fondamental de la communication, nous ne pouvons que regretter l’absence des écrits de Socrate; et nous bénissons Platon d’avoir bien accepté de nous en écrire quelques mots; et nous déplorons l’incendie de la bibliothèque d’Alexandrie, cette fameuse Bibliothèque incendiée par les troupes de César en 47 avant notre ère, qui comportait 700 000 rouleaux de papyrus et proposait aux savants du monde grec et à la postérité cet outil essentiel qui nous aurait permis de mieux comprendre: un catalogue ÉCRIT. Mais peu importe la comparaison entre cultures de l’écrit et de l’oral; la nôtre en est une qui fondamentalement utilise l’écrit comme mode de communication essentiel, comme moyen de rapprochement unique à travers des lettres écrites à la main, ou créées en pianotant sur le clavier d’un ordinateur ou celui d’un téléphone mobile; comme moyen fondamental pour ne rien oublier sur le passé. Bien sûr, il n’existe pas de communauté amnésique. Les Zarathoustriens de l’Iran transmettent la connaissance de leur passé de génération en génération oralement, de poitrine à poitrine. Mais, «sans l’écriture, pourtant, la mémoire demeure pauvre, confuse, fragile. Pauvre car elle dépend des seules capacités du cerveau et, tel un dépôt sacré, elle n’est confiée qu’à quelques-uns: griots d’Afrique occidentale, biru du Rwanda, haérè-po de Polynésie… Pauvre surtout parce qu’il y a peu à conserver dans les sociétés figées, souvent isolées, où stagnent les techniques et se perpétuent les genres de vie. Temps cyclique de l’éternel retour des saisons et temps immuable d’un monde en équilibre décrètent le vide de l’histoire. L’accident luimême prend difficilement place dans une durée amorphe qui coule, peutêtre, mais comme un fleuve sans courants, sans remous, sans berges. 24 - FL Curriculum Issues Confuse car la mémoire véhicule ce qui est hors du temps. Elle ne dit pas l’évolution du groupe, mais ses origines. Elle n’enseigne pas le vécu, mais la fable, elle ne révèle pas une direction, mais un message ontologique: d’où vient l’homme? Qu’est-ce que mourir? Quel lien peuton tisser avec Dieu? Pour l’essentiel, la mémoire est mobilisée pour la transmission impeccable des mythes fondateurs. (…). Fragile, la mémoire historique l’est sans doute plus encore que la mythique. Les vicissitudes politiques commandent parfois de prudentes amnésies —première forme du révisionnisme historique !— ou d’acrobatiques fusions de listes. La défaillance peut être aussi involontaire. Certes des précautions sont prises pour conserver la pureté des traditions; les récitations sont publiques et solennelles, les dépositaires peuvent former une sorte de collège (…). Malgré cela le fil peut casser, la litanie psalmodiée s’interrompre» (Carbonell, 1981: 57). L’importance de l’écrit, au moins pour une société comme la société occidentale, est fondamentale en ce qui concerne la communication et la conservation de la mémoire. Bien que nous soyons très respectueux envers les communautés où domine l’oralité, nous ne pouvons pas nous retenir devant la puissance de l’écrit, surtout lorsque nous le concevons comme un outil commun, disons isonomique, démocratique de communication et de lutte contre l’oubli. Isonomique et démocratique surtout après la création de la cité à la fin du VIème siècle avant notre ère et l’émergence du logos-liberté, du logos-raison. En effet, «à cette importance que prend alors la parole, devenue désormais l’instrument par excellence de la vie politique, correspond aussi un changement dans la signification sociale de l’écriture» (Vernant, 1996: 208). Avant le VIème siècle, dans les royaumes du Proche-Orient où l’écriture apparut, elle était exclusivement utilisée par les scribes qui constituaient des archives écrites pour le roi en comptabilisant la vie économique et sociale de leur communauté. Bien que cette forme d’écriture ait existé dans le monde mycénien entre 1450 et 1200 avant J.-C., elle disparut avec l’effondrement de la civilisation mycénienne. Mais «au moment de la naissance de la cité, elle est remplacée par une écriture qui a une fonction exactement inverse. Au lieu d’être le privilège d’une caste (…), l’écriture devient chose commune à tous les citoyens, un instrument de publicité (Vernant, 1996: 208). Elle permet de verser dans le domaine public tout ce qui, dépassant la sphère privée, intéresse la communauté. Les lois doivent être écrites; par là elles deviennent véritablement la chose de tous». En écrivant ces lignes, naissent en moi deux sentiments non pas contradictoires, mais appartenant à deux domaines distincts: réticence et satisfaction. Une réticence due à mon origine grecque et à la responsabilité que j’ai en affirmant ou plutôt en démontrant la puissance originelle Constantin Angélopoulos 25 de l’écriture alphabétique2 considérée non seulement comme outil exceptionnel de communication, non seulement comme moteur puissant de l’isonomisation et démocratisation des institutions politiques, mais aussi comme une étape décisive, nourricière, maîtresse de la civilisation occidentale. En écrivant ces lignes, je ressens aussi non pas de la fierté, c’est un sentiment que j’identifie très mal, mais de la satisfaction associée à une joie qui n’a rien de national, mais qui est plutôt puisée dans le cadre de la recherche universitaire, d’avoir probablement compris grâce au jeu de la réflexion, l’origine de ma pensée. En effet, «les conséquences de cette transformation du statut social de l’écriture seront fondamentales pour l’histoire intellectuelle. Si l’écriture permet de rendre public, de placer sous les yeux de tous, ce qui dans les civilisations orientales restait toujours plus ou moins secret, il en résulte que les règles du jeu politique, c’est-àdire le libre débat, la discussion publique, l’argumentation contradictoire, vont devenir aussi des règles du jeu intellectuel. Comme les affaires politiques, les connaissances, les découvertes, les théories sur la nature de chaque philosophe vont être mises en commun; elles vont devenir choses communes: . Nous avons une lettre, apocryphe bien entendu, mais qui n’en est pas moins révélatrice d’une certaine psychologie collective: c’est la lettre que Diogène Laërce3 attribue à Thalès écrivant à Phérécyde, un contemporaine d’Anaximandre auteur, selon certains, du premier ouvrage publié en prose. Thalès se félicite de la sage décision de Phérécyde de n’avoir pas gardé pour lui son savoir mais de l’avoir versé dans le domaine public, dans la communauté. Ce qui implique: en avoir fait l’objet d’une discussion publique. Autrement dit, que fait un philosophe comme Phérécyde quand il écrit un livre? Il transforme un savoir privé en objet de débat analogue à celui qui s’instaure dans les questions politiques. De fait Anaximandre va discuter les idées de Thalès, Anaximène celle d’Anaximandre et c’est à travers ces débats et ces polémiques que va se constituer le domaine propre de l’histoire de la philosophie» (Vernant, 1996: 209). Ainsi, à la lumière de la présentation précédente, nous pouvons soutenir au moins que l’importance structurelle de l’écriture alphabétique grecque est pour la société occidentale évidente et cela pour des raisons généralistes aussi bien objectives que subjectives. Objectives d’abord, à la suite de l’étude qui vient d’être présentée. L’introduction des voyelles fut grecque sans que cela signifie que les Grecs inventèrent l’écriture. Ils furent eux aussi, des héritiers, mais des héritiers transformateurs, inventeurs qui laissèrent à l’Occident un outil de communication dont les limites structurelles ne sont pas encore dépassées. 2 3 Ajouter grecque est devenu un pléonasme. Diogène Laërce, I, 1, 15. 26 - FL Curriculum Issues Subjectives, ensuite, car étant d’origine grecque, étant un produit de la société nationale hellène, nous ne nous trouvons pas devant le dilemme, conscient ou inconscient, d’être ou de faire Grec. Nous le sommes ! Point final. La langue grecque, l’écriture alphabétique font partie de nous-mêmes. C’est comme la respiration et l’expiration, phénomènes naturels qui permettent de vivre. Cependant, l’intellectuel, le chercheur qui à travers l’analyse des données s’étudie inévitablement, erre dans un domaine souvent imprécis et confus, attiré par un besoin profond de se justifier. Que les lecteurs de la présente étude veuillent m’en excuser si la lecture de quelques lignes leur paraît présomptueuse et subjective. Mais, nous avons essayé, à la lumière d’un savoir nourri par une éducation universitaire inoubliable, non pas seulement d’affirmer mais surtout de réfléchir; non pas d’imposer mais de proposer indifféremment de ce que nous avons dans le cœur. Nous sommes convaincu que l’hellénisme vit encore et qu’il n’a jamais cessé d’exister, défendu par une écriture maîtresse dont la structure traversa le temps. BIBLIOGRAPHIE Carbonell, Ch.-O. (1981) L’Historiographie, Que sais-je?, Paris: P.U.F. 127 pages. Carbonell, Ch.-O. (1995) «Racines et héritages méditerranéens de la civilisation européenne», in E. Karpodini-Dimitriadi (éd.) Ethnography of Europe traditional cultures. Their role and perspectives in a multicultural word, European Seminar-Proceedings, Athens: Centre Of Vocational Training, Institute Of Cultural Studies Of Europe And The Mediterranean, pp. 62-79. Champollion, J.-F. Lettre à M. Dacier, Paris: Didot, 27 septembre 1822. Chaunu, P. (1974) Histoire, science sociale, La Durée, l’Espace et l’Homme à l’Époque Moderne, 1ère édition, Paris: CDU et SEDES. Etiemble, R. (1973) L’écriture, Paris: Gallimard/ Idées. Fleisch, H. (1947) Introduction à l’étude des langues sémitiques. Éléments de bibliographie, Paris: Maisonneuve. Glassner, J.-J. (2003) La tour de Babylone. Que reste-t-il de la Mésopotamie?, Paris: Éditions du Seuil. Goody, J. (1977) La raison graphique: la domestication de la pensée sauvage, coll. Le sens commun, Paris: Éditions de Minuit. Goody, J. (1986) La logique de l’écriture: aux origines des sociétés humaines, Paris: Armand Colin. Goody, J. (1994) Entre l’oralité et l’écriture, Paris: PUF. Goody, J. Qu’est-ce que l’esprit?, Le monde, Conférence du jeudi 4 octobre 2001. Havelock, E.A. (1981) Aux origines de la civilisation écrite en Occident, Paris: Maspéro. Constantin Angélopoulos 27 Olson, R.D. (1999) L’univers de l’écrit. Comment la culture écrite donne forme à la pensée, Paris: Éditions Retz. Pomian, K. (1978) «L’histoire des structures» in La nouvelle Histoire, (sous la direction de Jacques Le Goff), Paris: Éditions Complexe, pp. 109136. Tonnet, H. (1993) Histoire du grec moderne, Langues/INALCO, Paris: L’Asiathèque. Vernant, J.-P. (1996) Mythes et pensée chez les Grecs: études de psychologie historique, Paris: la Découverte. ES P CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT: AN EXAMPLE FROM TERTIARY EDUCATION IN CYPRUS Stavroulla Angelidou*, Eleni Nikiforou**, Marianna Kyprianou*** *University of Technology, Cyprus **,***University of Cyprus 1. INTRODUCTION T HE UNIVERSITY OF CYPRUS, IN an effort to satisfy the academic and professional needs of the students, met the challenge of creating new English for Specific Academic Purposes (ESAP) courses. The departments of Architecture, Biological Sciences and Law of the University of Cyprus expressed the need for new ESAP courses which would help their students develop and improve their language skills. The Language Centre undertook the responsibility of a curriculum development project for the new ESAP courses, which would satisfy the needs expressed by the aforementioned departments. This paper describes the curriculum development project of the three ESAP courses: English for Architecture, English for Biology and English for Law for the University of Cyprus. It discusses the development phases of the project and particularly needs analysis and syllabus design in relation to the following language learning approaches: communicative approach, task-based learning, and technology enhanced learning. It also emphasizes the necessity for ESAP courses and gives an overview of ESAP approaches and the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR, Council of Europe 2001). This paper concludes with the implications resulting from the implementation and evaluation of the courses, which are still in progress, in the development of ESAP courses in tertiary education. 1.1 Description of the project The project, which began in 2008, aimed at developing, implementing and evaluating the courses: English for Architecture, English for Biology, and English for Law. The project consisted of four phases: 1. Needs analysis 2. Syllabus design 3. Implementation 4. Evaluation. During the needs analysis phase, questionnaires were designed and distributed to the students and academic staff of each department as well as to the English language instructors of the UCY Language Center. Stavroula Angelidou, Marianna Kyprianou, Eleni Nikiforou 29 In addition to the questionnaires, interviews were conducted with the faculty of each department. The English language instructors provided feedback on the language competence level of the students in the specific departments. Data analysis indicated the various needs expressed by each department and student expectations from their language courses. The development phase involved setting the aims and objectives for the three courses, selecting and developing materials and finally designing the syllabus. The implementation phase was the teaching of the courses. Finally, the evaluation phase included synchronous and asynchronous evaluation of the three courses and is still in progress. 1.2 Necessity for the ESAP courses High competence in languages is a high necessity for professionals in the European Union. The University of Cyprus, realizing the urgent need for language courses that would assist language learners not only in their academic lives but also in their professional lives, moved to the development of new specialized language courses. 2. RATIONALE AND THEORETICAL BACKGROUND The rationale and theoretical background of the project were based on the English for Specific Academic Purposes Approach and the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages. 2.1 English for Specific Academic Purposes (ESAP) English for Specific Purposes (ESP) refers to the teaching and learning of English for specialised purposes. According to Dudley-Evans (1998:6), it has three absolute characteristics: — ESP is defined to meet specific needs of the learner — ESP makes use of underlying methodology and activities of the disciplines that it serves — ESP is centered on the language appropriate to these activities in terms of grammar, lexis, register, study skills, discourse and genre. Over the years, many definitions and categorizations of ESP have emerged. For the purposes of the current paper we will consider ESP as further subdivided to ESAP (English for Specific Academic Purposes) and EOP (English for Occupational Purposes). The diagram below is adapted from Dudley-Evans & St. John (1998) and Johns & Price-Machado (2001) and indicates where the three new courses designed fall under: 30 - FL Curriculum Issues English for Specific Purposes (ESP) English for Specific Academic Purposes (ESAP) English for Law students English for Biology students English for Occupational Purposes (EOP) English for Architecture students English for Professional Purposes Vocational ESL 2.2 Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) The Common European Framework of Reference for languages utilizes descriptors to describe what learners can do at each level. Therefore, in designing the three ESAP courses, the competence descriptors set by the CEFR were considered, as they “need to be operationalized during the syllabus design stage” (Bärenfänger & Tschirner, 2001:89). The framework emphasizes that language learners should be able to “use a language for communication” and it also defines “what knowledge and skills they have to develop so as to be able to act effectively” (Council of Europe, 2001:1). The guidelines set forth by the Council of Europe, emphasize that educators need to provide European learners with the skills needed to handle “communicative tasks in the personal, public, occupational and/or educational domains” (Council of Europe, 2001:54). In order for the language users to carry out communicative tasks, users of the framework have to engage in communicative language activities. Furthermore, the CEFR stresses the importance of exposure to authentic use of language in learning a language in the following ways: “face to face with native speakers; overhearing a conversation; listening to radio, recordings etc; watching and listening to TV, video, etc; reading unmodified, ungraded, authentic written texts (newspapers, magazines, stories, novels, public signs and notices, etc); using computer programms, CD ROM, etc; participating in computer conferences on-or-off-line; participating in courses in other curriculum subjects which employ L2 as a medium of instruction face to face with native speakers” (Council of Europe, 2001:143). These guidelines were not only considered, but also implemented in the development of the curricula of the ESAP courses. Stavroula Angelidou, Marianna Kyprianou, Eleni Nikiforou 31 3. NEEDS ANALYSIS Needs analysis is one of the most important aspects of curriculum development (Brown 1995, Alderson & Beretta 1992, Nunan 2001). Information on what the departments wanted, what the students felt about their language skills and needs, and also what language specialists-English language instructors thought about the level of the students from the specific departments, was collected. Different procedures were employed to collect the data to proceed with the needs analysis. Data were gathered mainly through distributing questionnaires and conducting interviews. The questionnaires were distributed to the following groups: 1. Students 2. Language instructors and 3. Members of the concerned faculties. The interviews were conducted between the designers of the curricula and content specialists from the departments of Architecture, Biology and Law. 3.1 Student Questionnaires The student questionnaires were divided in three parts. The first part collected information concerning students’ personal profile: Age, nationality, native language, sex and department. The second part collected information concerning the students’ background in learning English (how many years, qualifications obtained, level achieved) and computer skills. The third part asked students to comment on their English language abilities, grading each skill separately from a scale of 1 to 3. The skills included were the following: writing, reading, speaking, listening, grammar, pronunciation, general vocabulary and technical vocabulary relating to students’ studies. Students were also asked to tick which of the above skills they would like to further practice and improve (see Image 1). Image 1: Extract from the students’ questionnaire 32 - FL Curriculum Issues The final part of the questionnaire included questions on English language needs during students’ studies/ future profession/ everyday life with a set of options for students to tick as well as empty spaces for other additional remarks not included in the options (see Image 2). Image 2: Extract from the students’ questionnaire 3.2 Department Questionnaires The rationale behind the design and distribution of the department questionnaire was based on the need expressed, as mentioned before, by the departments for the development of new English language courses able to meet the current and upcoming needs of University students. Our aim was to identify and analyze this need in terms of skills and abilities necessary both academically and professionally. Some of the requirements underlined by this need led us to reconsider things like academic tasks and how these would fit the learning being sought by each department, opportunities to transfer skills to new and meaningful contexts (preferably related to students’ future occupation) as well as getting students emotionally and actively involved in their learning to name just a few. More specifically the department questionnaires involved questions on how important the English language is for attending department courses at the university and which particular skills are the most useful. Furthermore, members of the departments were asked to comment on the possible future needs of students relating to employment. Instructors were also asked to value their students’ abilities in English in specific areas and to prioritize these skills according to their usefulness. The next part of the questionnaire focused on the academic and professional skills the departments felt that their students should develop in ESAP courses, for example writing bibliographies, paraphrasing, attending conferences and so on (see Image 3). Stavroula Angelidou, Marianna Kyprianou, Eleni Nikiforou 33 Image 3: Extract from Department questionnaire The departments were also asked to indicate which activities would be appropriate for their students in terms of the kind of reading, writing, listening and speaking tasks they would like their students to be able to tackle. Another issue investigated was the use of pedagogical techniques in courses, such as lectures and reading, class discussions, debates etc. as well as the ability to construct coherent paragraph level utterances, sustain an argument and communicate for particular functional purposes both in spoken discourse and written texts. The type of reading texts appropriate for the students of each specific department was also examined. Finally, the departments were asked to specify the IT skills they considered students should be developing such as e-mailing, searching the internet, conducting online-library research, PowerPoint presentations and so on (see Image 4). 34 - FL Curriculum Issues Image 4: Extract from Department questionnaire 3.3 Instructors’ Questionnaires The third questionnaire addressed language specialists which have taught students from these faculties in the past. The questionnaire, which was available online, included seven questions about student performance in general English courses. English language instructors were asked to evaluate how the students performed in the course. Special emphasis was given on the student motivation in the course and their participation in activities such as discussions, presentations, group work, film activities, etc. (see Image 5). Stavroula Angelidou, Marianna Kyprianou, Eleni Nikiforou 35 Image 5: Extract from Language Instructors’ Questionnaire Furthermore, the English language instructors gave an insight on the students’ abilities, skills and knowledge in the English language in areas such as speaking, reading, writing, listening, note-taking, summarizing, etc. (see Image 6). Image 6: Extract from Language Instructors’ Questionnaire 36 - FL Curriculum Issues 3.4 Interviews Content specialists with high level of L2 competence and language specialists collaborated closely through frequent meetings, emails, and phone conversations to accurately define the needs of the students and to offer advice and suggestions in order to achieve the best possible result in the three courses. 4. DATA ANALYSIS A qualitative analysis was conducted to indicate the needs of the students and the departments. Analysis of the data gathered from the student questionnaires revealed that students would feel more motivated in ESAP courses. The responses from the student questionnaires and also the language specialists indicated that students were more willing to take English courses that would be designed specifically for their needs and relating to their studies. The three departments (Architecture, Biology, Law) required the development of all four skills (focusing on different areas) as well as the need to improve their communication abilities for academic and professional purposes. For example the department of Architecture focused on the improvement of reading and speaking skills; the department of Biological sciences emphasized the need to improve reading and scientific writing skills; the department of Law stressed the need to develop reading and public speaking skills. Language specialists pointed out that students were more motivated and interested when participating in collaborative task-based activities relating to their field of studies. The results of the data collected by the students, the departments, and the language specialists were considered and translated into discipline vocabulary and content knowledge, general and academic language skills, study skills, everyday talk and information technology skills. After evaluating the results and taking into consideration the different parameters, the three courses were designed. 5. DESIGNING THE COURSES: LIMITATIONS AND CHALLENGES The following challenges had to be overcome while designing the three courses: 1. The students’ level does not always allow for direct exposure to material suggested by the departments. For example, the departments of Architecture and Biology requested that articles Stavroula Angelidou, Marianna Kyprianou, Eleni Nikiforou 2. 3. 4. 37 were implemented in the courses. This was a challenge since the actual level of the students does not allow this. Therefore, instead of using whole articles in the courses, we used extracts and parts of articles to help the students improve their skills and also to satisfy the departments. Students do not consider language courses as primary, and do not devote the necessary time to prepare for them. Students consider English as secondary course as they do not link directly to their field of study and thus, do not pay attention to the course or spend the required time preparing for the course. Consequently, in designing the courses we also aimed at increasing student motivation. It was not an easy task to get the faculty to provide the needed information which would help the design of the courses. Faculty members or representatives were often unavailable mostly due to their busy schedule and could not provide requested material or suggestions promptly. Not all classrooms at the University of Cyprus are appropriately equipped with educational technology, which needed to be considered by the designers of the courses. 6. COURSE DEVELOPMENT: APPROACHES AND EXAMPLES Course development was based on the results of the data gathered and the following approaches to language learning: The Communicative Approach, Task-based learning and Educational Technology. Activities were designed around discipline related topics from authentic sources such as books, magazines, the internet and so on. Furthermore, opportunities for autonomous learning and language practice outside the classroom were provided. 6.1 Communicative Approach In the 1980s the Communicative Approach or Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) was introduced in the area of language teaching, viewing language’s main purpose to be communication. “The starting point for CLT is the use of language in communication – who uses it, how, when, etc. – and the way that these variables are reflected in the linguistic choices people make when they talk, write etc.” (Howatt, 2006:645). Popular activities that were introduced with this approach were the use of authentic language in the classroom as well as exchanges between pupils engaging in real-life situations. Real-life situations are an essential part of CLT, as they are necessary for practicing and achieving communication. The ultimate goal is to teach students how to act and react in real world situations. 38 - FL Curriculum Issues Over the last three decades the communicative approach to language teaching and learning took many forms, but there is “no single authority, definitive text, or universally accepted model of CLT”, unlike the other approaches and methods in L2 learning (Butler-Pascoe & Wiburg, 2003:28). We can only talk about accepted practices and principles of CLT, like Nunan’s five features of CLT (1991): 1. An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target language 2. The introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation 3. The provision of opportunities for learners to focus, not only on language but also on the learning process itself 4. An enhancement of the learner’s own personal experiences as important contributing elements to classroom learning 5. An attempt to link classroom language learning with language activities outside the classroom These five features indicate the strong connection between CLT and needs analysis concerning the learners’ actual needs. The implications for the current ESP project are obvious, since an analysis of the needs of the learners was carried out thoroughly, aiming at incorporating communicative authentic real-life tasks into the syllabi that would relate to the students’ academic and later professional lives. In the example from the English for Law syllabus students are asked to review an authentic case study on company law in preparation for a meeting and use the appropriate language to negotiate an argument (see Image 7). Image 7: Extract from the Law syllabus Stavroula Angelidou, Marianna Kyprianou, Eleni Nikiforou 39 In this example the focus is on linking classroom language learning with language activities outside the classroom by assigning students with the task of giving a presentation on a topic of professional interest such as the practice of law in Cyprus (see Image 8). Image 8: Extract from English for Law syllabus 6.2 Task-based learning An integral part of the CLT approach is the use of tasks, or the so called task-based approach. This approach stresses the function of tasks, or activities. “Activities are centered upon practical tasks for students to perform that can be weighted to emphasize oral communication” (Murphy, 1991:53). Butler-Pascoe & Wibug refer to communicative taskbased teaching, where students have the opportunity to “use language within a purposeful context” (2003:44) and “share information and work collaboratively to complete a project or solve a problem” (ibid:16). According to task-based learning theories “tasks involve communicative language use in which the user’s attention is focused on meaning rather than grammatical form” (Nunan, 2006). The example task in the English for Architecture syllabus is designed around a videotaped authentic lecture for which students have to listen, take notes and finally prepare and ask their own questions. The task involves students in comprehending, manipulating and reproducing the material in order to express and communicate their own ideas. This activity was included in the syllabus based on the fact that students in the department of Architecture often have to attend lectures by visiting lecturers/ experts from around the world and then complete assignments designed around these lectures by their teachers (see Image 9). 40 - FL Curriculum Issues Image 9: Extract from English for Architecture syllabus Another example of task based learning is the combination of a real world task and a pedagogical task as illustrated in the English for Architecture syllabus. The students present and describe 3D model buildings which they have already created as part of a project in another module from their discipline. The aim of this exercise is for students to transfer the knowledge and practice they have already acquired through preparing their model buildings, into English. An activity that not only relates classroom learning to language use outside the classroom but also gives an indication of the kind of professional practice students will be involved in later on in their professional lives (see Image10). Image 10: Extract from English for Architecture Stavroula Angelidou, Marianna Kyprianou, Eleni Nikiforou 41 6.3 Educational Technology Research supports that computers can assist language learning when implemented appropriately (Beatty, 2003:136). Collaboration, autonomous learning, integration of the four skills –listening, speaking, reading and writing-, authentic material, feedback as well as interaction with the computer and among the learners are some of the benefits attributed to the computer and supported through literature (Beatty & Nunan 2004, Slaouti 2000, Levy 1990). We should, however, keep in mind that research also shows that computers will assist language learning provided that they are applied appropriately. According to Allen (1998:1717) the challenge for each teacher lies in “finding ways to apply new technologies to a learning process with proven educational benefit”. Taking the above into consideration, educational technology was carefully integrated in the developed curricula as the aim was to facilitate learning through the use of specific tools. The example from the English for Biology syllabus demonstrates the implementation of wikis to facilitate and improve technical vocabulary learning. Learners are encouraged to create their own wiki glossary to which they contribute at different stages during the course. For example, they add words after reading an article or after using a specialized biology dictionary. At the end of the course students will have created their own wiki which they will be able to access and edit during their academic and professional lives (see Image 11). Image 11: Extract from English for Biology syllabus 42 - FL Curriculum Issues Another example from the English for Biology syllabus illustrates that students use emails for an authentic task. They have to ask for their instructor’s approval for the topic of their poster presentation. Moreover, they improve and develop their vocabulary by completing a WebQuest using various websites and dictionaries (see Image 12). Image 12: Extract from English for Biology syllabus 7. IMPLEMENTATION The implementation phase of the project was concerned with the implementation of the designed course outlines for the three courses. The Law and Architecture courses designed were implemented for the first time in the Spring semester 2009. Each course consisted of two sections with a maximum of 20 students in each one. The participants were all undergraduate students studying in their second semester of studies. The Biology course was implemented for the first time during the Fall semester 2009, and the participants were all undergraduate students of Biology studying in their third semester of studies. All the courses lasted for 15 weeks, including one week for preparation and exams. 8. EVALUATION Even though still in progress, the implementation and evaluation of the courses so far show that these are well received by both the students and their departments. Students’ degrees of motivation and participation are very high, which of course improves their performance and greatly satisfies their departments. Up to this point course development has been concerned with designing and implementing three focused, justifiable, interesting, feasible and coherent courses. However, courses should also be effective and in order to verify their effectiveness we need information. Information gathering and subsequent decision-making comprise an evaluation aimed at course Stavroula Angelidou, Marianna Kyprianou, Eleni Nikiforou 43 improvement. We do believe that the information should be as complete as possible and this in our opinion depends on two main factors. The first one is involving students in the evaluation process of their course and the second is making the actual process of evaluation synchronous or ongoing (as well as asynchronous), which is one facet of evaluation that is new and from what we have realized very important, since it allows for immediate improvement of the syllabus. This could be achieved by communicating goals and objectives to learners so as to let them know exactly what they are expected to learn and then make sure to record their reactions to the course, not only at the end but while the course is in progress. Furthermore, we can imagine that as the learners’ competence grows, their needs will expand and change; we need to maintain an open dialogue with the learners, to listen to them constantly in order to adjust our teaching to their changing needs and priorities. Although the evaluation phase of this project is still in progress, very encouraging data was collected through synchronous and asynchronous evaluation of the three courses taught. Asynchronous evaluation involved the distribution of questionnaires to the students at the end of the course as well as their grade results. The questionnaires distributed to the students at the end of the course aimed at retrieving their evaluations of the content, structure and assessment of the course and whether they would make any suggestions for improvement in any of these areas. Students were also asked to evaluate the teaching methods, pedagogical techniques and material used by their teacher as to whether these were appropriate for the requirements of their departments as well as consistent with their personal needs and interests. Synchronous evaluation was carried out by the instructors firstly through informal interviews with the students (asking students to comment on various aspects of the course), and the distribution of short questionnaires periodically during the semester. Secondly, instructors kept a journal of how each unit or module on the curriculum went (what was a success and what didn’t go as planned) and made note of the relevant adjustments to the course while in progress. By carefully and systematically making changes based on the data received from evaluation of the courses each time they are taught, we believe the courses will become more and more refined. 9. CONCLUSION All three courses were very well received, both from the students as well as from their departments. The factor contributing mostly to students’ 44 - FL Curriculum Issues interest, in comparison to other general academic English courses, is that the ESAP courses are closely related to the students’ studies. Course content is directly relevant to students’ studies; topics are more familiar and often studied in other courses in their mother language, which helps students pay more attention to details. The communicative task-based nature of the courses, which was further enhanced with the integration of technology, motivates the students and encourages them to work collaboratively in order to complete classroom activities. A key factor to the success of the ESAP project is the procedure of needs analysis. The main aim of the project was to closely investigate student and department needs through questionnaires, interviews, meetings and close collaboration with specialists from each department. Task-based teaching-learning theories, communicative approaches, and integration of educational technology also contributed to effective ESAP curriculum development and implementation. The outcome was three very well constructed courses that related closely to student studies and were designed to meet their specific content and language needs. To conclude, the ultimate aim of the developed ESAP courses was to engage students in the learning process and help them become independent learners throughout their lives. The purpose of the courses was to provide university students with the appropriate academic abilities needed for their studies as well as with the professional abilities they will need in the future. This was achieved through learner-centered collaborative activities aiming to involve students to do something and make them understand why and how to do it. Learning is more effective because students are more engaged, motivated and work collaboratively. Key to this process was trying to make it all work by relating the ESAP courses to what the students are already doing, therefore keeping both students and their departments on side. By completing the evaluation of the courses we aim at supporting the need for ESAP instead of general academic courses in tertiary education. REFERENCES Alderson, J.C. & Beretta, A. (1992) Evaluating Second Language Education, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Allen, R. (1998) ‘The Web: interactive and multimedia education’, Computer Networks and ISDN Systems Vol. 30, pp. 1717-1727. Bärenfänger, O. & Tschirner, E. 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(2000) ‘Developing an English for Specific Purposes Course Using a Learner Centered Approach: A Russian Experience’, ITESL Journal, Vol.VI, No.3. Retrieved from http://iteslj.org/Techniques/ Sysoyev-ESP.html (accessed: 4.3.2009). I T Ω H : Ω Ω *, * HITIT **, ** , *** , *** , Ω 1. 1.1 - - , ( ) , . . : « » , - ( ) » « E ( ) , . - 2 (C2) . « » , ), « ( ( » » ) ( « ) , , . - 48 - FL Curriculum Issues . , , « , » ( - ). . , . - . - , , . - , . 1.2 . . (« », « , » « - ») «Yeni Hitit Yabancılar için Türkçe 1, 2» (« 1, 2» (Kurt, C., Aygün, E. N., Leblebici, E., Altınkaynak, C. Ö., 2008) «Hitit Yabancılar için Türkçe 3» (« 3») (Çiçek, A., Arslan, A., Kartal, A., Bedia, Özdemir, C., Kutluata, C., Berna, E., Açıksöz, E., Dr. Barın, E., Altaş, H., Benhür, H. M., Baltacıoğlu, N., Doğan, S., 2002). Ά : A1-A2, B1 , C1 49 , ( : Temel 1- Temel 2,Orta 1 Yüksek 1) ( Köse D., 2004). , , «Türkçe Öğreniyorum1» ( , . ., 2003). «Türkçe Öğreniyorum2» ( , . ., 2006). - . « « : », , » « ». - « » « » , / «Dilmer» «Yabancı Dilim Türkçe 1-6» (« 1-6») (Sözer, Z., Yılmaz, H., 2001), - . . , - :« » ( - . , 2004). - .Ό , , . « » - . . 50 - FL Curriculum Issues . . 2. «HITIT» (« ») , Ά (« , , Tömer ( ). «HİTİT» ») . . - , . , . 2008 : «Yeni HİTİT Yabancılar için Türkçe Ders Kitabı1» «Yeni HİTİT Yabancılar için Türkçe Ders Kitabı -2». , , , . : «HİTİT Yabancılar için Türkçe Ders Kitabı-3» ( ). , , , . 2.1 Yeni Hitit 1 Yabancılar için Türkçe - Ders Kitabı ( 1 – ) T (199 ) . : , 51 , 1 :« — — ». : , . 2 :« — — ». : . 3 :« — — ». : , , , . 4 :« — — ». : . 5 :« — — !». : , . 6 :« — — ». : , , . 7 :« — — ». : . 8 :« — — …». : . 9 :« — — ». : , - . 10 :« — — ». : , , , . 11 :« — — ». : , , 12 — — , . :« : ». , , . , , 52 - FL Curriculum Issues 2.1.1 , , : ( ) , ( ) ( ) - . , , , . . . , , , , , , , . . . : % 5% 35% / 60% 100% . , - (Kress, 2000). 60% 40% . 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( . 194), 90% (30%) .Ό . ( . 37, 96, 114, 116). 60% - 40% . Ό - ( / , , , 75% , , , . ). . ( , , , , , , .) . , - . , , , . . . , 20% - - « , , , » . - 58 - FL Curriculum Issues , , ( Ά , . 2.2.2 , , , , , - .). , , : % . 26% . 35% . 10% . 29% 100% , , . Ό , - . - . , , ( , , , , .) - . , , 59 , ( ) ( , , , , . - .) . , ( , , . .), - . . 2.3 HİTİT 3 Yabancılar için Türkçe - Ders Kitabı ( 3 – ) (177 16 ) 2002 - . - . , . , , . - : 1 :« — — ». : . 2 :« — — ». : . 3 :« — — ». : . 4 — — :« : ». , . 60 - FL Curriculum Issues 5 :« — — ». : , . 6 :« — — ». : . 7 — — : : «… , ». , - . 8 :« — — », ( ). : . 9 :« — — ». : , - . 10 :« — - ». : — , . 11 :« — — ». : 20 - . 12 :« — , - ». : — . 13 :« — — : ». , . 14 :« — — ». : , . 15 :« — — : . ». , 61 , 16 :« — — ;», ( ). : 2.3.1 . , , 93 (31). (6). (8) - - . ( - - ), (11), ( . : . 3 ). - (80%), . (16) ( , , / , / - / ). 60% ( - ), 40% - . (80%) , - / Ό . , , . , - ( , - , , 2007: 100). , . . , - 62 - Fl Curriculum Issues , , , 2.3.2 . , , % . 45% . 20% . 5% . 30% 100% Ό ( , ( ( ., 2000: 235) / ) ) (60%) (40%). - , . . , . 145, . 14, . 157, ( .15). ., . . , , . , 63 , 3. « » (Kurt, C., Aygün, E. N., Leblebici, E., Altınkaynak, C. Ö., «Öğretmen Kitabı» (« »), 2008) « », . , - . , - . , - . , , , , . , , . 64 - FL Curriculum Issues I « , www.bscc.duth.gr » , . . ., « » , . . . , www.turkmas.uoa.gr » , . , www.uom.gr.modules » www.balkan.uowm.gr » ., www.rhodes.aegean.gr » , , . , www.dflti.ionio.gr , (2007), ΄ . 34, , « « « « , . . , . - - , .( .), , , . . (2003), Türkçe Öğreniyorum, . . , . . (2006), Türkçe Öğreniyorum, . . , ., , ., , . (2007), « : 211-220. 1, ,. - 2, - ». 34, , , . , ( .), , , . (2000), « : 169-178. », ( .3). - , , , Gutenberg. , . (2007), « : , . . », , , . .( : 528-536. , ΄ ., .), , , . (2007), « ( ΄, ΄ )», , , , ., , . .( : 588-596. .), , » : , www.greek-language.gr. , , - « - , . 65 , , . (2004), . , . (2007), « », , ., , , ΄ » - , ΄ , . .( : 545-554. . (2007), « .), “ 34, , , - ” . - : 99-111. Çiçek, A., Arslan, A., Kartal, A., Bedia, Özdemir, C., Kutluata, C., Berna, E., Açıksöz, E., Dr. Barın, E., Altaş, H., Benhür, H.M., Baltacıoğlu, N., Doğan, S. (2002) Hitit 3 Yabancılar için Türkçe Ders Kitabı, Ankara, Ankara Üniversitesi Basımevi. Köse, D. (2004), «Yabancı Dil Öğretiminde Ortak Ölçütler ve Tömer» («The Common Framework in Teaching Foreign Languages and Tömer»). Language Journal 125, 25. Ankara Üniversitesi Tömer, 2004, www. tomer.ankara.edu.tr Kress, G. (2000), «Multimodality», The New London Group, Multiliteracies: Literacy learning and Design of Social Futures, 164-180. London and New York, Routledge. Kurt, C., Aygün, E.N., Leblebici, E., Altınkaynak, C. Ö. (2008), Yeni Hitit 1-2 Yabancılar için Türkçe - Ders Kitabı. Ankara, Ankara Üniversitesi Basımevi. Kurt, C., Aygün, E.N., Leblebici, E., Altınkaynak, C.Ö. (2008), Yeni Hitit 1-2 Yabancılar için Türkçe - Öğretmen Kitabı. Ankara, Ankara Üniversitesi Basımevi. Sözer, Z., Yılmaz, H.,(2001), Yabancı Dilim Türkçe 1-6. İstanbul, Dilmer Yayınları. TRANSLATION AS AN DDITIONAL LEARNING STRATEGY IN THE FRAME OF ERASMUS LANGUAGE COURSES (EILC) NTENSIVE Eda Büyüknisan Bakiner*, Emra Büyüknisan** * Çukurova University, Turkey, ** Mersin University, Turkey 1. INTRODUCTION W ITH THE RAPID INCREASE OF STUDENT and teacher exchange programs, the request of language courses offering a valuable and effective teaching program within a short period has been rising. In the case of Erasmus Intensive Language Courses (EILC) students are expected to learn a foreign language in a very limited period such as 80 course hours within a four week program. Turkey’s position as an EU member candidate leads to the fact that Turkish is becoming a more and more popular foreign language. In addition, Turkish Foreign Language (TFL) has also been gaining importance since Turkey is successfully active in the Socrates Erasmus exchange program since 2004. These previously mentioned EILC courses provide incoming European students and staff the chance to participate in Turkish language courses separated into different levels. Çukurova University is one of these universities and has been providing EILC Turkish classes for different levels since 2006. At this point, Turkish foreign language teachers and linguists show serious efforts to benefit from students’ previously learnt language or languages in order to improve students’ target language Turkish. In these language classes translation activities play a crucial role both for the teacher and the learner. This shows that the issue of using the mother tongue in the foreign language classroom is on debate again. However, when compared to the last two decades, more and more language teachers, instructors and linguists are in favor of comparing and contrasting the mother tongue with the target language supposed to be taught. Comparing and contrasting two languages with each other automatically leads to translation which is a completely natural language process in the brain of a multilingual. During the process of language acquisition, translation is an unbearable interaction between the mother language and the target language (Popovic, R., 2001: 5). Furthermore, countless studies investigated on the effect and efficiency of translation activities in language classrooms reveal that the learning process of students showed Bakiner Eda Buyuknisan, Emra Buyuknisan 67 important positive development. Moreover, when appropriately prepared and applied, besides improving the four basic language skills listening, speaking, reading and writing, translation activities can also enhance accuracy, clarity and general language comprehension (Duff, 1989: 7). Especially in multilingual language classrooms where students speak more than two common languages, translation is one of the most effective strategies to trigger students’ schemata and create awareness related to the linguistic structure of both the target language and a previously known language or mother tongue. The use of the mother tongue is an effective strategy both to translate and think about text information, especially in situations where comprehension difficulties occur, as it decreases the burden of the working memory (Upton & Lee-Thompson, 2001: pp. 470). 2. AIM OF THE STUDY As the field of Turkish L2 is very innovative, it is the focus of near future. Thus, it should be shed light on learning strategies and methodological techniques in TFL classrooms for European students. In this study, we aim to put light on the efficiency of translation strategies in the Turkish foreign language classroom of German, Dutch and Hungarian native speakers with English being their second language, especially with the focus on intermediate EILC Turkish classes of European students. To be more specific, through the analysis of students’ interviews related to translation strategies used in the Turkish foreign language classroom, we aim to provide innovative data to the field of TFL. Pointing out positive effects of translation strategies that European native speakers use in an artificial Turkish classroom setting will help improving more efficient materials and course book activities based on their previously learnt languages or their mother tongue. These basic activities and supporting materials can be especially designed for EILC Turkish beginner or intermediate classes depending on the group of students to be taught. Here it should be stated that the Institute of Foreign Languages (YADYO) of the University of Çukurova has been providing Turkish language courses, especially addressing to incoming exchange students from European countries such as Germany, Netherlands, Hungary and Austria. These adult exchange programs cover the condition of Erasmus Intensive Language Courses (EILC) providing incoming students and instructors the chance to learn Turkish in two different levels. Due to these innovations, the field of Turkish L2 is the focus at many universities in Turkey and Europe today. Thus, analyzing the role of contrastive and translational learning strategies in TFL classes may help to break the taboo of L1 or any other previously learnt or acquired language in the language classroom and enhance Turkish language comprehension in a shorter time. 68 – Teaching Translation 3. METHODOLOGY The participants in this study were 11 adult European learners of Turkish L2 between the ages 22 and 30. The gender of the students participated is not a variable and does not play any role in this study. They were intermediate students grouped according to the Turkish placement test (prepared by YADYO) they were supposed to take at the beginning of the four week program. 9 of the 11 (%81.81) students were German native speakers and the two others were Hungarian and Dutch with English being a second language for all of them. All the students were involved in a 15 + 5 hours per week Turkish language program. 15 hours consisted only of pure Turkish language classes covering the basic language skills listening, speaking, reading, writing and grammar with the support of various different teaching aids such as power point presentations, songs, data shows, language laboratory activities and the course book prepared by the instructors of the Turkish Unit of YADYO. In addition, extra course materials and worksheets and handouts prepared by the two course instructors of the intermediate group were distributed. The other 5 hours per week were organized in order to provide students a more practical and authentic Turkish course session such as a “Turkish coffee afternoon”, a “Turkish breakfast morning”, a “Turkish cuisine day” or a “Turkish film session” where students had the chance to practice speaking Turkish. All in all, the students were enrolled in a total of 80 Turkish course hours within a four – week period. The data of the study was obtained mainly from a questionnaire on translation strategies (see Appendix) and a brief individual interview session where the students were asked to comment on the efficiency of translation and translation strategies in general and especially relating to the intermediate EILC Turkish program. The questionnaire consisted of 10 questions closely related to the effects and usefulness of translation strategies in the language classroom and the course book. Out of the 10 questions 6 (%60) required a yes/no answer, where students also could give additional information if wanted. Other 2 questions (%20) were multiple choice questions. And finally, 2 questions (%20) were wh-questions requiring a full answer with explanation of the participant. Besides the questionnaire, a brief individual interview with some of the participants who were willing to talk about their own opinions and had some additional ideas regarding the course design in relation to the efficient use of translation strategies were made. Bakiner Eda Buyuknisan, Emra Buyuknisan 69 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Regarding to the general outcome of the questionnaire, it can be claimed that the majority of the intermediate EILC adult students learning Turkish are in favor of translation activities in the Turkish language classroom. To Question 1 asking if translation is useful in language teaching all 11 participants gave the same positive answer “yes”. This means that all students find translation strategies in language classes in general quite useful and effective. Eight of eleven students (%72.73) agreed in that comparative activities with the use of the L1 or any previously learnt L2 help them to understand grammatical structures in foreign language learning better (Question 2). The 3 other (%27.27) participants were “not sure”. Question 3 asks whether comparative activities based on the target language and familiar the mother tongue or any other familiar language help to understand some language expressions better or not. Again 8 participants (%72.73) gave definite positive replies, whereas only one student (%9.1) said “no” and two (%18.17) were unsure. The next question of the questionnaire (Question 4) asks if the students like translation activities while learning a foreign language. All 11 (%100) participants gave the same positive answer “yes”. Some gave additional explanations such as following: “it helps to understand sentence structures”, “it is enjoyable”, “for writing skills, to prepare for exams and assignments it is important”, “yes, especially from English into Turkish”. Question 5 measures how sufficient students found the translation activities done in their Turkish course book and during the lessons. 6 (%54.54) students found the translation exercises insufficient, 4 (%36.36) said they were sufficient and one student (%9.1) was not sure about the sufficiency. The students who found the translation activities insufficient gave additional information such as following: “little more would be ok”, “the extra sheet our teacher gave us was very good, because different grammar had to be used mixed. In the book it’s always according to the actual learning aspect”, “may be more different sentences would be better”, “I would like to have more instead of fill in blanks and completing of sentences”. Accordingly, these students agree in that the extra worksheet covering translation activities with different grammatical content was very useful. In addition, they preferred translation activities to other exercises in the book. In general, they found that the translation exercises in the course book were not enough. The sixth question asking what kind of activities or exercises in foreign language classes is more motivating was a multiple choice question consisting of five different answers: a) fill in the blanks, b) translation, 70 – Teaching Translation c) complete the sentences, d) write some sentences using these words, e) matching. The participants were able to give more than one answer. The results here again show that the students are definitely in favor of translation activities, as 9 (%81.81) students marked “b) translation”. Another motivating activity for those students was “d) write some sentences using these words” with 5 (%45.45) students marking. Question 7 asked if students think that translation should be taught as an additional teaching strategy (such as listening, speaking, reading, writing) in foreign language classes. To this question 7 (%63.63) students gave positive answers, whereas 4 (%36.36) students said they “didn’t think so”. Some explanations to the reason why translation should be an additional teaching strategy in the language classroom are “because translation helps you to understand the language better”, “it is an important part of the lesson”. With Question 8 “Did translations of Turkish – English or Turkish – German sentences help you to understand language structures better in your EILC Turkish L2 class?” it was aimed to find out if translation strategies used in the 80 hour course of the EILC program was a crucial aid especially to those students with German as their mother tongue. At this point it is favorable to say that one of the two instructors of the intermediate Turkish course was a fluent German – Turkish bilingual speaker born and grown up in Germany. She was able to give additional support to the 10 German – speaking students by comparing and contrasting Turkish sentences, structures or even proverbs with their equivalents in German. All (%100) students agreed in that both Turkish – English and Turkish – German translations helped them to understand language structures in general better in their Turkish language class. Actually Question 9 is an explanation to the previous question as it asked how translation helped the students in the EILC class. 4 (%36.36) students did not give any reply, whereas 7 (%63.63) students gave quite satisfactory explanations such as “to understand expressions – sentence structures better”, “it helped to understand when I was blocked”, “in translation you have to think about whether something is dative or accusative. You should think about the whole structure”, “to understand which grammatical structures in Turkish are equal to grammatical structures in English or German”, “usage of learned grammar”, “you can see where the differences are (structural) in your mother tongue”. In addition, one of the participants (%9.09) stated that it always was one of the best activities done in the classroom as translation activities helped her to make her aware of the mistakes she makes in the target language. Related to the final multiple choice question about the amount of the translation activities done in the EILC Turkish L2 classes, 6 (%54.54) Bakiner Eda Buyuknisan, Emra Buyuknisan 71 students marked the answer “enough” and 5 (%45.45) students thought that translation activities were “too less”. In fact, the result of this question is a controversy to the result of Question 5 previously discussed. According to the data of this question asking how sufficient students found the translation activities in the course book and the lessons, the majority of the participants found them insufficient. Finally, according to the outcome of the questionnaire, it is obvious that the majority of the 11 students are in favor of translation activities. They believe in the efficiency of comparative language teaching in Turkish L2. Additionally, German native speakers of the course approve translation activities and both comparative and contrastive studies in German and English. In general, students find translation strategies enjoyable and motivating which shows that it helps to enhance students’ encouragement and involve them more into the foreign language classroom. Students believe that translation strategies make them aware of the differences and similarities in the language structure of the mother language or any other L2 and the target language. To focus on the results of the individual interviews related to translation as an additional learning strategy in the EILC language classroom, it can be said that the general perspective of the students were quite positive. Out of the records made during the interview sessions, an extract of a German student perfectly summing up the general view of the participants is presented below: “I think it was one of the best activities we did. While translating I don’t know if it’s correct or not. But when the sentence is corrected…I think it should be a longer process. I think it is good to translate to look at the mistakes, make a list of the mistakes that you usually do when you translate sentences. Because also when I talk I also translate sentences into Turkish of course. I think in German and try to speak in Turkish. So it’s also a daily process. And when I write I can see, what kind of mistakes am I doing? What kind of mistakes am I repeating? Where should I work on? So I did it for example in Portuguese language. We had a list of mistakes, grammar mistakes, and autographic mistakes and put a mark on what kind of mistakes we have made in translation activities. So we knew on what kind of grammar structures we should focus on. And also may be make a mistake book or so to work on your mistakes. So I think it’s very important. In a lot of language classes we didn’t do it yet. More mixed translation activities are necessary.” 72 – Teaching Translation In her comments regarding the role of translation in language learning, this student underlines how natural and casual the process of translating one language into another is. She also claims that further feedback on translation activities may be an effective way to improve grammatical patterns in the target language. That is, she believes that more time should be spent on translation strategies in the language classroom. By “mistake book” she means a collection of the mistakes made by the students during the translation activities done in the course in order to create awareness. Accordingly, it can be focused on the most often made mistakes in the target language and work on solutions. To conclude, here again the importance and efficiency of translation as an additional teaching strategy is pointed out. 4. CONCLUSION The outcome of the present study indicates that translation strategies used in the EILC classroom is a positive aid for both the learner and the instructor. Translation activities applied in presenting and practising language structures support the language development and awareness of the learner. The majority of the students involved in this study reflects a totally positive attitude towards translation strategies in general and especially in the EILC Turkish classes as the program provides a very limited time to establish a satisfactory language level for tertiary education. Furthermore, students find translation activities efficient not only in practising grammatical structures but also in reinforcing phrases, idioms and other cultural aspects in the target language. Students’ attitudes reflect that translation exercises are motivating and enjoyable. Accordingly, using ‘translation’ gains a more and more positive reputation in language classrooms where cultural aspects and especially time limitation plays a crucial role. We support the idea that translation activities as an additional tool in the integrated EILC classroom is an unbearable strategy for learners as well as for teachers. Consequently, comparative and contrasting activities in linguistic perspective should be more involved in EILC Turkish course books and course materials. REFERENCES Aslan, O. (2008) Überlegungen zur Unverzichtbarkeit der Übersetzung im Fremdsprachenunterricht, Çukurova Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, cilt 3, sayı 35, p. 93-99. Duff, A. (1989) Translation, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Bakiner Eda Buyuknisan, Emra Buyuknisan 73 Königs, F.G. (2000) ‘Übersetzen im Fremdsprachenunterricht? Ja, aber anders!’, Fremdsprache Deutsch, Vol. 23, pp. 6-13. Lutherjarms, M. (2003) ‘Die Rolle der Übersetzung in die Ausgangssprache für den Wortschatzerwerb in der Fremdsprache’, Zeitschrift für interkulturellen Fremdsprachenunterricht 8 (2/3), pp. 1-12, Brüssel. Malmkjaer, K. (ed.) (1998) Translation and Language Teaching: Language Teaching and Translation, Manchester, St. Jerome Publishing. Muskat-Tabakowska, E. (1973) ‘The function of translation in foreign language teaching’, Papers and studies in contrastive linguistics I. pp. 131-139. Popović, R. (2001) ‘The Place of Translation in Language Teaching’, Bridges, Issue 5, January 2001, p. 3-8. Upton, T.A. & Lee-Thompson, L.C. (2001) ‘The Role of First Language in Second Language Reading’, Studies in Second Language Acquisition 23. 469-495. 74 – Teaching Translation APPENDIX 11.09.2009 QUESTIONNAIRE With this questionnaire we aim to collect data regarding the efficiency of translation and translation exercises in the EILC Turkish L2 classroom. Your answers will be an important contribution to this study and to the following EILC classes. So, thank you very much for the time you spent on this questionnaire. 1. 2. Do you think “translation” is useful in language teaching? Does comparing a previously learned language (or you mother tongue) with the foreign language you are learning help you to understand grammatical structures better? 3. Does comparing a previously learned language (or you mother tongue) with the foreign language you are learning help you to understand some expressions better? 4. Do you like translation activities while learning a foreign language? 5. How sufficient did you find the translation exercises in your Turkish Book II and in the lessons? 6. What kinds of activities/exercises in foreign language classes do motivate you most? (You may choose more than one answer) a) fill in the blanks b) translation c) complete the sentences d) write some sentences using these words e) matching 7. Do you think translation should be taught as an additional teaching strategy in foreign language classes (such as listening, reading, speaking, writing)? 8. Did translations of Turkish – English or Turkish – German sentences help you to understand language structures better in your EILC Turkish L2 class? 9. If yes, how did it help you? 10. What do you think about the amount of translation activities done in the EILC Turkish L2 classes? a) too much (waste of time) b) enough c) too less (we need more) Thank you very much for your contributions! CREATIVITY-BASED TRANSLATION LEARNING: THROWING SOME LIGHT INTO THE BLACK BOX Stefanos Vlachopoulos Epirus Institute of Technology, Greece 1. INTRODUCTION W HEN IT COMES TO RANSLATION EACHING, many translation courses are conducted on a learning-by-doing procedure focusing on the identification of visible translation pitfalls; thus the translation courses – unfortunately – are reduced to an exercise in sampling linguistic errors made by the students. The translation competence 1 in terms of the integrated effort of a translator at work is disregarded or at best partially neglected. Thus the translation trainer easily fails to recognize the reason for the student’s output in terms of the potential to perform at a given stage. The actual individual behind the job – the translator – and his potential to produce a (good or better) translation are neglected. But can one explain translator performance without looking at the individual translator? In order to explain why a translator came up with a particular solution to a given translation problem, it is far from adequate to rely solely on the analysis of the involved texts or on the examination of mistakes. One must examine the translator’s potential to perform, i.e. to investigate why and how his competence has been applied in a particular manner for a particular project, and how the latter has been affected. By applying an approach which is based on the notion of creativity one would expect an integrated view of the procedures and the human performance involved in translating. Looking through the lens of creativity at translating, one cannot but focus on the individual translator as a generator of creativity; with our attention drawn to his individual potential to use his competence in order to perform both - research and training - should profit from the possible identification and justification of why and how a particular course of action was taken by the translator. 1 The complexity of the translation competence has been scrutinized extensively. For further insight see the following works: Campbell (1998), Dancette (1997), Fox (2000), González, M./ Rodríguez, F./ Scott-Tenent,C. (2000), Hansen (1997), Hatim, B./ Mason,I. (1997), Hewson, L./ Martin, J. (1991), Königs (1987), Krings (1986, 1988), Kussmaul (1995, 1997), Lörscher (1991, 1993, 1996), Nord.(1992), Pacte (2000, 2005), Pym (1992, t1993 ), Risku (1998), Toury (1991, 1995), Wilss (1982, 1989). 76 – Teaching Translation In order to establish how this new perspective could challenge translation didactics, we will have to go through the following instances: Initially, we will explain how we understand the crucial terms translation competence and creativity. Secondly, we will define and describe translation with the help of the notion of creativity2 and propose a possible application to translation didactics. 2. WHAT IS TRANSLATION COMPETENCE? Everybody engaged in translation knows that the translator is constantly managing and - since he manages - he runs of course the risk of illmanaging what he manages, i.e., the linguistic material and of course her/his knowledge, skills and experiences. Consolidating on that, we realize that there is something more to translating than just managing linguistic material, acquired skills, knowledge and experience. There must be something that brings together all that is needed to do the job. In other words, there must be a particular competence allowing the translator to pull together the necessary information, experiences, skills and knowledge and to apply her/his potential with a view to the project’s success. That what decides the “why” and the “how” of translator performance cannot be anything else than the application of the translation competence itself. Indeed, translation competence has been defined as the sum of the skills and knowledge needed to translate professionally.3 According to the findings of the PACTE project4 translation competence is composed by the following integral parts: a. linguistic / communicative sub-competence, which is the system of underlying knowledge and skills necessary for linguistic communication. It is made up of pragmatic, socio-linguistic, textual and lexical-grammatical knowledge in each language. b. world and subject knowledge, i.e. the knowledge that can be activated according to the needs of each translation situation. This sub-competence is made up of encyclopaedic, thematic and bicultural knowledge. c. instrumental/professional sub-competence, which is the knowledge and skills related both to the tools of the trade and the profession. 2 We will attempt to reproduce the basics of this lengthy line of argumentation. For a detailed description of the thought pattern see Vlachopoulos, St. (forthcoming). 3 PACTE 2000. 4 See further PACTE project 2000 and 2005. Stefanos Vlachopoulos 77 This includes the knowledge and use of all kinds of documentation sources and new technologies, knowledge of the labor market and of how to behave in professional settings, d. psycho-physiological sub-competence, i.e. the ability to use all kinds of psychomotor (e.g. reading and writing), cognitive (e.g. memory, creativity and logical reasoning) and attitudinal resources (e.g. intellectual curiosity, critical spirit, rigour). e. transfer sub-competence, the central competence that integrates all the others. This is the sub-competence that completes the transfer process from the ST to the TT, i.e. to understand the ST and reexpress it in the TL, taking into account the translation’s function and the expectations of the receptor. f. strategic competence, the problem-solving process, including all individual procedures, conscious and unconscious, verbal und non-verbal and resulting in strategies, used to solve the problems encountered during the translation process. The translation competence is comprised of four components based on the individual’s knowledge, skills and experience (linguistic/communicative sub-competence, world and subject knowledge, instrumental/professional sub-competence and psycho-physiological sub-competence). Furthermore, the researchers of the PACTE project identified also another subcompetence, the transfer sub-competence. It is described as the central competence that integrates all the others, as the sub-competence that completes the transfer process from the ST to the TT taking into account the translation’s function and the expectations of the receptor. Last but - obviously - not least the PACTE research identified the so-called strategic competence (not sub-competence). This competence refers to the problem-solving process, including all individual procedures, conscious and unconscious, verbal und non-verbal and resulting in strategies, used to solve the problems encountered during the translation process. The transfer sub-competence seems to be referring to the back and forth between the cultures (languages) involved, while the strategic competence to all that is happening in the black box and cannot be described so far, i.e. the competence of dealing with translation problems. This seems to be the competence - and/or – when deployed - the stage that makes the translator look at the translation project as a problem-solving process and motivates him to utilize the pool of available knowledge, skills and experiences to identify both a course of action and the implications of his actions in a purpose-driven process. The latter guides the translator towards the consolidation of existing knowledge, skills and experiences as well as researched information in pursuit of a purpose-orientated translation. 78 – Teaching Translation As we will see later in the text, this description of the strategic competence is very similar to a description of the way creativity works. The questions that arise are, which is the relation of the strategic competence to creativity and how does it illuminate the problem solving process in translating? Are the terms translation competence and creativity denoting identical processes? 3. WHAT HAS CREATIVITY TO DO WITH TRANSLATION? I will initiate my line of argumentation with the following thought5: It is more than obvious, that when the strategic competence is not deployed fully (for various reasons) the problem solving processes will not yield the best possible solution. On the other hand, a maximum use of the strategic competence means maximum input of translation competence – expected to produce maximum qualitative output6. What happens if we replace the term strategic competence with the term creativity? Do we still have a true sentence? Applying the notion of creativity to the examination of translating is not new: Back in 2000 Kussmaul referred in a consolidated way to the notion of creativity in order to explain the translation process7; By claiming that the translation process is a creative one per se8 he attempts to shed light for the first time on the much discussed and promising but poorly researched relationship between translation and creativity. Kussmaul’s work on the relationship between creativity and translation identifies common characteristics of creative problem solving and translating. Six years later Loffredo and Perteghella9 are speaking of a creative turn in translation studies which has lead to an increased awareness on the translator’s mental space and its creative processes as translational problem-solving. 5 For the detailed grounding of the approach please refer to Vlachopoulos (in print). 6 Given the fact that the rest of the sub-competences are also applied to a maximum level. 7 See further Kussmaul 2000:4. 8 In the introduction to his book he writes (2000:4): The main aim of my book is to make us all aware of the fact that translation is a highly creative activity. 9 Loffredo / Perteghella 2006: 1. Surely, creativity sounded even in 2000 when Kussmaul published his book very promising for the understanding of the translation process. Despite the fact, that we believe that creativity can yield invaluable insight into translator performance, we disagree with Loffredo and Perthegella that six years are enough to speak of a creative turn in translation studies. We definitely have not reached such a crunch point in translation studies. Stefanos Vlachopoulos 79 But what happens if we turn the notion creativity into a lens and use it to look at translating? Before we will answer that question, we will define creativity and look at how it is described as a process. — In psychology creativity has been defined10 as — the ability to create a new, unusual and surprising product as a solution to an insightfully perceived problem or a given problem whose implications have been insightfully perceived, — and by means of an insightful and broad perception of existing and open data and information purposively looked for, — and by analysis, by solution-oriented but highly flexible processing, by unusual associations and new combinations of data and information and with the help of data from experience or with imaginative elements, — these data, elements and structures into a new solution-gestalt (whereby the processes 3 and 4 may partially run simultaneously on different processing and consciousness levels), — to arrive at a solution-gestalt, which as a product or in a product, in whichever form, becomes elaborated, — and finally through communication can be grasped via the senses and experienced by others as meaningful and significant. — A second issue in need of clarification concerns how creativity functions. In psychology creativity has been described as a four stage process11. The four stages are the following: — Preparation (preparatory work on a problem that focuses the individual’s mind on the problem and explores the problem’s dimensions), this is the Research phase: Collect information or data — Incubation and intimation (where the problem is internalized into the unconscious mind and nothing appears externally to be happening and the creative person gets a ‘feeling’ that a solution is on its way), — Illumination or insight (where the creative idea bursts forth from its preconscious processing into conscious awareness); (aha moment ) and — Verification (where the idea is consciously verified, elaborated, and then applied). — When looking at translation through the lens of creativity we can distinguish common aspects. Consequently, translation can be defined as 10 Urban 1990:104-105. This procedural description of creativity is based on Graham Wallas’ work, the Art of Thought published in 1926. For further information please refer to Armbruster (1986). 11 80 – Teaching Translation a translator’s response to an order to translate a given source text (transfer sub-competence), — which deploys on data from source text and initiator (linguistic/ communicative sub-competence, world and subject knowledge, instrumental/professional sub-competence) — involving elaboration of the data (linguistic/communicative sub-competence, world and subject knowledge, instrumental/ professional sub-competence, transfer sub-competence) — in order to produce a target text (transfer sub-competence), — which is perceived as useful and appropriate by the receiver (transfer sub-competence). We attributed to every stage of translating the respective subcompetence (-s) in order to highlight which sub-competences are involved12. The following table (table 1) allows a juxtaposition of translation and creativity as well as of the respective sub-competence(-s) involved: — TABLE 1 Translation process Creativity Involved PACTE subcompetences It is a translator’s response to an order to translate a given source text. Creativity is a response to a preexisting situation. transfer sub-competence It deploys on data from source text and initiator. Creativity deploys on existing data. linguistic/communicative sub-competence, world and subject knowledge, instrumental /professional subcompetence) competence It involves elaboration of the data Creativity means reorganizing existing knowledge …. transfer sub-competence ….in order to produce a target text. …..in order to produce a solution. transfer sub-competence The target text is perceived as useful and appropriate by the receiver. The solution is perceived as useful and appropriate. transfer sub-competence 12 Needless to say that the psycho-physiological sub-competence, which is not mentioned in the above list, has of course to be considered vital; without this general competence no human performance whatsoever would be feasible. 81 Stefanos Vlachopoulos When comparing the column on the translation process and the column on creativity, one cannot but conclude that translation shares the same properties as any creative activity: There is an obvious similarity of the properties. Furthermore, glancing over to the third column reveals which sub-competences are activated for the respective (creative/translational) properties and one cannot but notice that all of the sub-competences are responding to particular processes in creativity as well. 4. STRATEGIC COMPETENCE VS. CREATIVITY The only instance described by the PACTE project not coming up in the above table is the strategic competence; the strategic competence has been described by the PACTE consortium as the competence referring to the problem-solving process, including all individual procedures, conscious and unconscious, verbal und non-verbal and resulting in strategies, used to solve the problems encountered during the translation process13. This competence seems to be what pulls all the lose strings together in a particular course of actions leading to the solution of a (translation) problem. It is that instance, that facilitates the continuous feedback, i.e. the forth and back in the creative process which is fuelled by constantly changing and evolving insight in the course of the whole procedure. And, obviously, any shortcomings in any of the sub-competences and the strategic competence are responsible for poor translator performance. The scheme used in creativity research to describe the actual stages of the creative process could very well denote the strategic competence: TABLE 2 Stages of creativity Stages of translating Preparation Initiator provides information, translator looks for more. Incubation / Intimation Translator starts constructing a unique cognitive decision making process… Illumination … which leads gradually to the solution. Verification The solution is verified in the context of the target text. The above table shows that every phase of the creativity process corresponds to a phase in translating. The description of the creativity 13 PACTE 2000. 82 – Teaching Translation process does not leave any lacks if correlated to translating and could very well what is described by the PACTE consortium with the term strategic competence. Both the creativity-based definition and the above description do not allow any doubts that translating is in terms of process an act of creativity. The question that arises is how the practice benefits from such an approach? The following lines will be devoted to the application of the above to translation didactics. 5. FROM TRANSLATION TEACHING TO TRANSLATION LEARNING: CAN CREATIVITY PROVIDE THE BRIDGE OVER THE GAP? As already put at the outset of this paper, we believe that the instructor should not “simply” teach translation students to translate; it is his task to teach them how to learn to translate. What do we mean by this? Anyone engaged in education realizes that any kind of training should enhance the students’ special interests by facilitating the broadening and deepening of existing knowledge pools, skills, attitudes and behaviours required in the students future work environment. In order to achieve something like that the teacher has to promote these goals through fuelling an increased drive to individualized or small group learning experiences. Only that way he will be able to achieve a reflective, self-initiated process aimed at the on-going acquisition of knowledge and development of skills during the students’ studies with a commitment to lifelong learning. This means that in (translator) training the instructor should be looking for a tool to facilitate a learning experience meeting the following criteria: 1. It has to be individualized in terms of needs at the outset of the learning process. 2. The tool must offer the possibility to be tuned and asessed during the learning process by instructor and student and 3. to be useful as a tool in professional life. Turning again to the notion of creativity one realizes that the tool we are in search of shares common properties with the former. Creativity — is individual (nobody has the same quality or quantity of creativity), — it can be tuned and/or improved (when analyzed, at the interim stages the instructor can monitor, intervene and fuel development), Stefanos Vlachopoulos 83 it can be communicated (if not verbalized in the course of the creative process, at least as a product) and — it can be assessed, — it is life long. But how does or can creativity be used to facilitate the transition from tt to tl? The answer seems to lie in the increase of the students’ awareness of their individual creative potential and its reflected management. Should any instructor decide to use creativity as a tool, the creativity-based definition of the translation process both lightens up the path for the student towards a decision making scheme that evolves gradually and allows the instructor to exercise control over the students’ performance and intervene in particular stages. In particular: In translation training the stage of the preparation is highly controllable by the instructor through the provision of necessary background data and of translation aids to the students. The same holds true for the stage of verification, which is highly controllable through the scrutiny of the qualitative appropriateness of the solution The interim stages of the intimation and illumination are merely indirectly controllable; the students gradually built-up a cognitive decision making frame which leads to a crunch point giving birth to the final solution. These stages are subject to assessment through the outcome of the verification stage. If we exploit both the creativity-based definition of translation and the creativity-based description of the translation process we have a tool that can establish the setting for a translation learning experience that has numerous advantages: First of all, he tool is individualized. Each student starts learning and building up on his individual potential. The creativity-based approach measures personal improvement. Secondly, in the four stages process the instructor has an increased possibility to identify why and where logical/cognitive leaks occurred and the focus is on the process rather than on (linguistic) error analysis. — 6. SPARKING CREATIVE LEARNING EXPERIENCES FOR TRANSLATION STUDENTS Any experienced instructor should not find it to difficult to set up a learning experience around the notion of creativity. Prerequisite is that the student knows what creativity is, knows how it works and can self-reflect through the entire procedure of translating. The increased awareness of every stage will allow awareness of the translation process, more efficient troubleshooting and increased self-reflection of decisions taken. 84 – Teaching Translation REFERENCES Armbruster, B. (1986) “Metacognition in Creativity”, in: Glover, J. et al. Handbook of creativity, Perspectives on Individual Differences Springer, New York, pp. 177-182. Campbell, S. (1998) Translation into the Second Language, Longman: London. Cho, S.E. (2006) “Translator’s Creativity found in the Process of Japanese-Korean Translation”, in: Meta, vol. 51, no 2, 2006, pp. 378388. Dancette, J. (1997): “Mapping Meaning and Comprehension in Translation. Theoretical and Experimental Issues,” Danks, Shreve, Fountain and McBeath (eds), Cognitive Processes in Translation and Interpreting, Sage Publications, London Fox, O. (2000) “The Use of Translation Diaries in a Process-Oriented Translation Teaching Methodology, in: Adab, B., Schaeffner, C. (ed.), Developing Translation Competence, John Benjamins, Amsterdam/ Philadelphia, pp.115-130. Gonzalez, M. / Rodriguez, F., Scott-Tenent, C. (2000) “Translation Strategies: design of a teaching prototype and empirical study of its results”, in: Beeby, A., Ensinger, D., Presas, M. (ed.). Investigating Translation, John Benjamins, Amsterdam/Philadelphia, pp. 107116. Hansen, G. (1997) “Success in Translation”, in: Perspectives: Studies in Translatology. 5:2, pp. 201-210. Hatim, B., Mason,I. (1997) The Translator as Communicator, Routledge, London. Hewson, L./ Martin, J. (1991) Redefining Translation. The Variational Approach, Routledge, London. Königs, F.G. (1987) “Was beim Ubersetzen passiert. Theoretische Aspekte, emprisiche Befunde und praktische Konsequenzen”, in: Die neueren Sprachen 86/2, pp. 162-185. Krings, H.P. (1986) Was in den Kopfen von Ubersetzern vorgeht. Eine empirische Untersuchung zur Struktur des Ubersetzungsprozesses an fortgeschrittenen Franzosischlernern, Gunter Narr Verlag, Tubingen. Krings, H.P. (1988) “Blick in die ‘Black Box’ - Eine Fallstudie zum Ubersetzungsprozes bei Berufsubersetzern”, in: Arntz, R. (1988): Textlinguistik und Fachsprache, OLMS, Hildesheim, pp. 393-411. Stefanos Vlachopoulos 85 Kussmaul, P. (2000) Kreatives Ubersetzen, Stauffenburg, Tubingen. Kussmaul, P. (1997) “Comprehension Processes and Translation: A Think-aloud Protocol Study”, : Snell-Hornby, ., Jetmarova, . Kussmaul, P. (1995) Training the Translator, John Benjamins Amsterdam/Philadelphia. Loffredo, E. / Perteghella, M. (2006) Translation and Creativity. Perspectives on Creative Writing and Translation Studies, Continuum, New York. Lörscher, W. (1991) Translation Performance, Translation Process, and Translation Strategies, Narr, Tubingen. Lörscher, W. (1993) “Translation Process Analysis”, in: Gambier,Y./ Tommola, J. (ed.) Translation and Knowledge, University of Turku. Lörscher, W. (1996) “A Psycholinguistic Analysis of Translation Processes”, in: Meta, 41-1, pp. 26-32. PACTE Group (2005) “Investigating Translation Competence: Conceptual and Methodological Issues”, in: Meta, L, 2,2005, pp. 609-620. PACTE Group (2000) “Acquiring translation competence: Hypotheses and Methodological Problems in research project”, in: Beeby, A., Ensinger, Presas, M. (ed.). Investigating Translation, John Benjamins, Amsterdam/Philadelphia. Pym, A. (1997) Pour une ethique du traducteur, Artois: Artois Presses Universite and Presses de l’Universite d’Ottawa, Ottawa. Pym, A. (1993a) Epistemological problems in translation and its teaching, Teruel, Caminade. Pym, A. (1993) “On the market as a factor in the training of translators”, in: Koine 3/1993, pp. 109-121. Pym, A. (1992) “Translation error analysis and the interface with language teaching”, in: Dollerup, C./Loddegaard, A. (ed.) Teaching Translation and Interpreting, John Benjamins. Amsterdam/ Philadelphia, pp. 279-288. Risku, H. (1998) Translatorische Kompetenz, Stauffenburg / Translation, Tubingen. Toury, G. (1995) Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond, Benjamins. Amsterdam & Philadelphia. Toury, G. (1991) “What are Descriptive Studies into Translation Likely to Yield apart from Isolated Descriptions?” in: van Leuven-Zwart, K.M. & Naaijkens, . (1991) Translation Studies: The State of the Art., Rodopi, Amsterdam & Atlanta, pp. 179-192. 86 – Teaching Translation Toury, G. (1991 ) “Experimentation in Translation Studies: Achievements, prospects and some pitfalls”, in: Tirkkonen-Condit, S. (1991) Empirical Research in Translation and Intercultural Studies: Selected papers of the TRANSIF Seminar (1988), Savonlinna, Narr, Tubingen, pp. 45-66. Urban, K. (1990) “Recent trends in creativity research and theory in Western Europe”, in: High Ability Studies, 1:1, pp.99-113. Vlachopoulos, S. (forthcoming) Translation and creativity: a journey between cognitive and applied aspects of translating, Kleidarithmos, Athens (in Greek). Wilss, W. (1989) “Towards a Multi-facet Concept of Translation Behavior”, in: Target, 34. pp. 129-149. Wilss, W. (1982) The Science of Translation, Gunter Narr, Tübingen. DES PRÉFACES DES DICTIONNAIRES GÉNÉRAUX FRANÇAIS-GREC DU XXE SIÈCLE: UNE PREMIÈRE APPROCHE Théodore Vyzas IUT d’Epire, Grèce. 1. INTRODUCTION D ans cette communication, nous nous penchons sur le genre des informations contenues dans les textes introductifs des dictionnaires bilingues français-grec de langue générale du XXe siècle, établis par des lexicographes grecs et français. Les textes en question sont considérés comme des éléments à part entière (Bergenholtz & Tarp, 1995: 167). Comme texte introductif, nous considérons toute sorte de texte qui précède le dictionnaire à proprement parler, quel que soit son titre: ό(préface), ό (prolégomènes), ω ή (introduction) et également ί ό (en guise d’avant-propos), Note des auteurs, ίω ω έω , Prologue. L’introduction, s’il y a, quoiqu’élément bien distinct de la préface, elle constitue en principe un ajout aux informations contenues dans cette dernière (Bergenholtz & Tarp, 1995: 168-169). Les informations en dehors des textes introductifs, tels les tableaux d’abréviations et les éléments de grammaire et de prononciation ou phonétique, ne sont pas étudiées dans le cadre de cette communication. Notre hypothèse de travail est la suivante: si tous les dictionnaires bilingues sont censés servir à la même tâche, à savoir la traduction au sens large ou le passage d’une langue A à une langue B, et que leurs textes introductifs ont pour but de faciliter l’accès au dictionnaire, il s’ensuit que ces derniers doivent tous fournir les mêmes grosso modo informations à l’usager. Existe-t-il donc une typologie de ces textes? 2. CORPUS DE DICTIONNAIRES Nous nous sommes contenté de nous pencher sur les dictionnaires bilingues de langue générale parus en Grèce et en France au XXe siècle uniquement et dans le sens français-grec. Nous avons examiné non seulement l’édition première des dictionnaires répertoriés, mais aussi, sur pied d’égalité, les rééditions et les réimpressions 88 – Teaching Translation que ceux-ci ont connues et même les éditions abrégées, étant donné qu’une fois parues, elles sont utilisées au même titre que la toute première édition. De plus, nous souhaitons voir comment évoluent les textes introductifs d’une édition ou impression à l’autre. Il s’agit donc de vingt dictionnaires différents qui ont connu au total 44 rééditions et / ou réimpressions. À part les ouvrages qui ont vu le jour pour la première fois au XXe siècle, il y en a qui sont des rééditions ou des réimpressions d’ouvrages lexicographiques du XIXe siècle. Pour mieux étudier ces dernières, nous avons jugé utile de consulter si possible la première édition afin de vérifier le contenu original si besoin est. Tels sont les dictionnaires de ά 1905, 1910, s.d., de ά toutes éditions (désormais: tts éds) à savoir 1918, 1922, 1932, 1940, 1959, 1968 et de ό tts éds à savoir 1930, 1934, 1936 et s.d. Quant à la première édition de chaque dictionnaire, pour ce qui est du dictionnaire de Mirambel, seule la deuxième édition (1960) a été repérée, la première étant introuvable. Il en est de même des dictionnaires de ῆ 1925 et de ά 1938, qui auraient connu chacun une première édition, toutes parutions introuvables. 3. TRAITS GÉNÉRAUX DES DICTIONNAIRES BILINGUES Le dictionnaire bilingue a pour fonction première de servir à la traduction. Il est censé mettre en rapport, pour deux types linguistiques d’utilisateurs, deux langues simultanément en usage (Rey, 1991: 2866–2867). Il est donc impliqué, en tant qu’outil, dans un mode de travail où l’usager traduit d’une langue étrangère vers sa langue maternelle, ou de sa langue maternelle vers une autre langue (Kromann & Riiber & Rosbach, 1991: 2712). L’apprentissage d’une langue vivante comporte évidemment le paramètre de la traduction. Le contenu du dictionnaire est déterminé par les hypothèses du lexicographe concernant l’usage potentiel, les besoins réels des usagers n’étant pas systématiquement évalués avant le début de la compilation (Hartmann 1989: 107) même si certaines maisons d’édition mènent des enquêtes à cet effet (Bergenholtz & Tarp, 1995: 77-80). La constitution du dictionnaire est liée aux publics, c’est-à-dire aux marchés des langues, auxquels il s’adresse (Rey, 1989: 9). Néanmoins, si les lexicographes tiennent compte des besoins des acheteurs éventuels de leurs dictionnaires, personne n’est en mesure de dire à quel degré ces besoins sont satisfaits. Enfin, comme il n’y a pas une histoire de lexicographie axée sur l’usage des dictionnaires, il est difficile de préciser quel est le rôle que chaque lexicographe affecte à son ouvrage (Hartmann, 1989: 107). Les textes introductifs contiennent-ils des informations relatives à tout cela? Theodore Vyzas 89 4. LA GRILLE D’ANALYSE Pour pouvoir dégager une typologie éventuelle, il faut examiner les sujets abordés dans ces textes. La grille d’analyse qui suit constitue une synthèse des idées de F. J. Hausmann (Hausmann, 1989: 220–221) et de celles de Bergenholtz et Tarp (Bergenholtz & Tarp, 1995: 168-169). Elle ne constitue qu’une approche schématique afin que nous puissions relever les informations en question. Ce sont des critères internes, à savoir ils résultent de ce que le dictionnaire «pense» de lui-même et éventuellement de ce que l’éditeur pense de l’ouvrage. Les-voici: a. la fonction du dictionnaire: réception d’un texte, production, traduction b. le public-cible c. l’histoire de la langue et de la culture françaises d. l’histoire de la langue et de la culture grecques e. la théorie de la lexicographie est un des sujets privilégiés des préfaces. f. l’historique des prédécesseurs occupe souvent une partie des préfaces. g. la critique du dictionnaire rival. h. les problèmes techniques du dictionnairiste ainsi que les détails portant sur la base empirique (corpus de textes), la/les sources et les critères de sélection des têtes d’articles et enfin l’établissement des articles lexicographiques. i. le rôle de l’éditeur ainsi que de toute personne impliquée dans la constitution du dictionnaire. j. le mode d’utilisation du dictionnaire en liaison avec des questions éventuelles sur la linguistique et notamment sur la linguistique contrastive. k. En dernier lieu, les préfaces font état d’une mentalité dictionnairique, le lexicographe et / ou l’éditeur se situant par rapport au travail lexicographique. 5. PREMIÈRES CONSTATATIONS En premier lieu, il faut signaler que bon nombre des dictionnaires répertoriés ne disposent d’aucun texte introductif, tels les dictionnaires de ά 1910 et s.d., ῆ tts éds, ί tts éds, ώ α Γα ό ό (gallicismes seulement), ά (lettres de félicitations seulement), ά s.d., Rosier, ί 1977, ό [1984]. Dans les cas de ά 1910 et s.d. et de ά s.d., le texte de la première édition ne figure pas dans la réédition / réimpression. 90 – Teaching Translation La réutilisation d’une préface ayant servi à une édition précédente est une pratique assez commune. Toute préface employée telle quelle, donc ayant perdu de son actualité, ne serait sans doute plus complètement valable. De plus, elle pourrait induire en erreur. C’est le cas des dictionnaires de ά 1905, ά éds de 1918 à 1968 et de ά 1938 et 1953, où tant la préface que le contenu sont identiques d’une édition à l’autre. Les préfaces et introductions relevées sont rédigées par le lexicographe ( ό , ί ) le réviseur ( ά ), l’éditeur ( ί , ά etc) ou un philologue. Dans les dictionnaires de Missir, les textes sont rédigés par des philologues néo-hellénistes (Louis Roussel, André Mirambel). Quant à la langue, le texte peut être en une langue seulement ou suivi de sa traduction dans l’autre langue. Enfin, il peut y avoir deux textes différents, l’un en grec l’autre en français. 6. LE CONTENU DES PRÉFACES Les dictionnaires sont présentés par ordre chronologique. Si la toute première édition comporte deux prologues, ce qui est le cas du dictionnaire de ύ 1901 ( Ω , une page et , une page), la deuxième, ύ 1912, pour des raisons inexpliquées, peut contenir un seul ( Ω le même que dans l’édition 1901, une page). Le lexicographe souhaite offrir au grand public un ouvrage complet comportant tous les termes scientifiques et techniques et tous les néologismes récents de la langue française. Pour ce faire, il a consulté bon nombre d’ouvrages lexicographiques. Son dictionnaire porte son attention sur les difficultés de prononciation et de grammaire et sur les usages métaphoriques. Enfin, pour faire face au manque d’équivalents grecs, le lexicographe propose des définitions. Dans sa préface, l’éditeur explique que le franc succès du dictionnaire grec – français l’a incité à procéder à cette nouvelle entreprise. Il fait état des mêmes raisons que l’auteur pour l’édition de ce dictionnaire qui devrait profiter tant au savant qu’au commerçant ou l’étudiant. Il espère que ce dictionnaire, plus complet que tout ouvrage antérieur, sera chaleureusement accueilli par le public. L’édition de ά 1905 comporte, en un seul volume, la partie français-grec suivie de la partie grec-français. Au tout début apparaît l’avis aux lecteurs ( ώ ) rédigé par les éditeurs pour l’édition de 1856, lequel n’est pas réactualisé pour l’édition 1905; il s’agit d’un texte qui n’est pas compris dans les parutions postérieures (1910 et s.d.). Les éditeurs font allusion (1 p.) aux éditions précédentes et expliquent Theodore Vyzas 91 les raisons pour lesquelles le dictionnaire français-grec et grec-français se présentent en un seul volume. L’ouvrage est destiné à ceux qui étudient la langue française en portant l’accent sur la compréhension. Le dictionnaire de ί 1912 contient, en guise de préface, un texte où le lexicographe prétend que son ouvrage, qui propose des équivalents adéquats et une riche terminologie, peut profiter à tous les professionnels, même à ceux qui ne parlent pas français. Ensuite, les qualités du dictionnaire, telle la terminologie de théâtre, sont vantées. Dans le dictionnaire de ά (1918-1968) le réviseur ά ( Ω , 1 page) explique qu’il a corrigé, révisé et augmenté le dictionnaire de 1860, conformément aux règles de la lexicographie moderne pour combler le vide qui existe depuis des années dans la lexicographie grecque. Le progrès de la science, de la technique et de l’économie, ainsi que l’évolution de la langue, l’ont incité a enrichir l’ouvrage de ά à l’aide du dictionnaire Larousse pour pouvoir offrir aux savants, aux professionnels et aux élèves un ouvrage complet au niveau lexical et sémantique. Toutes les éditions de ό (1930, 1934, 1936 et s.d.) contiennent deux textes: un en grec (deux pages) et une PREFACE en français (deux pages), la deuxième n’étant pas une traduction du premier. Dans la préface française, le lexicographe ό souhaite que son dictionnaire puisse aider les Français et les Européens à découvrir le grec moderne. L’auteur fait état du caractère universel de la langue française et des liens nationaux entre la France et la Grèce, ce qui est répété dans la préface grecque. Dans le texte grec, il explique pourquoi ce dictionnaire est meilleur que d’autres plus volumineux. Il donne des détails techniques et exprime sa reconnaissance à l’éditeur. Enfin, dans les deux préfaces, il qualifie son ouvrage de fruit d’un travail méticuleux et réfléchi. Dans Missir 1933, nous trouvons la préface de Louis Roussel (pp. VIIXI) suivie de sa traduction en grec. Son auteur nous propose un aperçu de l’histoire de la langue grecque, en appelant roméique le grec moderne, qui fait bien de s’appuyer sur une autre langue vivante, à savoir le français. Ensuite, Roussel présente les principes de constitution du dictionnaire tout en faisant état de deux problèmes connexes: la question de la langue et le problème de la lexicographie néo-hellénique, celui-ci étant, en grande partie, dû à la dualité linguistique de l’époque. Il explique que quand Missir n’arrive pas à trouver des termes grecs qui soient à la hauteur, il essaye d’en forger. Enfin, Roussel porte l’accent sur l’importance de l’instauration d’une langue unique pour tous les Grecs. Le dictionnaire de ά (1938, 1953, 1977) comporte une brève préface ( ) rédigée par l’éditeur. La croissance économique, à l’origine de termes nouveaux, a poussé l’éditeur à procéder à cette édition 92 – Teaching Translation complète, entreprise confiée au lexicographe . ά . C’est un outil indispensable à tous ceux qui ont affaire au français, langue majeure. Dans Missir 1952, l’avant-propos est signé par André Mirambel, qui, ayant fait allusion aux deux composantes du grec, la langue savante et la langue démotique, parle, de façon très succincte, de l’importance de ce dictionnaire, vu le rôle du grec démotique dans l’ouvrage. Mirambel souligne que Missir propose des équivalents en grec démotique uniquement, ce qui a été très exigeant au niveau de la recherche. Ensuite, nous lisons la PRÉFACE DE LA PREMIÈRE ÉDITION (1933). Le dictionnaire de έ comporte une préface d’une page ( ό, p. 5) qui explique que le but est d’aider l’apprenant du français à s’exprimer en français. Pour ce faire, il faut lui apprendre le sens des mots français en français et pas en grec, ce qui constitue la nouveauté de ce dictionnaire: les équivalents et les définitions en grec sont suivis d’équivalents et de définitions en français. Des exemples sont fournis. Dans la PRÉFACE de son ouvrage, Mirambel explique que son petit dictionnaire, qui cherche notamment à concilier la langue commune et la langue savante, est destiné tant au touriste qui voyage en Grèce, qu’à l’étudiant de la culture néo-hellénique. Il donne très sommairement le fil de l’évolution de la langue grecque, en attirant l’attention du lecteur notamment sur «la question de la langue». Le grec employé dans les articles lexicographiques est en principe une langue courante ne comportant que le «grec de base». Ceci étant dit, le dictionnaire ne se contente pas de donner des équivalents uniquement, au contraire, il propose les expressions les plus usuelles. Dans ώ α Γα ό , nous ne trouvons qu’une très brève notice portant sur le classement des gallicismes (p. 4) dans le dictionnaire. Dans ά , les lettres de félicitations de l’Ambassade de France et de l’Ambassade de Suisse en Grèce adressées à la maison d’éditions tiennent lieu d’introduction. Dans sa préface, l’auteur ό soutient que la croissance économique et le développement touristique de la Grèce nécessitent l’apprentissage de langues pour les Grecs. Ensuite, il fait brièvement état de ses projets lexicographiques. Le Mandeson comporte , à savoir une préface très brève qui, pour la plupart, fait l’éloge de ce dictionnaire de haut niveau, sans pour autant que l’auteur étaie ses dires. Nombre de pages sont consacrées à la grammaire française ( Ω ), à la prononciation ( ) une troisième fois, et aux liaisons ( LIAISONS). L’ouvrage de ά commence avec un bref avis AUX LECTEURS en français, suivi de sa traduction en grec ( Ω ) (p. Theodore Vyzas 93 5). Le lexicographe a achevé son travail en 32 mois sans avoir recopié sur de dictionnaires antérieurs. La prononciation est en caractères d’alphabet phonétique international. Dans le dictionnaire de ά , après la page de garde, nous trouvons une introduction sous le titre Χ ή α α ή ( p.), comportant de nombreuses consignes de lecture. Si le texte n’est pas signé, son rédacteur explique par le menu l’organisation de la macrostructure qui comporte de nombreux termes scientifiques et de la microstructure qui comprend des équivalents soigneusement choisis et des idiotismes. De plus, les informations grammaticales et lexicales ne font pas défaut. Enfin, la prononciation n’est fournie que si nécessaire. Dans le dictionnaire de Lust-Pantélodimos 1995, la NOTE DES AUTEURS (pp. V-VII) fait état de la démarche de l’équipe lexicographique, l’insuffisance des dictionnaires français-grec existants étant à l’origine de cette entreprise de treize ans. Les rédacteurs citent nombre d’exemples de traductions malheureuses, puisés dans divers dictionnaires. Se fixant comme objectif d’offrir un ouvrage utile tant aux francophones qu’aux hellénophones, ils ont essayé de mettre en exergue les ressources des deux langues. Pour offrir un instrument de traduction valable, ils ont focalisé sur le domaine lexical en fournissant plusieurs exemples et en faisant correspondre les niveaux de langue dans la mesure du possible. Enfin, leurs remerciements vont à tous ceux qui ont contribué à ce projet. Cette note est suivie de sa traduction en grec, intitulée Ω Ω Ω (pp. VIII-XI). Le Lust-Pantélodimos 1996 est la version abrégée du dictionnaire précédent. Selon le et sa traduction en français PROLOGUE, il s’agit d’un ouvrage destiné à un large public francophone et hellénophone. Le nombre d’exemples et de locutions ainsi que le vocabulaire spécialisé contenus le rendent utile tant à l’étudiant qu’au professionnel. Dans le de ά [1995], l’éditeur explique que ce dictionnaire constitue le mariage entre les deux langues. Sa macrostructure englobe 65 000 mots, et la microstructure, à côté de(s) équivalent(s) grec(s), contient des exemples, idiotismes, proverbes, terminologie de nombreux domaines, mots de l’argot, des informations grammaticales ainsi que la prononciation. Vu ces qualités, c’est un ouvrage assez complet pour répondre aux besoins de tous ceux qui ont affaire à la langue française. Le dictionnaire ά [1999] constitue une version abrégée du dictionnaire précédent. Dans la préface, l’éditeur explique que ce dictionnaire, plus petit et plus économique, s’adresse aux élèves, aux étudiants mais également aux professionnels. Cet ouvrage comporte 40 000 mots français, parmi lesquels une terminologie de base, plusieurs acceptions, la prononciation et des informations grammaticales. 94 – Teaching Translation 7. CONCLUSION Nous pouvons aisément constater qu’un seul texte introductif, celui de LustPantélodimos 1995, remplit tous les critères de la grille d’analyse. Du reste, les mêmes informations peuvent être organisées de manière différente d’un dictionnaire à l’autre. Enfin, un seul texte fait état des liens nationaux entre les deux pays et seuls les lexicographes et philologues français s’étendent vraiment sur la question de la langue grecque (Roussel, Mirambel). a. La fonction du dictionnaire est mentionnée dans ό tts éds (dans les deux préfaces), ά 1905, ύ tts éds, (dans les deux préfaces), ά tts éds, Missir 1933, 1952, έ , Mirambel, ό 71, 76, Lust-Pantélodimos 1995, 1996 (dans les deux préfaces), ά [1995], [1999], donc dans 23 éditions, rééditions et réimpressions. b. Le public-cible est indiqué dans ό tts éds, ύ tts éds, ί 1912, ά tts éds, ά 1953, 1977, Missir 1933, 1952, έ , Mirambel, 1971, 1976, Lust-Pantélodimos 1995, 1996, ά soit dans 26 éditions, rééditions et réimpressions. c. Des questions sur la langue et la culture françaises sont évoquées dans ό tts éds. (dans les deux préfaces), ύ tts éds., ά tts éds, ά 1938, 1953, 1977, Missir 1933, 1952, LustPantélodimos 1995, ά [1995], soit dans 19 éditions, rééditions et réimpressions. d. Des questions sur la langue et la culture grecques sont discutées dans ό tts éds (dans les deux préfaces), ύ tts éds., ί 1912, ά tts éds, Missir (dans les deux préfaces), Mirambel, Lust-Pantélodimos 1995, ά [1995], c’est-à-dire dans 17 éditions, rééditions et réimpressions. e. Des questions sur la théorie de la lexicographie sont abordées dans ά tts éds, ά 1938, 1953, 1977, Missir 1933, 1952, έ , Mirambel, Rosgovas, Lust-Pantélodimos 1995, donc dans 15 éditions, rééditions et réimpressions. f. Les prédécesseurs sont évoqués dans ό tts éds, ά 1905, ά tts éds, ά 1938, 1953, 1977, Lust-Pantélodimos 1995, également dans 15 éditions, rééditions et réimpressions. g. Le rédacteur de la préface fait allusion à la qualité inférieure d’autres dictionnaires dans ό tts éds, ύ tts éds, ί 1912, ά tts éds, ά 1938, 1953, 1977, Missir 1933, 1952, ά 1905, éds 1938, ό [1995], [1999], 95 Theodore Vyzas έ , Lust-Pantélodimos 1995. soit dans 20 éditions, rééditions et réimpressions. h. Des problèmes et des détails techniques sont présentés ό tts éds, ύ tts éds, ί 1912, ά tts éds, ά 1938, 1953, 1977, Missir 1933, 1952, Rosgovas, Tsoukanas, LustPantélodimos 1995 et 1996, ά [1995], [1999], c’est-à-dire dans 24 éditions, rééditions et réimpressions. i. Le rôle de l’éditeur et des personnes impliquées dans la constitution du dictionnaire est évoqué dans ό tts éds, ά 1905, 1901, Lust-Pantélodimos 1995, dans seulement 7 éditions, rééditions et réimpressions. j. Des consignes, pour la plupart très brèves, concernant l’usage du dictionnaire sont données dans ί 1912, έ , Mirambel, ώ α γα ό ό , Mandeson, Tsoukanas, Lust-Pantélodimos 1995, également dans 7 éditions, rééditions et réimpressions. h. Le lexicographe et / ou l’éditeur s’exprime(nt) par rapport à son / leur travail dans ό tts éds, ύ tts éds, ί 1912, ά tts éds, έ , Lust-Pantélodimos 1995, ά [1995], [1999], donc au total dans 17 éditions, rééditions et réimpressions. Notre recherche a montré que, du moins pour ce qui est des dictionnaires répertoriés, il n’y a pas de typologie établie quant aux textes introductifs, constatation confirmée par Kirkpatrick, qui semble affirmer que c’est le cas de la totalité des dictionnaires (Kirkpatrick, 1989: 760). Ceci étant dit, l’amélioration de ces textes facilitera l’accessibilité aux dictionnaires. Bibliographie Corpus De Dictionnaires ά , . (1918) ὸ ἀ ω ῖ , ω ά .ἐ Ἀ ή : Ἰωά . ά , . (1922) ὸ ἀ ω ῖ , ω ά .ἐ Ἀ ή : Ἰωά . ά , . (1932) ὸ ἀ ω ῖ , ω ά ,ἐ Ἀ ή : γα ό , ἔ έ ῖ ὶ ω ῖ ὑ ὸ . . . έ . γα ό , ἔ έ ῖ ὶ ω ῖ ὑ ὸ . . . έ . γα ό , ἔ έ ῖ ὶ ω ῖ ὑ ὸ . . ω ῖ Ἰωά . . έ . ίω ίω ίω - - - 96 – Teaching Translation . (1940) ὸ γα ό , ἔ έ ίω ω ῖ , ω ῖ ὶ ω ῖ ὑ ὸ . . ,ἐ Ἀ ή : ω ῖ Ἰωά . . έ . , . (1959) ὸ γα ό , ἔ έ ίω ω ῖ , ω ῖ ὶ ω ῖ ὑ ὸ . . ,Ἀ ῆ :ἐ . ἶ Ἰωά έ . , . (1968) ὸ γα ό , ἔ έ ίω ω ῖ , ω ῖ ὶ ω ῖ ὑ ὸ . . ,Ἀ ῆ :ἐ . ἶ Ἰωά έ . , . . (1905) ὸ γα ό , ά ἔ ὰ ῶ ὶ ώ ω ,ἐ Ἀ ή :ἐ . ἱ ὶἈ έ ω ί . ά , . . (1910) ὸ γα ὸ ,ἔ έ ,ἐ Ἀ ή : ω ῖ « ἱ ῦ » Ἰωά . έ . ά , . . ( . .), ὸ γα ὸ ,ἔ έ ,ἐ Ἀ ή : ω ῖ « ἱ ῦ » Ἰωά . έ . ό , . (1971) Ἄ γα ὸ ὸ , ό ΄, ό ΄, Ἀ ῆ : . ὸ . . ό , . (1976) Ἄ γα ὸ ὸ , ό ΄, ό ΄, Ἀ ῆ : . ὸ . . ό , . [1984] Τ ό Michigan press γα ό, ή: . ό . . ί , Ἀ. (1911-1912) ὸ γα ὸ , ό . ΄, ό . ΄, ἐ Ἀ ή :ἐ ῦ . .Ἀ. ά . ί , Ἀ. (1977) έγα γα ὸ ό , Ἀ ῆ : ἐ ό Ἀ ῶ ί . ό , . (1930) ὸ γα ό , ἔ ἑ ό , ἐ Ἀ ή :ἐ . ἶ ά . . ό , . (1934), ὸ γα ό , ό ΄, ἔ ὀ ό ,Ἀ ῆ :ἔ ἐ ί « έ ό ». ό , . (1936) ὸ γα ό , ό ΄, ἔ ἐ ά ,Ἀ ῆ : « ω ὴ ῦ ί ». ό , . (s.d.), ὸ γα ό ,ἐ . . ά . ύ , . (1901-1902) ώ α ῆ γα ὸ ό , όῶ - , ό ύ - .ἐ Ἀ ή : ὰ ή Ἀ ί . έ . ύ , . (1912) ώ α ῆ γα ὸ ὸ , όῶ - , ό ύ - ,ἔ . έ ω έ ,ἐ Ἀ ή :ἐ . ἶ ω ί . έ . ά ἀ ά ά ἀ ά ά ἀ ά ά , Theodore Vyzas 97 , Ἰω. (1956) ώ α γα ὸ ό , ω ῖ ί . Γα ὸ ό (1963), Ἀ ῆ :Ἰ ῦ ῶ ῶ . ῆ , . (1925) ὸ γα ό ,ἔ έ ,Ἀ ῆ : Ἰω. έ . ῆ , . . (1939) ὸ γα ό ,ἐ Ἀ ή : Ἰω. έ. ῆ , . . (1965) ὸ γα ὸ ,ἐ Ἀ ή : Ἰω. έ. ῆ , . . (1985) ὸ γα ό, Ἀ ή : . έ . ά , . (1966) ὸ γα ὸ, Ἀ ῆ : Ὀ ὸ ἐ ῶ ἐ ό ω . ά ( .) [1995] ό γα ό, ή . ά ( .) [1999] ό γα ό, ή . ί , . (1960) Dictionnaire français-grec -γα ὸ ό , έ ἔ .Ἀ ῆ : . . ί . ί , . (1972) Dictionnaire français-grec -γα ὸ ό , έ ἔ ,Ἀ ῆ : . . ί . o ά , . (1985) έ γα ό ό φω ή. ά , . (1938) ὸ γα ό ,Ἀ ῆ :ἔ . ἴ . Ἰ. έ . . ά , . (1953) ὸ γα ό ,Ἀ ῆ :ἔ . ἴ . . έ . . ά , . ( . .) ὸ γα ό ,Ἀ ῆ :ἔ . ἴ . . έ . . ά , . (1977) ὸ γα ό ,Ἀ ῆ : «Ἀ ή » Ἀ . & . ί . . ά , . . (1986) έ γα ό ό, ί . A.E., Dictionnaire français et grec moderne, nouvelle édition revue, corrigée et augmentée, Constantinople, Librairie de Saint-Benoît, 1844, 626 p. A.E., Dictionnaire français et grec moderne et vulgaire, nouvelle édition revue, corrigée et augmentée, Constantinople, Librairie de Saint-Benoît, 1849, 626 p. Daviers P.J., Dictionnaire français et grec vulgaire, Paris, de l’Imprimerie royale, 1830, xi + 482 p. Legrand É., Dictionnaire français grec moderne, vol. I vii + 870 p., Paris, Garnier frères libraires-éditeurs, 1885. έ ῆ ώ α 98 – Teaching Translation Legrand É., Nouveau dictionnaire français grec moderne, vol. I, Paris, Garnier frères libraires-éditeurs, 1892, vii + 870 p. Lust, C. - Pantelodimos, D. (1995) Γα ό ό, Dictionnaire français - grec moderne. Athènes: Librairie Kauffmann. Lust, C. - Pantelodimos, D. (1996) Γα ό ό, Dictionnaire français - grec moderne, Athènes: Librairie Kauffmann. Mandeson, A. (1972) Τέ γα ὸ ὸ ,ἐ .ὀ ό ό . Mirambel, A. (1960) Petit dictionnaire français – grec moderne et grec moderne français, Paris: G.-P. Maisonneuve & Larose. Missir, É. (1933) Dictionnaire français – roméique, Smyrne: édité par l’auteur. Missir, É. (1952-1955) Dictionnaire français – roméique, vol. I, II, deuxième édition, Paris: Librairie C. Klincksieck. Rosier, J.-C. [1970] Dictionnaire français-grec et grec-français, ῖ ώ γα ὸ αὶ ἑ γα ὸ ό ,ἐ . ί . Ouvrages Consultés a) grecs ά , . (1860) έ ὸ γα ό , Tό + , ἐ Ἀ ή : . . ω ᾶ . ά , . . (1846) ὸ ἑ ὸ αὶ γα ὸ , Ἀ ή : ἐ ῦ . Ἀ. ᾶ. ό , . (1886) ί ὸ γα ό ,ἐ Ἀ ή : ύ . . ί . Byzantius, Ch.D. (1856) Dictionnaire grec-français et français-grec, éd. seconde, Athènes: imprimerie d’A. Coromélas. b) français, anglais Bergenholtz, H. – Tarp, S. (éd.) (1995) Manual of Specialised Lexicography, Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, pp. 77-80, 168-169. Hartmann, R.R.K. (1989) «Sociology of the Dictionary User: Hypotheses and Empirical Studies», in Wörterbücher – Dictionaries – Dictionnaires, Encyclopédie Internationale de Lexicographie, Berlin - New York: Walter de Gruyter, t. I, pp. 107-111. Hausmann, F.J. (1989) «Pour une histoire de la métalexicographie», in Wörterbücher – Dictionaries – Dictionnaires, Encyclopédie Internationale de Lexicographie, Berlin - New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1989, t. I, pp. 216-224. Kirkpatrick, B. (1989) «User’s Guides in Dictionaries», in Wörterbücher – Dictionaries – Dictionnaires, Encyclopédie Internationale de Lexicographie, Berlin - New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1989, t. I, pp. 754-761. Theodore Vyzas 99 Kromann, H.-P. - Riiber, T. – Rosbach, P. (1991) «Principles of bilingual Lexicography», in Wörterbücher – Dictionaries – Dictionnaires, Encyclopédie Internationale de Lexicographie, Berlin - New York: Walter de Gruyter, t. III, pp. 2711-2728. Rey, A. (1989) «Le français et les dictionnaires, aujourd’hui» in Lexiques, Hachette, 206 p., pp. 6-17. Rey, A. (1991) «Divergences culturelles et dictionnaire bilingue», in Wörterbücher – Dictionaries – Dictionnaires, Encyclopédie Internationale de Lexicographie, Berlin - New York: Walter de Gruyter, t. III, pp. 28652870. Ω Ω Ω & , Ω 1. , , . , - , , . , , - . Ω 2. Ω Ό 294), Bakker, Koster Ω Van Leuven-Zwart (Baker 2001: . 1 , , . John Catford. 1 (1965: 73), - , , , - (1997: 15), - , - - . , . , 101 - . . (1965: 73-79), (level - , shift), , , , (category shift), . . , (structure shift), - - , - , (class shift), - . , . - (unit shift), , . (intra-system shift), Catford - - , - Popovič 1970) . (Van den Broeck & Levefere 1979, Toury 1980). , , . , Anton Popovič (Holmes, Haan & . , , Popovič . Gideon Toury (1980: 89-121), (adequate translation) (textemes). , . , , - , . Kitti Van Leuven-Zwart (1984, 1989 & 1990), , , . , - 102 – Teaching Translation . , , , , - , . , Van Leuven-Zwart , , (transemes). - , (architranseme). - , . , .Ό (modulation) (1989: , - , 159-164). Ό (modification) (1989: 165-168). Ό , (mutation) (1989: 168-169). 3. Popovič , , (Holmes . . 1970: 80) : , , (…). , - “ ” , ’ , ’ , Ό . , , , . , . , - , , . 103 Ό Mona Baker (1992: 86), , - .Ό . , , , . Baker (1992: 87) - . , , - . . 2 , - , . , , , . , , , , , , , , , , . 4. 3 4.1 , , , 2 . - , . , . 3 . , . , , . , , , , . , Corvett, 1999, . 1-22. , Greville 104 – Teaching Translation . , , , , , . - 4 , , . 4.2 , , , . , , - , , . 5 , , . ’, - , ‘‘- ’, ‘- ’. 6 , . 4.3 Η , . , , - ‘di’, [il libro di Maria]. , [ ]. 4 , ‘la gente’ ( ), ‘gli spinaci’ ( 5 ), ‘la roba’ ( ) ‘la pasta’ ( , ), ‘le nozze’ ( , ) ‘le tenebre’ ( ). . 6 , . , 105 5. 7 5.1 [passato remoto, imperfetto], [futuro semplice], prossimo, trapassato remoto], [infinito passato], [gerundio semplice]. [ [ [ , / ], [ ], ], ], [ ] [ - ]8, / [ 5.2 Η Ό [presente], [trapassato [futuro anteriore] - ]9. / 10 , , - [imperfetto], [presente]. [passato prossimo, futuro anteriore], [passato remoto] - , 11 . - 12 7 , - . 8 ,‘ ,‘ 9 10 ’. ’. , , , . .Ό , , , 11 12 , ‘continuerà a parlare’ ( 1994 & 2005). ‘sto parlando’. 106 – Teaching Translation , . - , . - , 13 . 5.3 Η Έ 14 [indicativo], [congiuntivo], [imperativo]. , , (modi indefiniti), . , , . , , . [condizionale] , (modi finiti), , - . 5.3.1 [congiuntivo presente, congiuntivo imperfetto, congiuntivo passato, congiuntivo trapassato] , . , , , , , , , , , , , , , . , . , , . , . , ( 13 - , 1994 & 2005). ,‘ ’. ’ 14 ‘ - , . 107 [benché, perché, purché, affinché, sebbene, nonostante, malgrado], [qualunque, qualsiasi, dovunque, chiunque] [a patto che, basta che, prima che, senza che, a condizione che, per quanto]. [ , , ] . ‘ ’, ‘ ’, ‘ ’, ‘ ’, ‘ ’ ‘ ’. , . , , [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ]. 5.3.2 , , . [condizionale semplice] , , [condizionale composto] . , , , , , 5.4 Η , , , . & , . - , . , . , . , , - . . . , , . , 15 . , . 15 , ‘si lava le mani’. - 108 – Teaching Translation 16 5.5 & , , , , , . , [lui], [lei], - [Lei]. Ό , [Loro]. , , , [ ]. 6. , - , , (Bell 1991: 6). , - - , - Catford (rank-bound translation)17, . , , 16 , - , . 17 1965 John Catford , (full translation) (partial translation) , (rank-bound translation) (unbounded translation) , (total translation) (restricted translation) . Catford, , , , . 109 , - , . , . , . , , - , . , . . , . , , - , . , , ω , . (1994) , : , . (2005) Ά . , . (2005) Pirandello ‘Sei Personaggi in Cerca d’ Autore’ ( & Felicity Firth). , & , .& , . (1997) , : . . : , . . 110 – Teaching Translation ω Baker, M. (1992) In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation, London/ New York: Routledge. Baker, M. (2001) Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies, London/New York: Routledge. Bakker, M., Koster, C. & Van Leuven-Zwart, K.M. (2001) “Shifts of Translation” : Mona Baker (ed.) Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies, London/New York: Routledge, . . 294-300. Bell, R. (1991) Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice, London: Longman. Cartford, J. (1965) A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay on Applied Linguistics, London: Oxford University Press. Corbett, G. (1999) “Prototypical Inflection: Implications for Typology” : Geert Booij & Jaap van Marle (eds) Yearbook of Morphology 1998, Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, . . 1-22. Dardano, M. & Trifone, P. (1995) Grammatica Italiana con Nozioni di Linguistica, 3 , Bologna: Zanichelli Editore S.p.A. Holmes, J., Haan, F.D. & Popovič, A. (1970) The Nature of Translation: Essays on the Theory and Practice of Literary Translation, The Hague: Mouton. Holton, D., Mackridge, P. & -Warburton, . (1999) , , : . Popovič, A. (1970) “The Concept ‘Shift of Expression’ in Translation Analysis” : James Holmes, Frans de Haan & Anton Popovič (eds) The Nature of Translation: Essays on the Theory and Practice of Literary Translation, The Hague: Mouton. Toury, G. (1980) In Search of a Theory of Translation, Tel Aviv: Porter Institute. Van den Broeck, R. & Levefere, A. (1979) Uitnodiging tot de Vertaalwetenschap, Muiderberg: Coutinho. Van Leuven-Zwart, K.M. (1984) Vertaling en origineel: Een vergelijkende beschrijvings-methode voor integrale vertalingen, ontwikkeld aan de hand van Nederlandse vertalingen van Spaanse narratieve teksten, Dordrecht: Foris Publications. Van Leuven-Zwart, K.M. (1989) “Translation and Original: Similarities and Dissimilarities, I”, Target, vol. 1 no. 2, pp.151-181. Van Leuven-Zwart, K.M. (1990) “Translation and Original: Similarities and Dissimilarities, II”, Target, vol. 2 no. 1, pp.69-95. HOW DO TRANSLATION STUDENTS REACT UNDER TIME PRESSURE? SOME CLAIMS AND REALITIES Kyriaki Kourouni Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece 1. INTRODUCTION T HIS PAPER DRAWS MATERIAL FROM a doctoral project examining students’ performance in relation to time (Kourouni 2008), in an attempt to help students translate effectively under time pressure. The project is based on empirical studies in translation falling within the process-oriented research paradigm (Jakobsen 1998, 2002, 2003, Jensen 2000, 2001, Hansen 2002, 2006). Results so far seem to corroborate that, under increasing time constraints, the overall quality of the work was hampered. The few cases of students who produced same quality work or even better quality work despite increasing time constraints do exist but they could not be accounted for. The aim of this paper is to present translation under the prism of management and to highlight certain views of the thirty undergraduate translation students who took part in the experiments. 2. THE CONCEPT OF TIME IN MANAGEMENT The market is rife with guides, books, seminar sessions concerning time management in various environments, from large multinational companies to freelance entrepreneurships. Many consultants offer various tips on how to best take advantage of time, each one from their own angle, all of them acknowledging its importance in productivity. There are certain facts about time, however, which form common ground, are rarely disputed and could also be taken into account when dealing with translation, especially since time considerations pervade the whole translation process. According to Drucker: — Time is a resource that cannot be multiplied, rented out or sold. — Time is completely perishable and cannot be stocked — Time is completely irreplaceable. — Effective people know that time is a factor inhibiting their ability to perform. — Nothing differentiates effective people more from average senior managers than their thoughtful handling of time (2002: 78) [our translation]. 112 – Teaching Translation With the emergence of globalization, as reflected by simship (simultaneous shipment), it becomes more evident that clients not only want everything yesterday, but they also want more of it, often being adamantly against compromises regarding quality. Time management becomes, therefore, equated with speed management and, at its worst, with crisis management combined with multi-tasking (Seiwert, 2001: 19) affecting translation performance issues as well. 3. TRANSLATION AS MANAGERIAL ACTION Nowadays, there are many voices in translation academia promoting the strengthening of links between academia and the workplace regarding translation pedagogy and translator training (Kelly 2000, Kiraly 2000, González-Davies 2004, etc.). As Ulrych argues: A professionally and educationally cogent training program for translators should present translating as an activity which takes place within a social context and should be based on a careful and up-to-date assessment of their multifaceted future profession. (1995: 251) There are also those who fear that “young translators have to make the transition from student to unsupported freelance virtually overnight” (Fraser 2000: 119) if they are not given “at least a introduction to these realities” (Mackenzie 2004: 33). Translation departments may no longer ignore market requirements. A consequence of this realization is that real-world fragments increasingly infiltrate translator training, and management theories are no exception. An ever increasing number of scholars are responding in a similar vein. I would strongly agree with Mackenzie when she states that “from the translator’s point of view, one of the critical skills involved in translation is the ability to realistically assess the time he or she will require to complete an assignment successfully” because this forms “the basis for the offer made to the client” (2000: 161). Nord agrees that it is “a very important, if not the most important factor in the practice of professional translation” (1991: 155). Kiraly insists that students should be able to manage the whole translation process: They must know when their own translation is ready to send off to a customer and when it still needs work; they must be able to determine how long a given translation will take to complete in order to meet ever-shorter deadlines; they must also be able to decide quickly and accurately whether or not they can even complete an offered assignment with the time and resources available. (2000: 162) Kyriaki Kourouni 113 Mackenzie categorizes translators’ skills in terms of management skills because quality in translation requires “management of the whole translation process, which in turn implies management of all its phases: client management, time management, resources management, information management” (ibid). Séguinot takes a big stride further by postulating that translation involves a managerial function: To explain translation as a managerial function is to define it as the interpreting of a task which directs selective attention to communicating the same information in another language within the constraints which are understood to apply in any given instance. (2000: 147) [her emphasis] Such a definition frees us from feeding the dichotomy of vocational versus educational training because it interlaces elements from both sides. It may provide future translators with at least a sampling of the real world without alienating them from institutional educational goals. After all, quoting Neubert, “theory without practice is empty […] practice without theory is blind” (1989: 11). 4. SELF-REPORTING STATEMENTS AND PROCESS-BASED DATA Students were asked to answer a questionnaire based on De Rooze’s work (2003), largely consisting of “true-or-false” type of comments, following completion of each one of the 4 translation tasks. These self-reporting statements were later compared to and contrasted with data arising from process-based analysis. A few items of this questionnaire were singled out for the purposes of the present paper in order to demonstrate how students themselves perceived time pressure. 4.1 Completion of translation task Students were given 4 texts to translate under different time frames of 30, 20, 15, 10 minutes respectively. “I had enough time to finish the translation” was the first item of the retrospective questionnaire. It is clear that when students had to translate a text in 30 minutes they found the time sufficient to do so (62.07%), but when time frame is reduced to 20 minutes, the percentage immediately drops below 50%, a sign that time pressure already significantly affects the sample as a total. It is obvious that time was not enough for text 3 and several students did not finish the translation. Furthermore, 76.67% of the students did not complete the translation of the last task for which the available time was only 10 min. It is interesting that this claim is not fully supported by data from the actual translations: In Figure 1, students who finished the translation of text 1 and text 4 amount to 76.66% and 26.66% rather 114 – Teaching Translation that what students claimed, 62.07% and 23.33%, respectively. This may imply that even students who had translated the whole text did not consider their output a finished product. Figure 1. “I had enough time to finish the translation” 90 80 70 60 50 subj. opinion obj. result 40 30 20 10 0 30 min 20 min 15 min 10 min 4.2. Internet Search(es) Students had access to the Internet and it seems that they tried to make the best out of it. Even under extreme time pressure (10-minute time frame), 62.7% still had enough time to perform internet searches. The increasing time pressure did not result in corresponding decrease in the number of subjects that performed internet searches since 56.67% claims that they had time to perform internet searches. This figure is not considered very low considering that when informants had 20 minutes the figure of actual access was 62.7%. An interesting finding is that there is a 20% difference between students’ claims and actual access regarding text 1 and 2. This difference could imply that Internet search has become an integral part of the translation process for those students and it occurred in such an automatized way that students did not pinpoint it in the questionnaire. These high percentages may also explain why 93.33% of the students did not have the time to revise their translations as discussed in 4.3 below. 115 Kyriaki Kourouni Figure 2. “I had time to perform Internet search(es)” 90 100 90 80 80 70 70 60 60 50 subj. opinion subj. opinion obj. result obj. result 50 40 40 30 30 20 20 10 10 0 0 30 min 30 min 20 min 20 min 15 min 15 min 10 min 10 min 4.3. Revision time Only 27.59% of the informants claim they had enough time to revise the translation of text 2 (20 minutes, actual result 31.5) but 62.7% claim they still had enough time to perform internet searches for the same text, while the actual and rather high result was 86.66%. This could imply prioritizing. One would also tend to think that students would just insert the first term they would find online in their translations without processing the newly acquired information. According to figure 3, it seems that more students performed revision-related actions than those stating it in the questionnaire and this may suggest that students do not a clear view of where the draft ends and revision begins. 116 – Teaching Translation Figure 3. “I had time to revise my translation” 90 50 100 45 90 80 40 80 70 35 70 60 30 60 50 opinion subj. subj. opinion result obj. obj. result 25 50 40 20 40 30 15 30 20 10 20 10 5 10 0 0 30 min 30 min 20 min 20 min 15 min 15 min 10 min 10 min 4.4. Think clearly despite time constraints 40% of the subjects claimed they could think clearly despite time constraints (10-minute time frame). Although it was not possible to verify to which extent this subjective comment was true, having less than half the students claiming such an opinion could be interpreted as a sign of high self-esteem. This area of self-awareness might prove a suitable starting point for potential trainer involvement in two directions: one toward finding appropriate confusion-minimizing techniques and second, toward boosting students’ self-confidence. Figure 4. “I could think clearly despite time constraints” 100 90 80 70 60 50 subj. opinion 40 30 20 10 0 30 min 20 min 15 min 10 min Kyriaki Kourouni 117 5. CONCLUSIONS Within a management-oriented setting, small-scale tasks such as the ones described above may add to our understanding of translation processes and offer insights for trainer intervention and guidance related to time-resistant techniques. More in-depth work and further analysis is necessary in order to discover our students’ potential and, eventually, to take therapeutic measures. A necessary next step would be to instigate changes in translator training in order to facilitate “the difficult task of preparing the students in the course of an undergraduate degree for some of the challenges they will meet as professionals working in the translation industry” (Mackenzie 2004: 37). REFERENCES De Rooze, B. (2003) La traducción, contra reloj: Consecuencias de la presión por falta de tiempo en el proceso de traducción, Granada: Universidad de Granada [unpublished PhD thesis] http://isg.urv.es/library/ papers/DeRooze-DissDraft03.pdf Last accessed: May 2008. Drucker, P. (2002) Was ist Management? Das Beste aus 50 Jahren, München: Econ Verlag. Fraser, J. (2000) “The Broader View: How Freelance Translators Define Translation Competence,” in: C. Scäffner & B. Adab (eds) Developing Translation Competence, Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, p.p. 51-62. González Davies, M. (2004) Multiple Voices in the Translation Classroom. Activities, Tasks and Projects. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Hansen, G. (ed.) (2002) Empirical translation studies: Process and product, Copenhagen: Samfundslitteratur Hansen, G. (2006) “Retrospection methods in translator training and translation research”, Journal of Specialised translation, 5 (1) 2-41. http://www.jostrans.org/issue05/issue05_toc.php Jakobsen, A.L. (2002) “Translation drafting by professional translators and by translation students”, in Hansen, G. (ed.) Empirical translation studies: Process and product, Copenhagen: Samfundslitteratur. 191-204. Jakobsen, A.L. (2003) “Effects of think aloud on translation speed, revision and segmentation”, in Fabio, Alves (ed.) Triangulating translation, Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. 69-95. 118 – Teaching Translation Jensen, A. and Jakobsen, A.L. (2000) “Translating under time pressure”, in Chesterman, Andrew, Gallardo San Salvador, Natividad and Gambier, Yves (eds) Translation in Context: Selected contributions from the EST Congress, Granada 1998, Amsterdam, Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 105-112. Jensen, A. (2001) The effects of time on cognitive processes and strategies in translation, Copenhagen: Copenhagen Business School. [PhD thesis]. Kiraly, D. (2000) A Social Constructivist Approach to Translator Education. Empowerment from Theory to Practice, Manchester: St. Jerome. Kelly, D. (2000) “Text selection for developing translator competence: Why texts from the tourist sector constitute suitable material”, in Schaeffner, Christina & Adab, Beverly (eds) Developing Translation Competence, Amsterdam, Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 157-167. Kourouni, K. (2008) A Study of Translation Students Under Time Constraints. Unpublished minor dissertation, Tarragona: Universitat Rovira i Virgili. Mackenzie, R. (2000) “Functional translation theory and quality in translation: An interface between theory and practice”, in Jorma Tommola (ed.) Kieli, teksti ja kaantaminen/Language, text and translation, Turku: University of Turku, 157-168. Mackenzie, R. (2004) “The competencies required by the translator’s roles as a professional”, in Malmkjaer, Kirsten (ed.) Translation in Undergraduate Degree Programmes, Amsterdam, Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 31-38. Neubert, A. (1989) “Translation as mediation”, in Kolmel, Rainer and Payne, Jerry (eds) Babel. The Cultural and Linguistic Barriers between Nations. Aberdeen: Aberdeen University Press, 5-12. Nord, C. (1991) Translating as a purposeful activity. Functionalist approaches explained, Manchester, Northampton: St Jerome Publishing. Séguinot, C. (1989) The translation process, Toronto: HG Publications. Seiwert, L.J. (2001) (7nth ed) Wenn Du eilig hast, gehe langsam. Das neue Zeitmanagement in einer beschleunigten Welt. Seiben Scritten zur Zeitsouveraenitaet und Effektivitaet, Frankfurt, New York: Campus Verlag. Ulrych, M. (1995) “Real-world criteria in translation pedagogy” in Dollerup, Cay & Appel, Vibeke (eds) Teaching Translation and Interpreting 3, Amsterdam, Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 251-259. USING MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE TO ENGAGE ADULT LEARNERS IN THE WRITING/ESL CLASSROOM Katerina Andriotis - Baitinger St. Joseph’s College, USA INTRODUCTION M ANY STUDENTS TODAY ASSUME THAT it is the teacher’s job to educate them, tell them what they need to know, give them the answers. Moreover, because they have been taught to be passive learners, they think that their job is to listen without resistance and try to learn as best as they can, and in some cases verbatim, what they are taught. Many students, in fact, accept everything they read as factual information. That is to say, even when they are sure that certain authors stereotype or make sweeping generalizations, they are reluctant to question those whom they consider authorities. Clearly, lack of confidence contributes to the way students absorb information, but also fear of being embarrassed and perhaps even humiliated in front of their peers is an unremitting factor. Most students are not able to recognize, embrace, and share their life experiences and knowledge they acquire as they grow. Educators, however, must find creative ways to engage and encourage students to actively participate in their own learning. One such creative way is to incorporate Multiple Intelligences to lesson plans. In fact, Howard Gardner, a Psychologist and Co-Director of Harvard University’s “Project Zero,” the mission of which is to “understand and enhance learning, thinking, and creativity in the arts, as well as humanistic and scientific disciplines, at the individual and institutional levels,” through extensive research on human intelligence, discovered that human beings have “Multiple Intelligences” (See Project Zero). At first, Gardner clearly documented seven multiple intelligences which learners may utilize to gain knowledge and then added two additional intelligences (Gardner, 2000; Wilson, 1998): — — — Verbal/Linguistic (makes use of the spoken and written word) Logical/Mathematical (makes use of numbers, calculations, logic, classifications, and critical thinking) Spatial (makes use of visual aids, visualization, color, art, and metaphor) 120 — — — — — — I - Motivating FL students I Bodily/Kinesthetic (makes use of the whole body and hands-on experience) Musical (makes use of music, environmental sounds, and sets key points in a rhythmic or melodic pattern) Interpersonal/Social (makes use of discussion, cooperative learning, and large group simulation) Intrapersonal/Self (makes use of one’s ability for self-reflection, as expressed in journal writing, computer work, brainstorming sessions, and guided imagery tours) Naturalistic (makes use of students’ love and understanding of nature as expressed in classifying and system building) Existential (makes use of students’ ability to conceptualize and philosophize deeper questions regarding human existence) (Garner, 1983 & 2000) In many cases, in higher education today, we usually deal with two types of students, pre-adults (traditional students), and adults (nontraditional students). In following Malcolm Knowles’s “Andragogy” model, the primary role of pre-adults (children and adolescents including high school graduates) is to be full-time learners. For them “education is the primary or social role” (Knowles, 1991). In other words, the roles they play as students, children, and siblings do not include positions of power. Adult students, on the other hand, have either never initiated or completed their education. In some cases, many of them have interrupted their education. What distinguishes adult students from pre-adult students is that the former are focused upon living life, while the latter study about it. That is to say, when it comes to classroom instruction, adult do not have to be there: if the class is unpleasant, they can simply stop coming. As a result, when teaching adults, the customer (learner), not the subject, comes first and is always right (Rogers, 1989). In order to accommodate adult learners, we must shift our teaching paradigm to include techniques, styles, and even accepted learning theories that are not teacher-centered, but rather learner-centered. In fact, learning research clearly indicates that learner-centered instruction is the most effective way to teach adults, and ought to be applied across to all levels of education. This may be the point of departure for Gardner’s Multiple Intelligence paradigm. Additionally, Knowles constructed a collaborative teaching paradigm that involves learners as partners (Knowles, 1980). It is true that today’s adult-learners’ readiness to learn is frequently affected by the necessity to know or do something as a result of a need for advancement in the work place. That is to say, they tend to have a life-, task-, or problem- Katerina Andriotis 121 centered orientation to learning as well as subject matter. Adults today are motivated to learn due to internal and external factors, such as helping their children with homework, and also a raise in salary or retraining in a technologically advanced occupation. Combining Knowles’ andragogical model with Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences paradigm can produce a more successful learning environment whether it is geared toward traditional or non-traditional students. In fact, Gardner (1983) explains that multiple intelligences in context can yield true, authentic learning. Transforming the curriculum, through hands-on, all inclusive pedagogy, can only produce positive results even for those students who have been left behind, have been ignored, or simply have been labeled learning disabled. The only option for educators is either to nurture and strengthen their students’ intelligences or ignore them and allow them to deteriorate. As a result, Gardner does not ask, “How smart am I?” But rather, he asks, “How am I smart?” As far as he is concerned, there are no more or less intelligent students. There are simply differently able students. That is to say, all students are intelligent, each in a different way. Absorbing course material can be different and unique for students based on this model. Hence the reason multiple intelligences and distance learning go handin-hand. For example, desktop and web-based publishing can be very effective learning tools for the verbal/linguistic learner. Furthermore, email can be another tool that verbal/linguistic learners can use to further develop their learning style. For the logical/mathematical learner, analyzing data, using search engines to run queries or use various online platforms to problem solve can be very effective as well. The visual/spatial learner can benefit from various technological tools, such as PowerPoint slide shows, charting and graphing, utilizing online platforms and editors, and even digital animation. Stimulating the bodily/ kinesthetic learner through technology and web-based application is quite easy. Diagramming, videoconferencing, sorting various materials by attributes, and participating in virtual group simulations can be some of the activities available to the bodily/kinesthetic intelligence. Incorporating digital sounds into PowerPoint/multimedia presentations can easily accommodate the musical intelligence. The intrapersonal learner can work with answers to guided questions posted on the discussion section of the course (Blackboard, WebCT), whereas the interpersonal intelligence can be stimulated by group discussion either synchronous (chat-rooms) or asynchronous (email, discussion boards), and various collaborative projects. The naturalist learner works well with organization. As a result, organizing and making sense of information, through the creation of databases or semantic mapping, 122 I - Motivating FL students I benefits this intelligence. Finally, the existential intelligence can be stimulated through learning experiences that examine the “big picture” of learning. In this case, virtual communities can help the existential learner feel like he/she belongs to something larger than family, community or classroom. Virtual art exhibits and virtual field trips can also help in experiencing the beauty that surrounds the existential learner (see McKenzie, 2002). A great way to reach a high level of positive interaction between teacher and learner may be a type of partnership established through initial classroom set up. For example, after the instructor administers a Multiple Intelligence assessment, it is good practice to begin the first session by drafting the course content of the syllabus through teacherlearner negotiation, each time accommodating the students’ learning styles. Even if the first session is devoted to needs assessment, identifying various learning styles, explaining the theory and how it works, and discussing learner expectations for the course, it is crucial to provide as much written information about the course and assessment as possible, with a promise of a complete syllabus at the next session (Imel, 1994). Furthermore, it is essential to incorporate group work in the classroom format, simply because adult learners don’t have much time to participate in the traditional learning environment. As a result, group work may develop positive peer relationships among learners, which in many cases are more important and have a much greater influence on learning than teacher-learner relationships (Imel, 1994). It is also important to break the traditional classroom model. This will do more than create opportunities for interaction; it will break down barriers between teacher and learners. Also, wherever possible instructors must consider using humor in their lesson plans. It is through the use of humor that learners can see the “human” side of the teacher. For example, self-deprecating humor can help learners understand that errors are a normal part of the learning process (Imel, 1994). There are other things that can be done to involve adult learners and steer them into sharing responsibility for their learning. For example, teachers may encourage the formation of study groups and always be available for individual teacher-learner conferences. Certainly, and it goes without saying, it is very important to provide an equitable learning environment for adult learners. When it comes to writing capabilities matters become more complicated, for “many adult learners believe that their writing skills are not adequate” (Fagan, 1988; Gambrell & Heatherington, 1981; SmithBurke, 1987). For adult learners, making writing mistakes of any kind is a source of anxiety and confusion and often contributes to their inability to open up not only to writing instruction, but also to learning in general. Katerina Andriotis 123 The learning environment should be of primary concern. An effective adult learning environment should meet both physical a psychological needs of adult learners; furthermore, it should make them feel both safe and challenged through a partnership between learners and teacher. An ideal adult learning climate has a non-threatening, non-judgmental atmosphere in which adults have permission for and are expected to share in the responsibility for their learning (Rogers, 1989). As a result, it is important to put in place a number of practical steps to alleviate some anxiety and confusion, build self-esteem, and create a positive classroom environment in which students may grow and blossom into critical thinkers and skilled writers. To be sure, this practical application is not limited to the writing classroom. In fact, it can be extended to the rest of the general education curriculum, and perhaps even beyond. Consequently, there are certain issues that inevitably come up again and again, within the language instruction curriculum. First of all, there is something to be said about composition theory and the importance and necessity of current theoretical knowledge for writing/language teachers. That is to say, current composition theory applications are of essence and should be a top priority in the classroom. Moreover, creativity must be considered as important as mechanics, again this is an area that can be explored thought the use of Multiple Intelligence theory. That is to say, we must do away with outdated purist notions of language corruption. It is pertinent that writing teachers approach language as a living, breathing, evolving thing, and not as a stale, musty collection of rules and regulations that must be taught in the strictest sense. That is to say, we must follow a holistic approach to the teaching of writing. In other words, we must accept that writing is thinking, and good writing is the result of good thinking, that writing is action, and that words change people’s thoughts and opinions. Writing, therefore, must be evaluated by its effect on readers. Finally, writing, after all, is communication: that is, readers must be willing and able to understand the writing in order to be influenced by it. There are certain steps that teachers may take to aid in creating life-long learners through the use of writing. The First Step: Easing Anxiety This is no easy task! In the majority of colleges and universities today, we encounter a variety of learners with numerous problems, difficulties, levels of abilities and learning or physical disabilities that must be addressed. One of the problems non-traditional adult learners must face is fear of failure; another may be their struggle for perfection. As a result, many of our non-traditional adult learners are loaded with anxiety. 124 I - Motivating FL students I Certainly, in a writing class, this anxiety increases because of the various writing assignments learners are required to produce. Nontraditional journal writing may alleviate some of that anxiety. Since journal writing is not as formal as essay writing, adult learners are only required to produce writing based on their opinions, experiences, and acquired knowledge. Hence, journal writing is a great place to begin. In addition, informal writing, such as storytelling may further lessen some of that initial anxiety. For example, questions relating to stories about students’ births, their children’s, or other family members’ births may be used to break the ice. Questions relating to their growing up, such as happy or sad childhood memories may contribute to good journal writing habits as well. Additionally, questions about their cultural traditions and family stories, or what they remember best from growing up may be a good choice. Even those learners who have had very sad lives find something nice, happy, or unforgettable to say about growing up. The objective of this type of writing is to prompt learners to develop the confidence they need to take a proactive role when it comes to their studies and hopefully their own lives. Giving mini-lessons about a particularly difficult grammar point ought to decrease any additional anxiety. Journal entries may include free writing, writing extended narratives, dialogue, and double entry journals. The cyclical process of composing extended narratives involves generating ideas through free writing and brainstorming, drafting, conferencing with peers and teacher, revising organization and content, editing for form, and, in some cases, publishing writing for a broader audience. In dialogue journals, on the other hand, learners write about thoughts, experiences, reactions to texts, or issues of importance to them, and teachers respond to the content of learners’ entries by sharing experiences, ideas, and reactions as well as modeling correct usage (Peyton & Staton, 1993). Students may also use the double entry journal which is a useful tool, not only in general education courses, but also in many specialized fields of study: each of the two facing pages is targeted for a specific task. The left page is used for notes, assigned readings, direct quotations, observations, lists, images, models, description of events, or summaries; the right page is used to record reflections about the material generated on the left page, such as comments, reactions, objections, feelings, questions, and new learning (Hughes, 1997). There is another hurdle teachers and students must overcome: that is the anxiety over spelling. Some students believe that they are terrible writers because they cannot spell. Allowing students to use a dictionary in the classroom alleviates that problem. In addition, the Internet may be utilized in the writing classroom. Terminology, definitions, interactive Katerina Andriotis 125 exercises and quizzes are some of the items that can be located on the World Wide Web. Likewise, thematic readings motivate adult learners to approach culture-specific writing, as well as more traditional essays, with ease. At the same time, they are encouraged to develop an interest in other cultures and traditions, develop a global perspective and make the transition from journal writing to formal essay writing with ease. The Second Step: Reading and Writing in Context Reading and writing are rudimentary yet interdependent disciplines. Furthermore, reading and writing in the disciplines is shaped by the unique conceptual, textual, and semantic demands of each area. For example, in the social sciences, in courses such as psychology, anthropology, and sociology, learners are asked to think critically. As a result, they are introduced to “sociocultural and critical perspectives” (O’Brien, Moje & Stewart, 1995). When it comes to adult learners, cultural studies perspectives must be included in interdisciplinary programs. It seems that adult learners perform at their best when they are able to study people’s every day lives in a cultural context. That is to say, through their studies adult learners are able to make positive change in their own lives. Moreover, engaging learners in a greater variety of experiences, through reading and writing instruction, leads to a higher level of critical thinking than when either is taught alone. Adult learners become better thinkers if taught in classrooms where meaning is actively constructed through reading and writing. As a consequence, when teachers weave integrated reading and writing activities into interdisciplinary studies, they help learners become better readers, writers, and critical thinkers (Sweet, 1994). One of the things that usually helps while teaching reading and writing is to do away with the traditional lecture format, which fosters passive rather than active learning (Roskos & Walker, 1994). Recent research has shown that by (1) including small- and wholegroup discussions, (2) incorporating lively content-heavy presentations (including various media resources), (3) providing real life applied demonstrations, and (4) furnishing ample opportunities for critique, active engagement of adult learners is promoted, for content is very important to their learning abilities and styles (Feiman-Nemser & Buchman, 1987; Kennedy, 1987; Zeichner & Tabachnick, 1985). Teachers must not overlook any opportunities for collaboration, discussion, and dialogue with adult learners. One of the ways such levels of learning and cooperation may be achieved is by training faculty to recognize the differences in learning styles (McNeely & Mertz, 1990). 126 I - Motivating FL students I Clearly, students today, have a wide range of intellectual abilities and competences that cannot be measured or quantified on any standardized test. Gardner explains that multiple intelligences in context can yield true learning (see Project Zero). Transforming classroom instruction, through hands-on, all inclusive pedagogy, can only yield positive results even for those students who have been left behind, ignored, or simply labeled, learning disabled, including adult learners. The only option for educators is either to nurture and strengthen our students’ intelligence or ignore them and allow them to deteriorate. As a result, Gardner does not ask, “How smart am I?” Rather, he asks, “How am I smart?” As far as he is concerned, there are no more or less intelligent students. There simply are differently able students based on their primary intelligences. That is to say, all students are intelligent, each in a different way. Absorbing course material can be different and unique for each student based on his/her multiple intelligences (see Project Zero). The Third Step: Content Learning Another way to engage adult learners is incorporating assigned readings topics appropriate to their major fields of study. This works is a motivator on several levels. First of all, it gives them a chance to work from within their areas of interest, which in itself gives them an incentive to work harder and get better results. Secondly, working from within their majors allows them to expand their basic knowledge and get a better understanding of current issues in their chosen professions. Furthermore, by allowing them to have a glimpse into their future, they get a better understanding of what their chosen professions entail, and consequently if they have made the right choice in their future occupation. As a matter of fact, incorporating topics and tasks that adult learners have identified as meaningful to them may contribute in transferring the power for growth and development into the learner’s hands. The Fourth Step: Peer and Community Tutoring Research shows that peer and community tutoring empower students in a way that straight classroom instruction cannot. Community involvement, either in the form of internships or volunteer community service, is increasingly gaining ground and popularity in many colleges and universities. Increasingly, many colleges and universities require some type of service learning as a graduation requirement. Peer and community tutoring can be used to reinforce individual, as well as collective learning, and at the same time fulfill the community service requirement. It appears that even developmental learners have a great deal to gain from peer and/or community tutoring. In many cases, even the most reluctant developmental learners take charge of their learning and practically overnight become better learners. Katerina Andriotis 127 CONCLUSION There is much more to be said about teaching adult learners. Learnercentered instruction is key to developing life long learners. I believe that learner-centered instruction should be used across the board in all educational settings. It is obvious that learner-centered instruction is the key to educating current and future generations. Let us hope that through learner-centered education, we will create not only critical thinkers and good writers, but also model citizens. What needs to be emphasized, then, is not about simply changing teaching methods; this is not an exercise in methods. It is about caring for our students as individuals and about our willingness to lend a helping hand and perhaps be the guiding light in their journey. This is indicative of Parker Palmer’s idea of a good teacher. In fact, in his book The Courage To Teach, he eloquently describes the one trait that all “good” teachers share: Good teaching comes in myriad forms, but good teachers share one trait: they are truly present in the classroom, deeply engaged with their students and their subject. They are able to weave a complex web of connections among themselves, their subjects, and their students, so that students can learn to weave a world for themselves. The connections made by good teachers are held not in their methods but in their hearts-the place where intellect and emotion and spirit and will converge in the human self. (Palmer, 1998) REFERENCES Brundage, D. and Mackeracher, D. (1980) Adult Learning Principles and Their Application to Program Planning, Toronto: Ontario Institute for Studies in Education. Dewey, J. (1916) Education and Democracy, New York: Macmillan. ------, (1938) Experience and Education, London: Collier, Macmillan. Eisenhart, M., Behm, L., and Romagnano, L. (1991) ‘Learning to Teach: Developing Expertise or Rite of Passage?’ Journal of Education for Teaching 17, pp. 51-71. Fagan, W.T. (1988) ‘Concepts of Reading and Writing Among LowLiterate Adults’, Reading Research and Instruction 27, pp. 47-50. Feiman-Nemser, S. and Buchmann, M. (1987) ‘When is Student Teaching Teacher Education?’ Teaching and Teacher Education 3, pp. 255-273. Gambrell, L.B. and Heathington, B. (1981) ‘Adult Disabled Readers’ Metacognitive Awareness About Reading Tasks and Strategies’, Journal of Reading Behavior XIII, pp. 215-221. 128 I - Motivating FL students I Garnder, H. (2003) Project Zero, Harvard University School of Education. http://pzweb.harvard.edu/ (accessed: 14.1.2005) Griffin, P. and Cole, M. (1982) “Locating Tasks in Psychology and Education”, Discourse Processes 15, pp. 115-126. Henschke, J.A. (1998) “Modeling the Preparation of Adult Educators”, Adult Learning 9, pp. 11-14. Hughes, H., et al. (1997) “Dialogic Reflection and Journaling”, Clearing House 70, pp. 187-191. Imel, S. (1994) “Guidelines for Working with Adult Learners”, ERIC Digest 154, pp. 1-5. Kennedy, M. (1987) “Inexact Sciences: Professional Education and the Development of Expertise”, Review of Research in Education 14, pp. 133-167. Knowles, M.S. (1991) “Introduction: The Art and Science of Helping Adults Learn”, in Andragogy in Action: Applying Modern Principles of Adult Learning. Edited by M.S. Knowles, et al. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. ------, (1975) Self-Directed Learning, New York: Association Press. ------, (1980) The Modern Practice of Adult Education, New York: Association Press. Lave, J and Wenger, E. (1991) Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation, New York: Cambridge University Press. Literacy Works, A Website for Adult Learners, http://literacyworks.org (accessed: 15.10.2009) Mertz, N and McNeely, S. (1990) “How Professors ‘Learn to Teach: Teacher Cognitions, Teaching Paradigms and Higher Education”, Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Education Research Association. Boston, MA. Moje, E.B., et al. (2000) “Reexamining Roles of Learner, Text, and Context in Secondary Literacy”, Journal of Educational Research 93, pp. 165-181. Online Assessment: Literacy Works. A Website for Adult Learners, http:// literacyworks.org/mi/assessment/index.html (accessed: 15.10.2009) Peyton, J.K. (1993) “Listening to Student Voices: Publishing Student Writing for Other Students to Read”, in Approaches to ESL Literacy Instruction, Edited by J. Crandall and J.K. Peyton, Washington, DC: CAL and Delta Systems. ------, (1991) Writing Our Lives: Reflections on Dialogue Journal Writing With Adults Learning English, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Katerina Andriotis 129 Rogers, J. (1989) Adults Learning, Philadelphia, PA: Open University Press. Roskos, K. and Walker, B.J. (1994) “Learning to Teach Problem Readers: Instructional Influences on Preservice Teachers’ Practical Knowledge”, Journal of Teacher Education 45, pp. 279-289. Smith-Burke, T. (1987) Starting Over: Characteristics of Adult Literacy Learners, New York: Literacy Assistance Center. Sweet, R. (1994) “Distance Education for Adult Learners”, Canadian Journal for the Study of Adult Education 14, pp. 1-26. Wilcox, S. (1996) “Fostering Self-Directed Learning in the University Setting”, Studies in Higher Education 21, pp. 165-177. Zeichner, K. and Tabachnick, R. (1985) “The Development of Teacher Perspectives: Social Strategies and Institutional Control in the Socialization of Beginning Teachers”, Journal Of Education for Teaching 11, pp. 1-25. , Ω Ω Ω - Ω , Ω 1. ( ) . - , . . , , , , - , . . . « ». , , « 2000: 7 »( 26). , - . , , , , , , 131 , , - , . 150 . , 25 20 . 2. . , . , . , . , , . , . 2.1. - 2006 2009. . , . . , . 132 I - Motivating FL students I , - : 1. % 2006-2007 % 2007-2008 % 2008-2009 34,7 % 32,9 % 35,7 % 65,3 % 67,1 % 64,3 % Ά , . 1/3 . - , - , . , ‘ ‘ - ’ ’ . 2.2. ‘ ’ , , , . , , . « , »( « , 2000: 9-10). .Ά 133 », « - . , (Davignon 2008: 8-12). , » - . , . : 2. % 2008-2009 11,2 % 69,7 % 13,5 % ( , , - - ) 5,6 % , , - , . . ) . ( , , , . (Rean 2002: 154-157). , 5,6% . 134 I - Motivating FL students I , ( ) , , - , , . . , . 3. Ω 3.1. , , , , . - , , ( . , , ) , - . « , , »( 1997: 127). . , , - ». - « , [ ] , « . . , 135 , ». , , « - » (Davignon 2008: 8-12). . , « , , , (2003: 143), , - ». , . ’ . - , 2004: 210-220). ( , - . ( « » - 2004: 29-35). , , ( 2004: 12-23). Wlodkowski (1999), , , , . 3.2. ( 55 ) 2005: 3-8), . , 20 (20 15 - . . : 136 I - Motivating FL students I 3. – 55 % – 4% 8% – 33 % , . , (Mezirow 1981: 3-24). , , . , , . , - . . 3.3. . : 4. 16 % / / 20 % 60 % 4% . , . . - 137 , , , . ’ , , , (Bailey 1983). . , ( ) - . Ά , . . . . . Krashen (Krashen: 2003). , , ’ . 4. . , , , - , ( 2000). : . 138 I - Motivating FL students I . ( 15 2007: 1-2). 55 (20 , 20 ) . (1: , 2: - - , 3: , 4: , 5: - - ). - : 5. Η 1 2 3 4 5 6% 9% 13 % 31% 41 % 5% 7% 23 % 27 % 38 % 3% 9% 15 % 48% 25 % 3% 9% 47 % 26 % 15 % 3% 7% 14 % 23 % 53 % 3% 6% 8% 16 % 67 % 38 % 23 % 15 % 13 % 11 % 2% 5% 17 % 52 % 24 % 35 % 45 % 15 % 3% 2% ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; 139 . - , . . , , , - . , . . - . , . , : 6. Η ; ; 1=<2 , 2=2-4 4=6-8, 5=>8 , 3=4-6 1 2 3 4 5 10 % 20 % 45 % 15 % 10 % 10 % 15 % 45 % 20 % 10 % 30 % 40 % 15 % 10 % , 5% . . , , , , . - , . 140 I - Motivating FL students I 5. , , , . - , . ( , - , ) . , , . , - , . , . ω / gr/files/ApografikaDeltia_v1.doc, 2009. , . . & , . (1997) , : Courau, S. (2000) . Davignon, Etienne (2008) « . (2007) « », http://www.adip. 27 . . , : . », http://ec.europa.eu/education/languages/pdf/ davignon_el.pdf, 27 2009. 141 , . (1998) – : , 4 : , . . (2003) ,7 , ., , .& : . (2003) : ., – . : ., : , 11 . , . (1998) , : . , . (2005) « , », : Zoe Kantaridou, Iris Papadopoulou & Ifigenia Lahili, Motivation in Learning Language for specific and Academic Purposes, 5th International Conference on Language Learning for specific and Academic Purposes, : , Cd-Rom, . . 1-8. , . (2000) « », http://www.uowm.gr/balkan/ereuna-agoras.htm 27 2009. , . (1995) : . : , : . (2000) 2000-2001, . , . (2004) , : . , . . (2004) , : Gutenberg. , . (2003) Έ , , : Gutenberg. , . (2003) , : . , . (2000) , : . ω Bailey, K.M. (1983) “Competitiveness and anxiety in adult second language learning: Looking at and through the diary studies” in: H. Selinger and M. Long (eds), Classroom-orientedresearch in second 142 I - Motivating FL students I language acquisition, Rowley MA: Newbury House. Cooper, S. Yeo, S. & Zadnik, M. (2003) “Australian students views on nuclear issues: Does teaching alter prior beliefs?” Physics Education 38, Curtin University of Technology, Learning Support Network. Krashen, S. (2003) Explorations in Language Acquisition and Use, Portsmouth: Heinemann. Mezirow, J. (1991) Transformative dimensions of adult learning, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Rean, A.A., Bordovskaya, N.V. & Rozum, S.I. (2002) Psihologija i Pedagologika, Sankt Peterburg: Peter. Wlodkowski, R. (1999) Enhancing adult motivation to learn, San Fransisco: Jossey- Bass. INCORPORATING ACADEMIC WRITING INTO AN ESP/ EAP CLASS. A LANGUAGE VARIETY THAT MOTIVATES Makrina Zafiri*, Evmorfia Panourgia ** * University of Thessaly, Greece ** Kavala Institute of Technology, Greece 1. INTRODUCTION I N TERTIARY EDUCATION ESP/EAP MATERIAL that seems motivating and prominent for one group of students may not be the same for another. This may be due to the fact that students may not be of the same linguistic level and are thus unable to keep pace with the rest of the group. It may also be because of the fact that the material used is a tangible proof of what the department of the university expects to be taught to ESP/ EAP students. This material is either commercially produced and thus easier to be found and used by the teacher or it may be produced by the teacher himself to meet the specific needs of his students. When using specific ESP/EAP material, whether it is commercially produced or locally by the teacher himself, one has to bear in mind that students must learn and must do in class what they will be asked to do in their work-field in future or what their professors will ask them to do or read in the foreign language during the course of their studies. Therefore, the choice of the most appropriate material for a specific group of students may become one of the most challenging jobs an ESP/EAP language teacher has to carry through as this choice often predetermines, the interest and motivation of the ESP/ EAP students and a certain amount of independent learner awareness and initiative in the learning process. The integration of academic writing seems to impede the situation as students want to “learn how to write appropriately” but they seem to want to do that with the least work possible. Students must thus be persuaded that the integration of academic writing into a university language teaching corpus will enable them to use their English language knowledge (which is often in a dormant state) productively and will also turn student’s learning skills from receptive into productive. What follows is an analysis on what is meant by “student oriented” authentic material, motivation, techniques and functions of teaching specific genres of academic writing and teacher’s experience and student’s reaction to academic writing. Two demonstrations will also be conduced in an attempt to show the aforementioned. 144 I - Motivating FL students I 2. STUDENT ORIENTED AUTHENTIC MATERIAL As mentioned before students should not only become motivated to learn but should also acquire an awareness of their learning process. It thus becomes necessary that the material used in ESP/EAP be authentic and as close as possible to the material that students will meet up with in their discipline. The material used or produced by the ESP/EAP teacher should also reflect the language level of the group which is being taught. According to Nunan (1996: 99-100), “authentic materials are usually defined as those which have been produced for purposes other than to teach language. They can be culled from many different sources: video clips, recordings of authentic interactions, extracts from television, radio and newspapers, signs, maps and charts, photographs and pictures, timetables and schedules. These are just a few of the sources which can be tapped”. Candlin and Edelhoff (in Nunan 1996: 101) suggest that ‘‘there are at least four types of authenticity which are important for language learning and teaching. These are authenticity of goal, environment, text and task”. Students, on the other hand, have specific needs which are directly related to the content of the authentic material mentioned above. They also need to exercise all four skills (writing, reading, listening, speaking), yet some skills are exercised more than others in an ESP/EAP classroom. Sometimes even a skill which is fully exercised during the lesson time allotted may present aspects which are not fully examined or taught. This is true for academic writing which is not exercised extensively in an ESP/EAP class, even though writing in the form of – for example – vocabulary exercises is exercised extensively. Thus, before proceeding to the production of student-oriented material, the students, themselves, have to be aware of their needs. According to Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 55-59), needs are in fact classified as “target needs”, an umbrella term, which in practice hides a number of important distinctions. It is more useful to look at the target situation in terms of: I. Necessities which is in fact the type of need determined by the demands of the target situation, that is, what the learner has to know in order to function effectively in the target situation. For example, a student of the Department of Architecture needs to understand not only the terminology of his discipline but to be able to write effectively using the terminology learnt. II. Lacks, since the concern in ESP/EAP is with the needs of particular learners, to identify necessities alone seem not to be enough; thus, the teacher needs to know what the learner already knows. This will help the ESP/EAP teacher to decide which of the necessities the learner lacks. Makrina Zafiri, Evmorphia Panourgia 145 III. Wants, which basically means that the learners themselves have a view as to what their needs are. For example, when students prepare a written paper for one of their modules (not necessarily for their English modules then they have to know the format of the paper, the layout. This means they need to have a back ground knowledge on academic writing. The material taught for academic writing must “foster independent learning by raising the consciousness of the learners and making them more aware of the learning process” (Nunan, 1996: 99). On the other hand, the “... materials should be designed so that they are capable of being used in a variety of ways and also at different proficiency levels” (Nunan, 1996: 99), which was the initial opinion and material design model of the authors of this paper in the preparation of the materials used for academic writing. For the purposes of their material design, the authors of this paper followed Hutchins and Waters (1987: 108-109) model on material design in an attempt to provide a slightly modified coherent framework for the integration not only of academic writing but also of the various aspects of learning while at the same time allowing enough room for creativity and variety on behalf of the students. The aforementioned model consists of the following four elements: input, content focus, language focus and task. I. Input: which may be a text, a diagram or any piece of data (including communication data). Input provides a number of things: — stimulus material for activities; — new language terms; — correct models of language use; — a topic for communication; — opportunities for learners to use the information; — opportunities for learners to use their existing knowledge both of the language and the academic writing subject matter. II. Content focus: Language and more specifically academic writing language is not an end in itself, but a means of conveying information about a subject matter. It is also important that nonlinguistic content should also be explored to generate meaningful communication in the classroom. III. Language focus: The main aim is to enable learners to use language, especially ESP/EAP language, with a presupposition that they have enough of the necessary language knowledge. Thus “good” material should involve both opportunities for analysis and synthesis. In other words, students developing their academic writing skills should have the chance to take the language to pieces, study how it works and practice putting it back together again. 146 I - Motivating FL students I IV. Task: The ultimate purpose of language learning is language use. Material should thus be designed not only to teach academic writing to students but also to enable them to use the diversity of language they learnt and knowledge they have built through the duration of their studies. In the next unit we will be looking at motivational factors in academic writing and ESP/EAP. 3. MOTIVATION According to Harmer (1991: 9), “... a strongly motivated student is in a far better position as a leaner than a student who is not motivated”. The teacher’s role is vital in the motivational process. As Harmer (1991: 7) mentions “it will be the teacher’s job to set goals and tasks at which most of his students can be successful – or rather tasks which he could realistically expect his students to be able to achieve. Giving students very high challenge activities where this is not appropriate may have a negative effect on motivation. Low challenge activities can become demotivating. If the students can – on the other hand – achieve all the tasks with no difficulty at all, they may lose the motivation that they have when they are not faced with the right level of challenge”. Therefore, it becomes clear that even if a student is positively motivated, this motivation may be affected if the material used by the teacher is inappropriate. ESP/EAP students should have realistic short-term and long-term goals concerning academic writing. In other words, students must be clear as to why they need academic writing. A short-term goal is usually the completion of a paper assigned to the students by their teacher whereas a long-term goal is the knowledge acquired by students, concerning academic writing, which will aid them in their pre-graduate as well as their post-graduate studies, in English, as well as other subjects taught in their departments. 4. TEACHER’S EXPERIENCE AND STUDENT’S REACTION TO ACADEMIC WRITING According to Harmer (1991: 235), “... class management skills are important since they help to ensure the success of the teacher and the activities which are used. The most effective activities can be made almost useless if the teacher does not organize them properly...”. The situation in Greece, concerning academic writing, is still in an embryonic stage. Teachers receive no pre- or post-graduate training as to what to do or how to prepare material concerning academic writing. The Makrina Zafiri, Evmorphia Panourgia 147 provision of feedback to students’ writing can also frustrate the teacher as it is time-consuming and needs a lot of preparations and knowledge on the part of the teacher. Yet, it is something that needs to be done. Academic writing has a lot of similarities, as well as a lot of differences to essay writing. Therefore, the first step a teacher – teaching academic writing – should take is to “... reflect on what has or has not worked well for him or her as a writer” (Ferris, 2007: 67). According to Ferris (2007), the next step is to get students to think more systematically about what they do when faced with the task in real-life, in their studies or in the work field. The last step is to prompt students into remembering what they have been taught by their teachers on academic writing and to use this knowledge in their written work. When writing, students should not think that they are obliged to produce an “ideal text” as there is no such text. It is more the effort and knowledge they put into their writing which counts. As Ferris (2007: 167) mentions it is the “... increasing awareness of and skill in using various strategies to compose, revise, and edit their own work”, what is most important in academic writing. Thus, teachers should critically reflect upon their role in the appropriation of their students’ work. At this point it should be stated that, according to Ferris and Hedgcock (2005: 190): 1. The teacher is not (or should not be) the only respondent. 2. Written commentary is not the only option. 3. Teachers do not need to respond to every single problem on every single student draft. 4. Feedback should focus on the issues presented by an individual student and his/her paper, not on rigid prescriptions. 5. Teachers should take care to avoid “appropriating”, or taking over, a student’s text. 6. Teachers should provide both encouragement and constructive criticism through their feedback. 7. Teachers should treat their students as individuals and consider their written feedback as part of an ongoing conversation between themselves and each student. Nevertheless, research has proved that students’ reaction to academic writing is that they feel they are “... gaining more from developing their writing than simply acquiring the ability to produce efficiently organized, accurately edited and skillfully presented papers; they are gaining what one student has called an “added value” – a value that can lead to a meaningful change in their lives” (Perpignan et al., 2007: 64). 148 I - Motivating FL students I 5. TECHNIQUES AND FUNCTIONS OF TEACHING ACADEMIC WRITING One of the most difficult obstacles a teacher has to overcome is that of convincing students of the merits of academic writing. Thus, the teaching techniques and methodologies used by the teacher will have to be carefully selected. According to Harmer (1991: 51), when teachers introduce new items, they often want to practice them in a controlled way. This is partially true of academic writing teachers who seem to want to correct everything including a student’s thoughts. This compulsion of teachers has to be curbed and this was also the initial intention of the researchers (and academic writing teachers) of this paper who followed Cohen’s (2003: 1) model which acknowledged the following about students: • Self-diagnose their strengths and weaknesses in language learning and more specifically in academic writing; • Become aware of what helps them to learn something in the L2 most efficiently; • Develop a broad range of problem-solving skills; • Experiment with familiar and unfamiliar learning strategies; • Make decisions (or aid them towards making a decision), about how to approach a task in this case a task concerning academic writing and written work; • Monitor and self-evaluate their performance; • Transfer successful strategies to new learning contexts; This “strategy use (by students) promotes greater learner autonomy” (McMullen, 2009: 419), because “the use or adoption of appropriate strategies allows learners to take more responsibility for their own learning” (Dickinson, (1987) in McMullen, 2009: 419) and facilitate the teacher in his choice of teaching techniques. The teacher thus acquires the following roles in an academic writing environment (McDonough, 1984: 129): • Catalyst, in which he establishes a clear, precise aim for each lesson and for the activities in that lesson in a way in which the student can understand. And he should arouse their interest in the content and procedures by drawing on their own knowledge and experience; • Organizer, in which he needs to ensure the smooth running of activities and handling of problems; • Adviser, in which role the teacher should encourage learners to consult him when they cannot solve a problem or query by themselves; Makrina Zafiri, Evmorphia Panourgia • 149 Co-ordinator, in which the teacher should draw all threads together at the end of the lesson, since “it is most important that students’ end each activity with a feeling of achievement”; • Friend, which is a very significant role persuading learners not to be over dependent on the teacher, and to change their image of the traditional teacher-centred classroom; Bearing the aforementioned in mind, we will proceed to elaborate upon the techniques and functions used in teaching academic writing. In 1992 Stern coined the term “macro-strategy” which refers to an overriding methodological principle covering a wide variety of classroom techniques and procedures at the planned level of teaching. The use of instructional material also plays an important role in the choice of teaching methodologies and techniques. In Greece not much material on academic writing is produced. This may be due to the fact that the market is too small or it may be because the production of such material needs specialized knowledge which not all ESP/EAP language teachers have. This is why the few ESP/EAP teachers who teach academic writing tend to produce their own material, as it is not easy to buy imported material from foreign publishers. According to Robinson (1991), it is debatable whether ESP/EAP or even academic writing has a distinctive methodology. It is also not possible to say whether General English Language Teaching (ELT) has influenced ESP/EAP or academic writing or if they have just borrowed some techniques or methodological ideas. Academic writing and ESP/ EAP – as concerning their methodologies – have, according to Robinson (1991), two characteristic features, firstly, they are usually based on activities deriving from the students’ specialism, and secondly, their activities can (but may not) have a truly authentic purpose deriving from students target needs. ELT, ESP/EAP and academic writing use common features in their teaching approach. Watson Todd (2003) reports that there are six approaches in the EAP literature, and I dare to argue that this includes academic writing. These approaches are the following: inductive learning, process syllabuses, learner autonomy, use of authentic materials and tasks, integration of teaching and technology and lastly team teaching (cooperating with content teachers). Watson Todd also argues that whereas the first five are also found in general English language teaching, the sixth, team teaching or cooperation with content teachers, is distinctive ESP/EAP, and I hastely add academic writing too. Thus, the techniques, methodologies and functions in teaching academic writing revolve around Basturkmen’s (2006) theory of four macro-strategies for teaching: predominantly input; input to output; predominantly output; and output-to-input. 150 I - Motivating FL students I • Predominantly input, is linked to the idea that learning occurs through students being exposed to samples of academic writing. • Input to output, which is linked to the idea that learners need first notice language forms and features and then use them in their own production in academic writing. • Predominantly output, which is linked to the idea that learning occurs through students struggling to communicate their ideas in written form and being pushed to reach their linguistic ceilings. • Output-to-output, strategy which is associated with the idea that learners are ready to acquire new knowledge on academic writing but they have experienced a hole in their knowledge (on academic writing) and their linguistic repertoire and are offered a solution to that problem in the form of feedback. What follows, in the next unit, are two demonstrations on how the processes are conducted in the classroom. 6. DEMONSTRATION The demonstration deals with the teaching of Data-Comment paragraph writing task. It is part of the task section of the text “HOW CAN THE WORLD CREATE ENOUGH JOBS FOR EVERYONE?” by Lester R. Brown and Brian Halweil, which is taken from the book “Developing Technical and Academic Writing Skills in English – Theory and Practice” by E. Panourgia Scientific and technical texts, such as those presented now, contain a great deal of information, most of which consist of facts. Readers of such texts must be able to extract information and understand the material fully. a. Teaching Data-Comment paragraph writing A Data-Comment paragraph is one of the various functional patterns of written language that can be used for successful paragraph writing. It is rather more difficult to write because it requires the writer to have a clear idea of what the reader needs to be told. The task below practices student’s competence to write a Data - Comment paragraph. The task reads as follows: The graph below shows the percentage of workforce in four countries (Pakistan, India, China and the USA in the years 2000 to 2050 based on the text information. Using this information, write your opinion about the other three countries, following the sample paragraph. Makrina Zafiri, Evmorphia Panourgia 151 Pakistan — seems to have a relatively low percentage of unemployment in the years between 2000 to 2020. — the years 2020 to 2030 will be marked by a steep rise. — 2030-2040 unemployment is expected to reach a peak with 9% of the total active population China — In the years 2000 to 2010 the population will show low figures. — In 2010-2020 unemployment will almost not exist (showed a considerable fall) — In 2020-2050 unemployment showed a sharp rise, getting as high as 5.5% — In 2040 to 2050 there is a slight drop USA — In 2000 through to 2030 the unemployment figures will be low compared to Pakistan averaging to 2.25% — It is expected to show a continuous tendency to increase — Unlike Pakistan and India this tendency will continue — In 2040-2050 there will be an increase of 5% India — It will be able to maintain low figures of unemployment — Unlike Pakistan and China. India is not expected to show fluctuations of high and low — The percentage of unemployment will jump from 1% in 2000 to about 22% in 2050. 152 I - Motivating FL students I Sample paragraph Comparing Pakistan with the other three countries a high percentage of unemployment can be seen. However, from 2010 to 2020 unemployment shows a slowdown, less than 4%. On the contrary-, the years between 2035 and 2036 were marked by a sharp rise of unemployment, reaching a peak in 2040 with 9% unemployment of the total workforce. Despite the low figures/ decrease of unemployment in China ………………………….………………………………… …………………………………………………………………… ……………..……………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………......... Although USA shows low unemployment figure…………… …………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………… ……………………................................................................... India, according to ………………will appear ……………… …………………………………………….................................. Task purpose The purpose of this task is: — To help the reader realize the significant features of the data; — To teach students how to develop a written paragraph by interpreting data using different diagrams or commenting on graphs, diagrams, etc.; — To demonstrate how this method of development can, and should, be taught and learned; — To improve students’ technical competence and to motivate them. Task description I The specific information required in this task is extracted and organized by the presenter in a time order and then in a graph. To make the task more comprehensive students are given a sample paragraph. In this way a dual purpose is reached: to teach through an example and at the same time to make the task more comprehensive and interesting. Visual displays such as maps, charts, diagrams, graphs, etc., “attract attention and help to present information quickly, concisely, clearly and accurately” (Panourgia, 2001: 111) Makrina Zafiri, Evmorphia Panourgia 153 Task description II Before starting to work on the task Students are given oral instructions as to what is expected for the task completion. Usually the students are invited to recall the relevant theory taught in class at the beginning of the semester and, if necessary, the teacher may provide them with a “refresher course” to get them ready to apply it. Then the teacher proceeds to stress the principles of extracting important information from a written text. This presupposes students’ competence in understanding the subject matter of a text and the ability to analyze information into intelligent segments of ideas or events for efficient presentation and easy comprehension. In other words, to give data a recognizable and logical ordering. Task description III Working on the task Based on traditional views that learning from example is effective the students are given a sample paragraph which develops the workforce information of one of the four countries presented in a graph (Pakistan, India, China, and the USA) in the years 2000 to 2005 and are then asked to do the same with the other three. At the beginning, the teacher asks students to read the paragraph and underline the words used to express statistical information and data. He/she asks them to check if these words are included in the table provided, in the relevant lesson, in the book and if there are new ones to add in the table. Asking students to participate in the lesson is extremely motivating for them. Also, the teacher may point to students the importance of transitional words that express a contrast of ideas and will comment on their function. Task description IV When students are ready to write the teacher asks them to form small groups and either each member of a group writes the task or one person writes the whole task to the joint plan, while at the same time consulting with the other members on every detail. It has been found that students work better if they choose their own group. In collaborative writing students tend to learn from each other, compromise, and develop a positive attitude towards each other’s opinion. During the whole process the teacher acts as a facilitator guiding students towards providing a correct output. This task covers half the class period which is half an hour. However there is always a problem related to time. Students may need more time to write the task. In this case it may be difficult for the teacher to correct their papers during the session, and this delays feedback. It is important 154 I - Motivating FL students I that students receive feedback during the session, because this will make it possible for them to perfect their writing. It is reassuring, too, because students see that their mistakes can be minimized if they pay attention and revise their writing. It also helps them to discover their weaknesses and direct their attention to them. Follow up To support the variety in language topic as a motivation power the teacher may ask students, as a follow up, to invent the figures for a simple Company Annual Report, exchange their figures with those of their neighbours and write a short Data-Comment paragraph on the figures they have received. Then they may discuss what has been written with their neighbour. As an alternative, you may provide figures on the blackboard, get them to read their Data-Comment-paragraph out aloud and allow discussion. You may also ask students for further vocabulary i.e drop, decline, level off, upward trend, etc. Using different techniques will motivate students as it provides change and fosters creativity and “is central to teaching effectiveness” (Dornyei, 2001: 116). Students’ reactions Traditionally ESP students viewed writing tasks as irrelevant to their job and as a “mere exercise” applying mechanical repetition of techniques or often resorting to plagiarism. However, the incorporating of Technical and Academic Writing into their ESP Course, which allowed them to practise various language topics relating to their study field and to their future career, made them change their mind about academic writing and its environment and to complete the sorts of writing tasks they were asked to perform. Furthermore, the way the writing tasks are manipulated and presented in the class made students feel free from the pressure of doing something correctly and believe in the successful development of their writing skills. CONCLUDING REMARKS Doing the same kind of task day after day can be extremely de-motivating to students. Incorporating academic writing skills into an ESP course is a variety that motivates. Furthermore, the practice that students get through these tasks provides training that will ensure proficiency and confidence in later independent writing tasks. Makrina Zafiri, Evmorphia Panourgia 155 REFERENCES Basturkmen, H. (2006) Ideas and Options in English for Specific Purposes, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Cohen, A. (2003) ‘Strategy Training for Second Language Learners. Center for Advanced Research on Language Acquisition’, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN (ERIC Documentation Reproduction Services No. EDO-FL-03-02), pp. 1-2. Crystal, D. and Johnson, K. (1998) Materials and Methods in ELT. A teacher’s Guide, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers. Dornyei, Z. (2001) Teaching and Researching motivation, England: Person Education. Ferris, D. (2007) “Preparing teachers to respond to student writing”, Journal of Second Language Writing, vol. 16, pp.165-193. Ferris, D. and Hedgcock, J.S. (2005) Teaching ESL composition: Purpose, process and practice (2nd ed) Mahwah NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Grabe, W. and Kaplan, R. B. (1996) Theory & Practice of Writing, Landon and New York: Longman. Harmer, J. (1993) The Practice of English Language Teaching, New Edition, New York: Longman Publishing. Hutchinson, T. and Waters, A. (1987) English for Specific Purposes. A learning-centred approach, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. McDonough, J. (1984) ESP in Perspective. A Practical Guide, London and Glasgow: Collins ELT. McMullen, M.G. (2009) “Using language learning strategies to improve the writing skills of Saudi EFL students: Will it really work?” System, vol. 37, pp.418-433. Nunan, D. (1996) The Learner-Centred Curriculum, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Panourgia, E. (2001) Grounding Technical and Academic Writing in English, Athens: Helin. Panourgia, E. (2008) Developing Technical & Academic writing Skills in English. Theory and Practice, : Giourdas Publications. Perpignan, H., Rubin, B. and Katznelson, H. (2007) “ESP/EAP Language Teacher. By - products: The added value of academic writing instruction for higher education” Journal of English for Academic Purposes, vol. 6, pp.163-181. 156 I - Motivating FL students I Robinson, J.C. (1991) ESP today, London: Prentice Hall. Shawer, S.F. (2009) “Classroom-level curriculum development: EFL teachers as curriculum-developers, curriculum-makers and curriculum-transmitters”, Teaching and Teacher Education, vol. xxx, pp.1-12. Stern, H.H. (1992) Issues and options in language teaching, Oxford: Oxford University Press. SCIENTIFIC READING AND WRITING Gesa Singer Aristotle University Thessaloniki, Greece 1. SCIENTIFIC WRITING: AN IMPORTANT ACADEMIC SKILL S CIENTIFIC WRITING IS AN IMPORTANT ACADEMIC skill, although it is valued differently in different countries, and its application in the academic curriculum also varies distinctively, even inside Europe. Although both terms ‚scientific’ and ‚academic’ may be used synonymously, scientific’ refers to all kinds of scientific work that is done in universities, starting from rather basic categories, whereas ‚academic’ includes rather high-level output of epistemic research, like e.g. a doctoral thesis. The research on scientific writing puts emphasis in certain cognitive categories one has to develop in the process of acquiring writing skills which are, according to Kruse & Ruhmann: „’associative writing’– performative writing’–’communicative writing’–’unified (or reflective) writing’–’epistemic writing’“ (Kruse & Ruhmann, 2006: 26). Being part of the humanities, scientific work with text data requires analysis, research, insight and accuracy. 2. SCIENTIFIC WRITING IN GERMANY In the German Educational System scientific writing is highly valued and it has a significant impact on the examinations (Kaluza: 2008). However, there are deficiencies in its teaching. Unlike the Anglo-Saxon Educational System, scientific writing in German-speaking countries is not in the university syllabus. Also, there are formal differences in the variety of texts available (an essay, for example, is formally different to a German “Hausarbeit”1) as well as in the degrees of scientific approach to the teaching of the writing process. 1 Hermanns (2000) shows the differences between the Anglo-Saxon and the German work load for university students, as well as differences between the text form ‚essay’ and a German Diplom- and Seminararbeit. Moreover, he describes how English students find support and advice for their writings by their tutors, something that does not exist in Germany. An essay does not have to be tied to scientific sources in the way a ‚Hausarbeit’ is supposed to be. Cf. ibid.: „Auch wird bei diesen essays nicht die Fiktion gepflegt, dass es sich bei ihnen um quasi wissenschaftliche Beiträge handele, weder bezüglich der Form noch auch in dem Sinn, dass es bei ihnen auf den neuesten Stand der Forschung. 158 & Reading, Writing and Listening Skills Writing has not been a teaching subject in universites until the Humboldt concept of research university was established. The participants in these seminaries of the 19th century had to confront the original programs of their faculties and farther their own research.2 This has been of great impact on the seminary structure and the development of academic teaching in Germany. Nowadays, German students are not always aware of the requirements of scientific work. Since there are no general rules for the production of a scientific text, students depend on the guidelines of their professors and some manuals that have been published. This dependant relation between students and professors has recently been analysed by Gogas (2008: 239): „There is some pure knowledge possessed and protected by educated people, who reveal its secrets to those seeking entry to the educational community.“ Concerning writing techniques, the fact becomes most obvious. 3. SCIENTIFIC WRITING AND GERMAN STUDIES IN GREECE Concerning our field of language learning I bring forward the following questions: Do Greek students in the philosophic faculty learn to read scientific literature? Do they analyse, experience and practice scientific working skills? Are they accustomed to various text patterns, and is their language competence and performance (vocabulary, syntactical structures, technical terms) sufficient and qualified for the task? According to one might assume that reading and writing are basic techniques that students learn from elementary school until the university: „ […] , .“3 In terms of the Multilingualism that is aspired to by the European Commission, the Tertiary Education syllabus is supposed to offer programs for academic language learning: abgesehen wäre, wie dies bei uns oft der Fall ist.“ (ibid.: 125) Cf. Nippel: ’Was ist ein Essay?’: http://ag.geschichte.hu-berlin.de/Portals/_AlteGeschichte/ Documents/Essay.pdf 2 Kruse (2006: 151): „Erst mit der Humboldtschen Forschungsuniversität wurde das Schreiben an der Universität Bestandteil der Lehre. In den neu aufkommenden Seminaren des 19. Jahrhunderts erhielten die Teilnehmenden die Aufgabe, sich selbst mit Originalquellen ihres Faches auseinander zu setzen und eigene Forschungsarbeiten durchzuführen.“ 3 , .: : . http://alex.eled.duth.gr/eled/conf/sarafidou/9.HTM 159 Gesa Singer „ , . , .“ ( : 2008).4 But these techniques are obviously not evenly taught in foreign language classes. Students in the Department of German Language and Literature show striking difficulties, when it comes to analysing and producing texts, especially on a higher academic level. Apart from mere language difficulties, our students seem to stick to one pattern of essay ( ) which reproduces general statements that do not have much in common with the topics in question, like: “If the state takes measures and we all try hard, we will come to a solution.“ Since language learning in Greek schools and private institutions, unfortunately, is still based on repetitive learning by heart, the students struggle with tasks that require a more competent and critical approach. And for those who have learnt German in German and Greek speaking families in Germany, they often miss a higher range of diction, when it comes to written texts. As a lecturer in the department of German Language and Literature at Aristotle University Thessaloniki, I have emphasized on more critical text work, rhetorics and scientific writing in my seminaries. 4. THE WRITING PROCESS AND DIDACTICS How can scientific writing be learnt?5 – It has to be practised! In Germany, some publications (e.g. von Werder 2000, Tütken & Singer 2006, Kruse 2007, Kommeier 2008, Bänsch 2008) as well as special courses for scientific writing have appeared recently, which are part of an academic tendency for more didactical training and transparency within the higher education system. The teaching persons’ role is decisive in this process, because they help students to analyse and understand different text forms and to correct and comment their own work. In the German academic system, especially foreign students are highly motivated to learn these skills, since they are part of the university access exams for foreigners (DSH, TestDaF), and of the testing procedure. 4 Many higher education institutions offer language teaching for specific purposes such as for academic reading, or giving presentations. Language skills benefit students by enabling them to access research results in more than one language. (European Commission Multilingualism: 2008). 5 Cf. Hermanns (2000: 123): „Warum das spontane Schreiben an deutschen Universitäten so wenig kultiviert wird?“ 160 & Reading, Writing and Listening Skills 5. READING SKILLS Similar to Marti & Ulmi (2006) I have noticed that the students’ difficulties to produce scientific texts go back to missing reading skills of scientific literature.6 They do not know how to select important information that may be useful for a certain task or question and they tend to reproduce what has already been written, instead of using their own words and paraphrases. And they often need help to structure their texts. Hermanns (2000: 135) suggests that students should write summaries of the readings they do for the seminary.7 It is a very helpful step in the preparation process of scientific texts. Students of foreign languages have to be confronted with a variety of original text material and have to be guided to handling this material with distinction. Marti & Ulmi sum up some reading techniques (Marti & Ulmi 2006: 180-190), that may help to achieve a better understanding of scientific literature: 1. find suitable texts 2. read them according to the given task 3. understand them well 4. prepare them for the own writing process.8 The students in my seminaries learn how to select important material and information, how to read and understand a text, both on a language as well as on an argumentative level, how to prepare readings for the group and how to formulate questions concerning the contents of a text as well as questions for discussion. In addition to that, they learn how to apply basic formal criteria in their works and to differenciate various formal approaches. They also learn how to use Mind-Maps and Clustering in order to collect and outline their ideas. My observations may not be symptomatic, but in my seminaries it was seen that students who frequently attended them and prepared themselves, achieved good results. They trained a more scientific approach to various text forms and also learned to express themselves with more distinction and critical thinking. The more you think in a foreign language, the more you learn it. And this includes 6 Marti & Ulmi (2006: 175): „In unseren Schreibwerkstätten und -coachings haben wir gesehen, dass nicht wenige der typischen Unsicherheiten und Schwierigkeiten beim Schreiben von wissenschaftlichen Arbeiten bzw. von Facharbeiten auf fehlende Strategien für das Lesen, Verstehen und Verarbeiten von Fachliteratur zurückzuführen sind.“ 7 Hermanns (2000:135) also suggests that the teachers’ questions shall be open for real dialogue: „Die Frage nach der Leseerfahrung eines Studenten […] muss eine echte sein, der Dozent kann die Antwort nicht im voraus wissen. Indem er sie stellt, kann er hoffen, dass er über den Text, um den es geht, und über die Person, die ihn liest, etwas Neues erfährt.“ 8 Cf. Marti & Ulmi (2006: 180-190): 1. Die richtigen Texte finden, 2. Situationsadäquat lesen, 3. Texte genau verstehen, 4. Texte zum eigenen Schreiben aufbereiten. Gesa Singer 161 the actions reading and writing.9 For a better progress, individual feedback is needed. Teachers of foreign languages should encourage their students with periodical correction and advice.10 6. CONCLUSIONS Scientific reading and writing may enable students to learn critical thinking. It offers them the opportunity not only to communicate better in class, but to work independantly on topics in their own field. It has to be learnt and supported within class.11 It is a working process that deserves continuous practice and advice. Kruse (2006: 153) shows that process oriented didactics of scientific writing will help to satisfy the new requirements after the Bologna reforms.12 German as a Foreign Language is more accessible for didactic approaches than the syllabus of the department of German Philology as such.13 And therefore German 9 Cf. Berning, Johannes: Schreiben als Wahrnehmungs- und Denkhilfe. Elemente einer holistischen Schreibpädagogik. Univ. Diss., Münster 2001. 10 Cf. Ehlich (1998: 24 f.) emphasizes the need for flexibility and individuality in modern teaching methods: „Die Lehrmaterialien, Progressionsvorschläge, Lehrhilfen der Lehrenden bedürfen der Flexibilisierung und der Individualisierung. Die besondere Leistung der Fremdsprach-Unterrichtenden besteht in der hochspezialisierten Qualifikation, spezifische Lernangebote zu entwickeln, vorzuhalten und einzusetzen.“ Cf. Singer (2009: 338), as well in favour of individual feed-back: „Den Erfordernissen der Lerngruppe sowie des Einzelnen gilt es im Schreibunterricht und insbesondere bei der individuellen Korrektur und Rückmeldung Rechnung zu tragen.“ 11 Cf. Kruse (2006: 159): „Kritisches Denken kann man nur in der Auseinandersetzung mit dem Gegenstand lernen. Dazu braucht es offene Kommunikation im Seminar, Kontakt mit den Originalquellen der Disziplin, Anleitung zum selbständigen Arbeiten und Zusammenarbeit mit anderen Studierenden.“ Cf. Ehlich & Steets (2003), with focus on media in language classes. 12 Kruse (2006: 153): „Prozessorientierte Schreibdidaktik zeigt Wege auf, um seminaristisches Lernen didaktisch besser zu begründen und den neuen Bedingungen der Nach-Bologna-Zeit anzupassen.“ Cf. Banks, David: The development of scientific writing: Scientific features and historical context. Oakville, CT a.o.: Equinox Publ. 2009. Cf. Lutz von Werder: Einführung in das wissenschaftliche Lesen. Innovative Hochschuldidaktik, Bd. 18. Berlin: Schibri Verlag [2010]. 13 Singer (2006: 294): „Besonders im Fach ‚Deutsch als Fremdsprache’, dem ja von jeher eine stärkere Affinität zu didaktischen Fragestellungen zugestanden wird, als dies in der Germanistik der Fall ist, ist eine fundierte wissenschaftliche Auseinandersetzung mit didaktischen Fragen notwendig, um die Profilierung des Faches zu stärken.“ 162 & Reading, Writing and Listening Skills Studies abroad give the students more opportunities to improve, when teachers and students interact. Scientific work in the humanities begins with scientific reading techniques. It as an important factor on language learning and offers options to acquire cultural competences. REFERENCES Banks, D. (2009) The development of scientific writing: Scientific features and historical context, Oakville, CT a.o.: Equinox Publ. Bänsch, A. (2008) Wissenschaftliches Arbeiten. 9. unveränd. Aufl. München / Wien: Oldenbourg Verlag. Berning, J. (2001) Schreiben als Wahrnehmungs- und Denkhilfe. Elemente einer holistischen Schreibpädagogik, Univ. Diss., Münster. Ehlich, K. (1998) “Fremdsprachendidaktik – Perspektiven für DaF in einer sich wandelnden Kommunikationswelt”, in: DorfmüllerKarpusa, Käthi & Vretta-Panidou, Ekaterina (Hrsg.) Thessaloniker Interkulturelle Analysen. Akten des 33. Linguistischen Kolloquiums in Thessaloniki (Linguistik International, Bd. 3) Frankfurt a. M. u. a.: Lang (p.p. 14-27). Ehlich, K. & Steets, A. (2003) (Hrsg.) Wissenschaftlich schreiben – lehren und lernen, Berlin / New York: de Gruyter. http://ec.europa.eu/education/ languages/language-teaching/doc50_el.htm European Commission Multilingualism http://ec.europa.eu/education/ languages/language-teaching/doc50_en.htm (accessed: 05.10.2009) Gogas, Th. (2008) “Intercultural Communication and the organic Intellectuals”, in: Vlachopoulos, St. & Gogas, Th. (eds) Foreign Language Teaching in Tertiary Education. Proceedings of the 2nd Internatioanl Conference, Igoumenitsa: Edition Carpe Diem (p.p. 235-246). Hermanns, Fr. (2000) “Schreiben im Vergleich. Zu einer didaktischen Grundaufgabe interkultureller Germanistik”, in: Wierlacher, Al. (Hrsg.) Das Fremde und das Eigene. Prolegomena zu einer interkulturellen Germanistik, München: Iudicium (p.p. 123-139). Kaluza, M. (2009) “Wissenschaftliches Schreiben: Die Hausarbeit. Eine Bestandsaufnahme”, in: Info DaF, Nr. 1, 36. Jg., Februar 2009 (p.p. 35-52). Kommeier, M. (2008) Wissenschaftlich schreiben leicht gemacht. Für Bachelor, Master und Dissertation, Bern: Haupt. Kruse, O. (2006) “Prozessorientierte Schreibdidaktik an der Hochschule. Was Hochschulen tun können, um wissenschaftliches Schreiben Gesa Singer 163 besser anzuleiten”, in: Kruse, O. / Berger, K. / Ulmi, M. (Hrsg.) Prozessorientierte Schreibdidaktik. Schreibtraining für Schule, Studium und Beruf, Berlin u. a.: Haupt (p.p. 151-173). Kruse, O. (2007) Keine Angst vor dem leeren Blatt. Ohne Schreibblockaden durchs Studium, 12, völlig neu bearbeitete Auflage. Frankfurt a. M.: Campus Concret. Kruse, O. & Ruhmann, G. (2006) “Prozessorientierte Schreibdidaktik. Eine Einführung”, in: Kruse, O. / Berger, K. / Ulmi, M. (Hrsg.) Prozessorientierte Schreibdidaktik. Schreibtraining für Schule, Studium und Beruf, Berlin u. a.: Haupt (p.p. 13-35). Marti, M. & Ulmi, M. (2006) “Lesend denken – Strategien im Umgang mit Fachtexten”, in: Kruse, O.tto / Berger, K. / Ulmi, M. (Hrsg.) Prozessorientierte Schreibdidaktik. Schreibtraining für Schule, Studium und Beruf, Berlin u. a.: Haupt (p.p. 176-193). Nippel, W. “Was ist ein Essay?”, http://ag.geschichte.hu-berlin.de/ Portals/_AlteGeschichte/Documents/Essay.pdf (accessed: 23.10.2009) , .“ : ”, http://alex.eled.duth. gr/eled/conf/sarafidou/9.HTM (accessed: 05.10.2009) Singer, G. (2006) “Wissenschaftliches und kreatives Schreiben im Deutschals-Fremdsprach-Unterricht”, in: Estudios Filológicos Alemanes. Revista del Grupo de Investigación Filología Alemana, vol. 11. Sevilla, (p.p. 293-306). Singer, G. “Wissenschaftliches Lesen – wissenschaftliches Schreiben”, Info DaF, Nr 4, 36. Jahrgang. August 2009 (p.p. 334-339). Tütken, G. & Singer, G. (2006) (Hrsg.) Schreiben im DaF-Unterricht an Hochschulen und Studienkollegs. Aufgaben zur sachorientierten, freien und universitätsbezogenen Textproduktion, Regensburg FaDaF (Materialien Deutsch als Fremdsprache, Bd. 75) . Werder, L. von (2000) Das kreative Schreiben von wissenschaftlichen Hausarbeiten und Referaten, Berlin: Schibri Verlag. Werder, L. von [2010] Einführung in das wissenschaftliche Lesen, Innovative Hochschuldidaktik, Bd. 18. Berlin: Schibri Verlag. Ω Ω , & ytac Celtek , Ω 1. ( - 2008) 2009 ( ). , . , - , . , . , :« ; ;» (Biber & Reppen 2002). , : , . « - ;» ( 2003) ( 1, 2, 1. ) , . , 165 , Aytac Celtek 2. Ω (Ellis 2002, Nassaji & Fotos 2004, 2003 . .), / 30 . - ( . . . .). , , . . , ; - , . , , , 2003: 97). , ( - (2007: 51), , . , , . : « . .» ( .Ό 2007: 51). Brown (1994: 363) . ; (Ellis 1997, 2002, Doughty & Williams 1998 . .) . 166 & Reading, Writing and Listening Skills (2003: 12), «… , , ». . , ; . Ω 3. , . . « , »( 2001: 94). . Ellis - (2002: 29) . , 167 , Aytac Celtek 1: 1. - –DI . . 2. - - –DI . –DIK . . 3. - . Zaman) 4. O –DI –( / )r (Geniş . . . –( / )r (Geniş Zaman) . –DI . 5. - O –(I)yor . . . 6. - 1/ 2 - 1 –DI 1. –mIş. . 168 & Reading, Writing and Listening Skills 4. Ω Ω Ω - , Ellis (2002: 29) (2001: 94), , , (2008: 30-42). - , , , ‘ ’ ’ ‘ . 4.1 1 1( ) , - , . 1 , . : • • — — — — (-lI, -l r) • — — — / , 169 , Aytac Celtek • • — — ( mI) • - • : : –DA • • • • « » ( var/yok –lAr) — — — • • • • • • Emir Kipi [ ]( – ) [Şimdiki Zaman] –DA /–(y)A /–DAn/-(y)I (İstek Kipi) Belirli Geçmiş Zaman [ 1: [Bağlaçlar 1] –DI] 170 & Reading, Writing and Listening Skills 2: 1 1 1 1. a. , - 1. , , , , ( . . , , , , , . .). 2. b. . 3. c. - ( . ( . . « »). 2. a. , , , . b. , . ( , , . « ». », ] / İstek ]. . ( mI). 10. . 11. (-DAn sonra, -DAn önce, -DAn daha). 12. : –(y)A, -(y)I. , ). - d. - 5. .). c. : . . 6. Emir Kipi [ Kipi [ ]. 7. . 8. Şimdiki Zaman [ 9. . a. b. . . », « –lAr). 4. d. « (–DA ) var/yok. , , 171 , Aytac Celtek 3. 3. a. ( , ( .– . ) ). b. .: ( - ). c. , , . . d. . . , , ( ). e. . 1. 2. 3. 4. (YaŞaSıN). 5. ÇoK HaSTa). 6. 7. . (Fe PaŞa (isim, ismi). , ( 4. , -lI, -CI) 4. a. , - 1. : 2. Belirli Geçmiş Zaman [ 3. 4. en + b. ( . . ). c. ( . . 3.00 4.2 - –DI] (-(y)AcAk) –D n daha, . , ). 2 2, , , . ,( ) , ( ) , - 172 & Reading, Writing and Listening Skills , , - ,( ) . 3 4 , , 2. : • • • İyelik Ekleri [ Belirtili İsim Tamlaması [ Belirtisiz Ad Tamlaması [ ]. ]. ]. • • • • • • • • • -mIş’li Geçmiş Zaman [ ]. arşılaştırma [ , Ad tümcelerinde geçmiş zaman [ ]. Geniş Zaman. İlgeçler [ ]. –(y)Abil [ ]. Bağlaçlar 2: sebep [ 2: Ortaçlara giriş [ )]. Bileşik Zamanlar: -yordu, -mIştI [ ]. –mIş ]. - ]. ( , - 3: 2 2 , 2 , 1 . ( ( ) 1. - , ) : 1. , . . , , , , , … b. , , - ,… c. . d. ( , , - .). e. , , f. , , . . ]. ]. 173 ]. 4. -mIş’li Geçmiş Zaman [ –mIş ]. 5. İstek Kipi ( / ) Emir kipi ( ). 6. ( ) – karşılaştırma. 7. Ad tümcelerinde geçmiş zaman ( « » ). 8. Geniş Zaman ( ) 9. , . (ilgeçler). 10. Yeterlik -(y)Abil ( / ). 11. Bağlaçlar 2: ( . . , , .). 12. (ortaçlar). 13. ileşik zamanlar: -yordu, -mIştI ( , ) , Aytac Celtek 1. İyelik Ekleri [ 2. Belirtili Ad Tamlaması [ 3. Belirtisiz Ad Tamlaması [ : a. 174 2. : a. , , . b. , , … . c. ( , , .). d. ( , , .) . e. , . 3. : a. , , ( , , , - . , .). b. : 1. 2. . c. . , , . , . . d. , - , 3. . e. , . ( ). , 4. 5. . . & Reading, Writing and Listening Skills 3. 4. 4. . . , : . , a. - 1. geniş zaman .( , , , , , , b. , , 2. .). , - / ). ( - ,« », « », « », « », « », « », ». d. . e. . , . c. « . 3. 4. , Aytac Celtek , , . , - . , ) f. , , . g. . 175 : 176 & Reading, Writing and Listening Skills 4.3 1 , , 1 , , , . : • • • • • • • • • • • • : — Adlaştırma 1 ( –mAk/-mA). — Adlaştırma 2 ( ). — Adlaştırma 3 ( ). Gereklilik Kipi [ ( )]. Gereklilik kullanımları ( ). Amaç Belirten yapılar ( ). Dolaylı Anlatım 1 ( : ). Ulaçlar 1 (-mAdAn önce, -DIktAn sonra, -(y)Ip, -(y)ArAk) [ 1]. Ulaçlar 2 (-(y)IncA, -(I/A)rken) 2]. Sıfat İşlevli Yan Tümceler 1: Özne Ortaçları –(y)An [ 1: ]. Sıfat İşlevli Yan Tümceler 2: Tümleç Ortaçları (-DIk, -(y)AcAk [A 2: ]. Dolaylı anlatım 1 [ 2: ]. Dolaylı anlatım 2 [ 2: ]. –D ğI için Neden belirten yan tümceler [ ]. 4: B1 1 1 1. 1. 2. : . b. , , . c. , . d. , . e. . f. g. . , , , . h. . i. . –mAk/). ). ] ). : 177 ). 6. Ulaçlar 1 (-mAdAn önce, -DIktAn sonra, -(y)Ip, -(y)ArAk) - [ 1]. 7. Ulaçlar 2 (-(y)IncA, -(I/A)rken) 2]. 8. Sıfat İşlevli Yan Tümceler 1: Özne Ortaçları –(y)An [ 1: ]. - 9. Sıfat İşlevli Yan Tümceler 2: Tümleç Ortaçları (-DIk, (y)AcAk [A 2: ]. 10. Dolaylı anlatım 1 [ 2: ] 11. Dolaylı anlatım 2 [ 2: ] 12. –D ğI için Neden belirten yan tümceler [ ] , Aytac Celtek 1. : • Adlaştırma 1 ( mA). • Adlaştırma 2 ( • Adlaştırma 3 ( 2. Gereklilik Kipi ([ ). 3. Gereklilik kullanımları ( ). 4. Amaç Belirten yapılar ( 5. Dolaylı Anlatım 1 ( , 1 a. 178 2. 1 : a. . b. , , . c. . d. . e. f. , . - . . h. ( . . , , , .) 3. 3. 1 : 1 a. , - . - b. , , . - ( ). & Reading, Writing and Listening Skills g. c. , . d. . , e. . f. , . 4. 4. Ό : a. , , , 1 1. - . , c. . 2. . . d. e. , . . , , Aytac Celtek : . b. - , . - f. . . g. , , . h. . i. . ( . . ) . 179 j. 180 & Reading, Writing and Listening Skills 5. – Ό . - . 1. . ω , . (2008) “ .M « : , /- »” / . », , . (2003) « : , .& - , ., , .( μ.), , ., : Warburton, : , . (2007) . -Warburton, μμ », : , ., - , . . 87-107. , μ μ . (2001) « μμ , . ( μ.), , μ : . . . : - ., . . 92-101. ω Biber, D. & Reppen, R. (2002) “What does frequency have to do with grammar teaching?”, Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 24. 199-208. Brown, H.D. (1994) Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language pedagogy, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. , , Aytac Celtek 181 Ellis, R. (1997) SLA research and language teaching, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ellis, R. (2002) “The place of grammar instruction in the second/foreign curriculum” in: E. Hinkel & S. Fotos (eds), New perspectives on grammar teaching in second language classrooms, Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, p.p. 17-34. . 2008. , http://www.kpg.ypepth.gr. ( 06/12/2009). - LE MODÈLE DES CLASSES D’OBJETS COMME OUTIL POUVANT FACILITER LA PRODUCTION “DES DÉRIVÉS SÉMANTIQUES” VERBAUX NON STANDARDS CHEZ LES APPRENANTS AVANCÉS DE FLE: UNE PREMIÈRE APPROCHE Efi Lamprou, Thierry Petitpas Université de Chypre, Chypre 1. INTRODUCTION N OTRE ÉTUDE S’INSCRIT DANS LE CADRE des travaux menés sur l’enseignement de la variation lexicale chez les apprenants de langue étrangère (v. Petitpas, 2010), domaine qui a pour objectif de donner au non-natif les moyens de reconnaître et de produire des mots non standards dans un contexte approprié (Lyster, 1994: 263). Comme le titre l’indique, le but de notre présentation est de jeter les bases d’un outil méthodologique permettant à des apprenants de FLE de niveau avancé d’améliorer leur aptitude à produire des mots non standards (désormais notés NS)1 en classe de langue. Pour ce faire, nous avons adopté le modèle des classes d’objets (v. 3.) en restreignant notre travail aux dérivés sémantiques verbaux, i.e. aux verbes NS issus de la polysémisation d’un verbe du français standard (e.g. descendre NS “tuer, abattre” tiré de descendre S “aller de haut en bas”)2. A notre connaissance, les mots polysémiques n’ont pas fait l’objet de beaucoup d’études dans le domaine de l’acquisition/apprentissage et de l’enseignement des langues étrangères. (v. Morimoto & Lewen, 2007: 348). Pourtant, il apparaît clairement que ces mots s’avèrent particulièrement problématiques pour les apprenants, tant du point de vue de la réception que de la production (v. Bensoussan & Laufer, 1984). Schmitt (1998) décrit le processus d’apprentissage des mots polysémiques comme lent et diffus, 1 Dans une perspective didactique, nous réduirons la notion de non standard à l’ensemble des mots étiquetés “familier” ou “populaire” dans les dictionnaires. 2 Les tenants du modèle des classes d’objets, selon lesquels à chaque emploi différent correspond une unité lexicale différente, parleront dans ce cas d’ “homographes” (v. 3.). L’objet de notre travail n’étant pas la lexicographie électronique ou la traduction automatique, mais bien la didactique, nous avons estimé que la notion de dérivé sémantique était plus appropriée ici. Efi Lamprou, Thierry Petitpas 183 et B. Laufer (1997) constate que la polysémie est un facteur qui entrave l’apprentissage d’un mot, a fortiori si celui-ci est fréquent (Bogaards, 1994: 133; Carter & McCarthy, 1988: 3). Ces limitations justifient qu’on s’intéresse tout particulièrement à ce type d’unités lexicales. Pour pouvoir utiliser des mots NS, il est tout d’abord primordial que l’apprenant possède des connaissances socio-pragmatiques suffisantes (v. Dewaele & Wourm, 2002). Autrement dit, il doit savoir quelles sont les conditions d’emploi de ces mots en fonction de la situation de communication. L’apprenant qui émaillerait son discours de mots NS sans discernement court le risque au mieux de se ridiculiser (Rey, 2007), au pire de commettre des erreurs susceptibles de menacer la “face” de son interlocuteur. Ensuite, comme pour toute unité lexicale, l’apprenant doit également avoir acquis certaines connaissances linguistiques sur les mots NS, notamment leur catégorie grammaticale, mais aussi leur comportement syntaxique (Nation, 2001: 55) et sémantique. Dans cet article, nous ferons des propositions pour aider les nonnatifs à améliorer précisément ce deuxième type de connaissances. Contrairement à d’autres études inspirées de la linguistique cognitive ou de la psychologie cognitive (Anderson, 1983; Boers, 2000; Vespoor & Lowie, 2003; Csábi, 2004; Morimoto & Lewen, 2007), notre démarche consistera à décrire les unités prédicatives polysémiques d’un point de vue sémantique et syntaxique, autrement dit selon des critères strictement linguistiques. Bien qu’essentielles dans l’apprentissage du vocabulaire NS, les conditions socio-pragmatiques ou contextuelles d’utilisation ne seront donc pas prises en compte ici3. Dans ce qui suit, nous expliquerons tout d’abord pourquoi il nous paraît souhaitable de développer les capacités des apprenants de FLE à produire des mots NS. Nous poursuivrons notre présentation en exposant les grandes lignes du modèle des classes d’objets, puis en présentant les verbes qui constituent notre corpus. Pour clore notre étude, nous ferons des suggestions d’applications. 2. POURQUOI FAVORISER LA PRODUCTION DE MOTS NS EN FLE? Beaucoup de spécialistes - enseignants, chercheurs, mais aussi éditeurs – s’interrogent probablement sur la nécessité d’encourager l’utilisation du vocabulaire NS chez les apprenants de FLE. A la rigueur peut3 Pour une approche prenant en compte ce paramètre, on renverra à Lyster (1994) qui a montré les effets positifs de la démarche fonctionnelle-analytique sur la production de structures NS chez des apprenants de FLE en contexte scolaire. 184 & Reading, Writing and Listening Skills on donner quelques mots pour faciliter la compréhension, mais de là à favoriser leur utilisation... Pourtant, comme d’autres (Lyster, 1994; Cuq, 1996; Valdman, 2000; Dewaele & Regan, 2002), nous estimons que pour s’approcher de la compétence lexicale d’un natif un apprenant avancé de FLE doit être capable non seulement de comprendre le sens et la charge culturelle (Galisson, 1991) des mots NS, mais également de les utiliser. Si l’enseignant n’aide pas le non-natif dans cette voie, celui-ci risque de rester “monostylistique” (Dewaele & Wourm, 2002: 132). Et en situation d’immersion, un français trop parfait peut compliquer les rapports entre un apprenant et ses pairs natifs chez qui les styles non standards constituent bien souvent la norme. En cela, la maîtrise du vocabulaire NS constitue un avantage pour une meilleure intégration du non-natif dans un environnement francophone (v. Mougeon & al., 2002; Eloy, 2003). Or, malgré les recommandations du Cadre européen Commun de Référence pour les Langues (2000: 94-5), selon lesquelles l’apprenant doit commencer à mieux maîtriser le registre à partir du niveau B2, on constate que les apprenants avancés utilisent peu ou pas de variantes NS. C’est ce qu’ont établi Dewaele et Regan (2001) en analysant l’interlangue d’apprenants avancés de FLE avant et après avoir passé une année en milieu francophone. Il y a plusieurs raisons qui expliquent la sous-représentation de ces mots dans les productions des non-natifs, la cause essentielle étant tout simplement qu’ils ne connaissent pas assez de vocabulaire NS. J.-M. Dewaele (2004a: 313) note ce manque d’input lexical en soulignant qu’en classe de langue les apprenants de FLE sont surtout exposés à des styles de discours formels. Parmi les apprenants qui connaissent quelques mots NS, certains – notamment les plus introvertis – les évitent par peur des répercussions socio-psychologiques qu’entraînerait un style inopportun (Dewaele, 2004b), mais la plupart ne les utilisent pas, parce qu’ils ne savent pas comment le faire (Lyster, 1994; Dewaele & Regan, 2001; Dewaele, 2004a). Ces lacunes montrent qu’il est important d’aider les non-natifs à produire des mots NS. 3. CADRE THÉORIQUE: LE MODÈLE DES CLASSES D’OBJETS Dans notre travail, nous adoptons une approche lexicaliste. Nous nous appuyons tout particulièrement sur les fondements théoriques définis par G. Gross (1992, 1994a, 2004) et son équipe du LDI (Lexique, Dictionnaires, Informatique)4 qui cherchent à résoudre les problèmes soulevés par la polysémie et la synonymie dans le cadre du traitement automatique des langues. Les chercheurs du LDI proposent notamment une nouvelle disposition des entrées de dictionnaire par rapport à la 4 Anciennement LLI (Laboratoire de Linguistique Informatique). Efi Lamprou, Thierry Petitpas 185 conception lexicographique classique où les différents emplois d’un mot sont regroupés et classés au sein d’un même article. Si l’approche traditionnelle adopte une “conception fondamentalement unitaire du mot” (Mathieu-Colas, 1996: 318), le LDI prône une politique de dégroupement des sens des mots polysémiques5. Chaque emploi est représenté comme un “mot” à part entière auquel on attribue une adresse autonome et une description spécifique (v. ibid). Soit le verbe prendre tel qu’il est décrit dans les dictionnaires électroniques du LDI: prendre #1/N0: <hum>/N1: <loc.: voie> prendre #2/N0: <hum>/N1: <boisson> Ils ont pris l’autoroute Ils ont pris un café Les critères qui justifient cette approche reposent, entre autres, sur le fait que ces “homographes” (Gross, 2004) ont des synonymes ou des propriétés syntaxiques (i.e. la structure argumentale / la nature des arguments) différents. A la manière de G. Gross et de son équipe, nous laisserons de côté les analyses sémiques traditionnelles pour privilégier une conception discontinue de la polysémie. Nous traiterons donc les polysèmes verbaux comme des ensembles d’emplois discrets et clairement différenciés. Reprenant à notre compte les principes théoriques du modèle des classes d’objets du LDI, nous partons du point de vue que les mots ne sont interprétables que dans le cadre de la phrase. Ce postulat est particulièrement opératoire pour le traitement automatique des langues mais aussi, comme nous le verrons, pour l’enseignement des langues étrangères, puisqu’il conduit à privilégier le contexte pour identifier les unités et lever les ambiguïtés des mots polysémiques (v. Mathieu-Colas, à paraître). Selon ce modèle, l’unité significative n’est pas le mot, mais la phrase simple, elle-même définie en termes de prédicats et d’arguments. Le prédicat, qui représente le noyau de la phrase simple et qui peut prendre la forme d’un nom, d’un verbe ou d’un adjectif, est défini selon la suite la plus longue de ses arguments (i.e. le sujet [N0] et ses compléments [N1, N2, N3…]). A chaque prédicat correspond un schéma d’arguments (ou une structure argumentale) particulier. Soit le prédicat conduire qui a, entre autres, deux structures argumentales (v. ibid): a) conduire #1/N0: <voie>/N1: <loc.> b) conduire #2/N0: <hum>/N1: <véhic.> 2 Ce sentier conduit à la mer Pierre conduit une voiture Certains dictionnaires de langue comme le Dictionnaire du français contemporain (DFC, Larousse, 1971) adoptent cette politique de dégroupement sans pour autant la suivre jusqu’au bout (v. Mathieu-Colas, M., 1996: 318). En revanche, les dictionnaires électroniques du LDI, qui sont en cours d’élaboration, appliquent systématiquement le principe de dégroupement. 186 & Reading, Writing and Listening Skills Dans le premier emploi (a), le verbe conduire sélectionnera comme premier argument (N0) des substantifs comme sentier, route, chemin, rue, et comme compléments (N1) des noms désignant des lieux tels que mer, village, château, alors que dans le second emploi (b), ce verbe sélectionnera des noms propres ou des substantifs tels que Pierre, Paul, pilote, et comme compléments (N1) des noms désignant des véhicules comme voiture, camion, moto, etc. Les mots sentier, route, chemin, rue, etc., qui se combinent avec le verbe conduire dans la phrase (a), peuvent être interchangeables (substituables) sans que le sens de la phrase change. Ils seront regroupés sous le terme générique <voies>. En revanche, le sens du verbe conduire change si on remplace le premier argument sentier par Pierre, ou si l’on remplace le complément locatif à la mer par des mots qui appartiennent au classifieur <véhicules> tels que moto, poids lourd, camion, etc. Ces ensembles lexicaux, qui permettent de décrire les arguments avec précision, sont appelés classes d’objets (Gross, 1994; Le Pesant & Mathieu-Colas, 1998). Pour ce qui nous concerne, on remarquera que le modèle des classes d’objets présente l’avantage de distinguer non seulement l’emploi S de l’emploi NS (ex. 1), mais également de désambiguïser les emplois NS entre eux (ex. 2): 1) S <hum> descendre1 <loc.: voie> NS <hum> descendre2 <inc: boisson> Il descend la rue Il a descendu trois pastis 2) NS <hum> descendre2 <inc: boisson> Il a descendu trois pastis NS <hum> descendre3 <hum> Il a descendu le policier NS <hum> descendre4 <avion> Il a descendu l’avion ennemi C’est précisément ce type de description que nous avons adopté pour les verbes de notre corpus. 4. LE CORPUS DE VERBES Parmi les trois formes prédicatives (nom, verbe et adjectif), nous avons choisi d’étudier d’abord la catégorie des verbes pour deux raisons. La première est que le verbe est traditionnellement considéré comme le point central de la phrase. Il est à la base de toute analyse syntaxique. La deuxième raison nous semble plus importante. Selon notre modèle théorique, le verbe est considéré comme une racine prédicative dont dépendent les autres formes prédicatives (noms et adjectifs) qui lui sont morphologiquement liées. En d’autres termes, le verbe est à l’origine de chaque dérivation. Pour cette raison, nous estimons que toute étude Efi Lamprou, Thierry Petitpas 187 à différentes fins doit commencer par les prédicats verbaux. Il nous semble ainsi plus pertinent, d’un point de vue didactique, de montrer à l’apprenant d’abord le verbe allumer au sens de “séduire” avant de lui présenter l’adjectif dérivé allumeuse. Notre corpus est constitué de quatre cents cinquante verbes. En ce qui concerne les critères que nous avons pris en compte pour son élaboration, nous avons tout d’abord sélectionné des unités lexicales verbales dont l’un des sens est étiqueté avec les marques fam. ou pop. dans le Petit Robert (2008). Parmi ces verbes, nous avons conservé uniquement ceux dont les sens standard et NS s’opposent par leur structure argumentale (v. descendre ci-avant). Par ailleurs, nous n’avons recueilli que des verbes simples, retirant de notre corpus les expressions figées (ou unités polylexicales) dont le fonctionnement demande un traitement à part (e.g. se la couler douce, couper le sifflet, en avoir ras le bol, faire chier, s’en taper, Ca s’arrose!, etc…). Dans une perspective didactique, la fréquence est un critère de sélection fondamental. Malheureusement, peu de données sont exploitables pour un travail sur les mots polysémiques tel que le nôtre. Effectivement, la plupart des listes de fréquence (e.g. Juilland, 1970; Brunet, 1981; Baudot, 1992; Lonsdale & Le Bras, 2009) enregistrent la fréquence des formes, mais pas celle des sens. On sait ainsi que le verbe descendre est fréquent, mais on sait pas quelle “part” représente chacune de ses différentes acceptions, notamment ses acceptions NS. En attendant de bénéficier d’une base de données plus précise, nous avons pris le parti de prendre le Petit Robert (2008) comme référence. Nous avons donc écarté de notre corpus les verbes NS que ce dictionnaire considère comme archaïques (e.g. assaisonner “disputer”). Enfin, l’objectif de notre travail étant, in fine, de favoriser l’apprentissage des mots NS, nous avons considéré qu’il était important de relier l’inconnu a du connu (v. Vespoor & Lowie, 2003). Aussi, nous avons également éliminé de notre listing les dérivés sémantiques NS issus de verbes dont le sens standard, trop spécialisé et donc peu fréquent, a peu de chance d’être connu de l’apprenant (e.g. écluser NS “boire” de écluser standard “faire passer par une écluse”, arquer NS “marcher” de arquer standard “devenir courbe comme un arc”). Notre corpus est décrit dans une base de données en cours d’élaboration. Celle-ci comporte 5 champs différents. Dans le premier, apparaissent tous les verbes NS que nous avons sélectionnés. S’ils ont plusieurs emplois, chacun d’entre eux apparaît sous une entrée différente (e.g. taper 1, taper 2, etc.). Le deuxième champ inclus la structure argumentale. Pour décrire les arguments des emplois relevés, nous utilisons les traits syntactico-sémantiques (hum, inc, ina, etc… respectivement pour “humain”, “inanimé concret”, “inanimé abstrait”, 188 & Reading, Writing and Listening Skills etc.) complétés par des classes d’objets. Dans le troisième champ, nous notons la classe sémantique des verbes (v. entre autres Le Pesant & Michel-Colas, 1997; Gross, 1999, 2004; Lamprou, 2004). Selon notre cadre théorique, les classes sémantiques sont des ensembles de mots syntaxiquement et sémantiquement homogènes (i.e. des mots qui possèdent les mêmes propriétés syntaxiques et sémantiques). On citera par exemple la classe des verbes des <états psychiques> (s’accrocher, s’affoler, s’agiter, craquer, etc.), la classe des verbes de <séduction> (allumer, draguer, emballer 1, emballer 2, s’emballer) ou de <violence physique> (défoncer, se défoncer, démolir, s’écraser, enfoncer, massacrer, etc.)6. Le quatrième champ de notre base de données propose un synonyme ou une paraphrase en français standard, suivie, dans le cinquième et dernier champ, d’une traduction de même niveau de langue dans la L1 de l’apprenant. A l’évidence, l’effort de production, voire d’apprentissage, sera moindre si l’apprenant possède dans sa langue maternelle un mot NS ayant un comportement syntactico-sémantique identique à celui du mot français. A titre d’exemple, voici les différentes équivalences en grec du verbe taper dans son emploi familier: taper 1: “emprunter de l’argent à qqn” / GR: káno tráka taper 2: “atteindre telle vitesse” / GR: p<x>áno taper 3: “prendre dans, se servir de” / GR: vázo <x>éri taper 4 (- sur qqn): “critiquer qqn” / GR: ávo 5. PROPOSITIONS DIDACTIQUES Pour les besoins de notre présentation, nous prendrons comme exemple le verbe allumer dont les différents emplois standard (S) et non standards (NS) s’opposent de la manière suivante: A. Emploi S: [hum] ALLUME [inc] - A la tombée de la nuit, Pierre allume la télévision / le feu / le salon. B. Emplois NS: a) [hum] ALLUME [hum]: “disputer” - Nicolas s’est fait allumer par son prof, parce qu’il était en retard. a) [hum] <Femme> ALLUME [hum] <homme>: “séduire” - Julie a allumé Pierre toute la soirée, mais elle n’est pas allée plus loin. 6 Il faut souligner qu’il ne s’agit pas ici de classes référentielles, mais bien de classes linguistiques (basées sur des critères syntaxiques et sémantiques). Efi Lamprou, Thierry Petitpas 189 La place nous étant limitée, nous ne reprendrons que le deuxième emploi NS du verbe allumer, i.e. allumer au sens de “séduire”. La démarche méthodologique que nous proposons est scindée en quatre étapes: - une étape de conscientisation - une étape d’interprétation - une étape de vérification - une étape de production A. Lors de la première étape, qu’on appellera “étape de conscientisation”, l’apprenant, guidé par la consigne, prendra conscience de l’existence de deux emplois différents d’un même verbe en contexte (question a), puis devra établir ce qui différencie les deux emplois en fonction de leur structure argumentale respective (question b). Exercice 1 a) En français standard, le verbe allumer signifie “mettre le feu”, “mettre de la lumière” ou “mettre en marche un appareil électrique”. En fonction de cette définition, cochez les emplois non standards de ce verbe dans les phrases suivantes: 1. Ils ont allumé un feu près de la rivière. 2. Julien s’est fait allumé toute la soirée par une belle inconnue. 3. Allume la télé, je voudrais regarder les informations. e e e 4. Samedi soir, Lucie a allumé Pierre, mais elle n’est pas rentrée avec lui. e 5. A la nuit tombée, il alluma toutes les lumières du salon. e 6. Anna a l’habitude d’allumer les garçons, mais elle ne va jamais plus loin. e b) Relisez les phrases précédentes, et dites qui allume quoi en français standard et en français non standard. Que constatez-vous? La réponse attendue pour (a) sera: 2., 4., 6. La réponse attendue pour (b) sera: - Emploi S: [hum] ALLUMER [inc] - Emploi NS: [hum]<femme> ALLUMER [hum]<homme> B. Lors de la seconde étape, qu’on appellera “étape d’interprétation”, l’apprenant devra trouver, parmi une liste de verbes, un équivalent du verbe allumer en français standard. Dans cet exercice, on attend 190 & Reading, Writing and Listening Skills de l’apprenant qu’il analyse la structure argumentale de chacun des verbes du QCM pour déterminer lequel d’entre eux possède les mêmes caractéristiques syntactico-sémantiques que le verbe allumer dans son emploi NS. Exercice 2 Trouvez un équivalent du verbe allumer dans son emploi non standard. Cochez la bonne réponse: a) arroser e b) séduire e c) cueillir e d) couper e e) construire e Ici, seul le verbe séduire possède la même structure argumentale que le verbe allumer dans son emploi NS: [hum] + V + [hum] C. Lors de la troisième étape, qu’on appellera “étape de vérification”, l’enseignant s’assurera que l’apprenant a bien compris ce qui différenciait l’emploi standard de l’emploi NS. Exercice 3 Parmi les emplois du verbe allumer suivants, repérez celui qui est non standard. Cochez la bonne réponse. a) … une bougie e b) … la radio e Marie allume … c) … Julien e d) … une cigarette e D. Lors de la dernière étape, dite “étape de production” - qui sera effectuée à une semaine d’intervalle environ -, l’apprenant devra trouver les contextes, ou les arguments, appropriés au verbe allumer dans ses emplois standard et NS. La réussite de ces exercices à trous dépendra de la capacité de l’apprenant à extraire de sa mémoire les informations syntactico-sémantiques inférées lors des étapes précédentes. Exercice 4 Trouvez des arguments appropriés pour les emplois standard (S) et non standard (NS) du verbe allumer: a) S: Hier soir, __________ a allumé __________, puis s’est endormi(e) sur le canapé. b) NS: Hier soir, __________ a allumé __________, puis s’est endormi(e) sur le canapé. Efi Lamprou, Thierry Petitpas 191 La réponse attendue pour a) est [hum] (Jacques, Marie, la femme, etc.) a allumé [inc] (la radio, la télévision, un feu, etc.), alors que pour b), on attend [hum]<femme> (Julie, la fille, etc.) a allumé [hum]<homme> (Philippe, un garçon, etc.). 6. EN GUISE DE CONCLUSION L’objectif de cette présentation était de proposer un outil méthodologique visant à améliorer les capacités des apprenants de FLE à produire des mots NS en classe de langue. Nous avons adopté le modèle des classes d’objets en nous intéressant tout particulièrement aux verbes NS issus de la polysémisation d’un verbe standard. Avant d’envisager une étude sur les autres prédicats, nominaux et adjectivaux, il nous incombe tout d’abord de tester la validité de nos propositions. Toutefois, parce qu’elle nécessite un traitement cognitif plus profond (v. Craik & Lockhart, 1972), on peut déjà supposer que notre démarche favorise l’apprentissage des mots NS. Et plutôt que de donner à l’apprenant le verbe NS - une forme dotée d’un sens – de manière isolée, il nous semble de toute façon préférable de lui fournir le mot avec ses conditions linguistiques d’emploi, tout en lui montrant ce qui distingue l’usage standard de l’usage NS. On renverra à Verspoor et Lowie (2003) qui remarquent que cette façon de mettre en regard les deux emplois - littéral et figuré - favorise l’apprentissage à long terme du second. Certains spécialistes du FLE, parmi lesquels les tenants de l’approche communicative, nous reprocherons peut être l’aspect par trop behavioriste de nos propositions et de ne pas prendre en compte le contexte d’utilisation, si essentiel dans l’apprentissage du NS. On avancera pour notre défense que d’après les linguistes qui ont travaillé sur ce sujet, la classe de langue ne constitue pas un environnement d’apprentissage favorable au développement des connaissances sociopragmatiques, implicites et procéduralisées nécessaires pour utiliser correctement des formes NS (Dewaele & Regan, 2001: 63). S’il semble pour le moment utopique de penser pouvoir améliorer l’apprentissage de ce type de connaissances dans un cadre institutionnel7, on peut en revanche tout à fait chercher à augmenter le savoir linguistique des apprenants, et développer de nouvelles stratégies dans ce but. C’est ce que nous avons tenté de faire ici. 7 La situation devrait bientôt changer avec l’arrivée de nouveaux outils de communication synchronisés qui permettent à l’apprenant d’être directement en contact avec des natifs (v. p. ex. les réseaux d’échanges scolaires collaboratifs où les apprenants ont des partenaires “on-line”). 192 & Reading, Writing and Listening Skills BIBLIOGRAPHI Anderson, J.R. (1983) The Architecture of Cognition, Cambridge Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. Baudot, J. (1992) Fréquence d’utilisation des mots en français écrit contemporain, Montréal: Presses de l’Université de Montréal. Bensoussan, M. & B. Laufer (1984) ‘Lexical guessing in context in EFL reading comprehension’, Journal of Research in Reading, vol. 7, pp. 15-32. Boers, F. (2000) ‘Metaphor Awareness and Vocabulary Retention’, Applied Linguistics, vol. 21, no. 4, pp. 553-71. Bogaards, P. (1994) Le Vocabulaire dans l’apprentissage des langues étrangères, Paris: Hatier/Didier. Brunet, E. (1981) Le vocabulaire français de 1789 à nos jours, Genève: Slatkine. Cadre Européen Commun de Référence pour les Langues (2000), Paris: Didier. Carter, R.A. & M. McCarthy (eds) (1988) Vocabulary and language teaching, London: Longmann. Craik, F.I.M. & R.S. Lockhart (1972) ‘Levels of processing: A framework for memory research’, Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, vol. 11, pp. 671-684. Csábi, S. (2004) ‘A Cognitive Linguistic View of Polysemy in English and its Implications for Teaching’, in: M. Achard & S. Niemeier (eds) Cognitive Linguistics, Second Language Acquisition, and Foreign Language Teaching, Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 233–256. Cuq, J.-P. (1996) Une Introduction à la didactique de la grammaire en FLE, Paris: Didier/Hatier. Dewaele, J.-M. (2004a) ‘The Acquisition of Sociolinguistic Competence in French as a Foreign Language: An Overview’, French Language Studies, vol. 14, pp. 301-319. Dewaele, J.-M. (2004b) ‘Individual differences in the use of colloquial vocabulary: The effects of sociobiographical and psychological factors’, in: P. Bogaards & B. Laufer (eds), Learning Vocabulary in a Second Language: Selection, Acquisition and Testing, Amsterdam: Benjamins, pp. 127-153. Dewaele, J.-M. & V. Regan (2001) ‘The Use of Colloquial Words in Advanced French Interlanguage’, EUROSLA Yearbook, vol. 1, pp. 51-67. Efi Lamprou, Thierry Petitpas 193 Dewaele, J.-M. & V. Regan (2002) ‘Maîtriser la norme sociolinguistique en interlangue française: le cas de l’omission variable de ne’, French Language Studies, vol. 12, pp. 123-148. Dewaele, J.-M. & N. Wourm (2002) ‘L’Acquisition de la compétence sociopragmatique en langue étrangère’, Revue Française de Linguistique Appliquée, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 129-43. Eloy, J.-M. (2003) ‘Enseigner le français avec la variation’, Travaux de Didactique du FLE, no. 49, pp. 5-14. Galisson, R. (1991) De la langue à la culture par les mots, Paris: Clé International. Gross, G. (1992) ‘Reconnaissance des emplois à l’aide d’un dictionnaire électronique’, Etudes de linguistique appliquée, no. 85-86, pp. 15-31. Gross, G. (1994a) ‘Classes d’objets et synonymie’, Annales littéraires de l’Université de Besançon, Série Linguistique et Sémiotique, vol. 23, pp. 93-103. Gross, G. (1994b) ‘Un outil pour le FLE: les classes d’objets’, in D. FlamentBoistrancourt (ed.), Théories, données et pratiques en français langue étrangère, Lille: Presses Universitaires de Lille, pp. 169-192. Gross, G. (1999) ‘La notion d’emploi dans le traitement automatique’, La pensée et la langue, Krakow: Wydawnictowo Naukowe AP, pp. 24-35. Gross, G. (2004) ‘Réflexions sur le traitement automatique des langues’, in: G. Purnelle, C. Fairon & A. Dister (eds), JADT 04, Le poids des mots, Louvain-la-Neuve: Presses Universitaires de Louvain, vol. 1, pp. 545-556. Juilland, A., B. Dorothy & C. Davidovitch (1970) Frequency Dictionary of French Words, Den Haag: Mouton & Co. Lamprou, E. (2004) ‘Les prédicats de <réciprocité>. Etude syntacticosémantique’, Thèse de doctorat, Université Paris 13. Laufer, B. (1997) ‘What’s in a Word that Makes it Hard or Easy: Some Intralexical Factors That Affect the Learning of Words’, in: N. Schmitt & M. McCarthy (eds) Vocabulary: Description, Acquisition and Pedagogy, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 140-55. Le Nouveau Petit Robert (2008), Paris: Le Robert. Le Pesant, D. & M. Mathieu-Colas (1997) ‘Principes d’organisation des données lexicales dans un dictionnaire électronique’, Sémiotiques, no. 11, pp. 35-54. Le Pesant, D. & M. Mathieu-Colas (eds) (1998) ‘Introduction aux classes d’objets’, Langages, 32e année, no. 131. 194 & Reading, Writing and Listening Skills Lonsdale, D. & I. Le Bras (2009) A Frequency Dictionary of French, London and New York: Routledge. Lyster, R. (1994) ‘The Effect of Functional-Analytique Teaching on Aspects of French Immersion Students’ Sociolinguistic Competence’, Applied Linguistics, vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 263-287. Mathieu-Colas, M. (1996) ‘Représentation de la polysémie dans un dictionnaire électronique’, in: A. Clas, P. Thoiron & H. Bejoint (eds) Lexicomatique et dictionnairiques, Beyrouth-Montréal: Presses Universitaires de Montréal - Aupelf-Uref, pp. 317-325. Mathieu-Colas, M. (à paraître) ‘Les dictionnaires électroniques du LLI’, Actes du colloque Le Semantiche (18-20 avril 2002), Forli: Università degli studi di Bologna. Morimoto, S. & S. Lewen (2007) ‘A comparison of the effects of imageschema-based instruction and translation-based instruction on the acquisition of L2 polysemous words’, Language Teaching Research, vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 347-372. Mougeon, R., T. Nadasdi & K. Rehner (2002) ‘Etat de la recherche sur l’appropriation de la variation par les apprenants avancés du FL2 ou FLE’, Acquisition et Interaction en Langue Etrangère, no. 17, pp. 7-50. Nation, I.S.P. (2001) Learning Vocabulary in Another Language, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Petitpas, T. (2010) ‘Enseigner la variation lexicale en classe de FLE’, The French Review, vol. 83, no. 4, pp. 52-70. Rey, A. & D. La Peste (2007) Lexik des cités, Paris: Fleuve Noir. Schmitt, N. (1998) ‘Tracking the incremental acquisition of second language vocabulary: A longitudinal study’, Language learning, vol. 48, no. 2, pp. 281-317. Valdman, A. (2000) ‘Comment gérer la variation dans l’enseignement du français langue étrangère aux Etats-Unis’, The French Review, vol. 73, no. 4, pp. 648-66. Verspoor, M. & W. Lowie (2003) ‘Making sense of polysemous words’, Language learning, vol. 53, no. 3, pp. 547-586. L’APPORT DE LA DIVERSITÉ LINGUISTIQUE ET CULTURELLE DANS LA DIDACTIQUE DU FRANÇAIS LANGUE-CULTURE ÉTRANGÈRE Rinetta Kiyitsioglou-Vlachou Université Aristote de Thessalonique, Grèce 1. INTRODUCTION L ES PRINCIPES DE LA PERSPECTIVE actionnelle s’appuient sur et s’alimentent par le plurilinguisme qui constitue, de nos jours, plutôt la règle que l’exception. Le développement des compétences à communiquer langagièrement, préconisé par le CECR, vient renforcer l’idée selon laquelle les apprenants/usagers d’une langue-culture différente mobilisent leur répertoire linguistique et culturel, puisé dans leurs connaissances de la langue source (L1), d’une ou des autre(s) langue(s) apprise(s) antérieurement (L2, L3 +), afin de répondre aux différents besoins de communication. Cette conception nous permet d’associer le répertoire linguistique et culturel avec les erreurs interférentielles dans la mesure où ces erreurs sont susceptible de mettre en valeur le plurilinguisme et le pluriculturalisme, puisque «le plurilinguisme dispose d’un éventail de compétences, qui remplissent des fonctions plus ou moins étendues et partielles selon les langues, c’est-à-dire selon ce qui est nécessaire pour assurer les différents besoins de communication» (Coste et al. 1997: 27). Or, rapprocher les termes «erreurs interférentielles» et «répertoire linguistique et culturel» présuppose le problème de compatibilité de ces notions. Partant du postulat, que les erreurs interférentielles sont une manifestation de la diversité linguistique et culturelle, nous tenterons de démontrer si et dans quelle mesure ces erreurs peuvent être appréciées comme éléments facilitateurs et comme source de support à des fins didactiques et pédagogiques au sein d’un cours universitaire. 2. LA ‘FAUTE’ VS L’‘ERREUR’ Au sein d’une classe de langue, qu’il s’agisse de l’enseignement secondaire ou supérieur, les usagers/apprenants de la langue préfèrent ne pas prendre la parole au-tant qu’ils le souhaiteraient, ne pas s’exprimer librement et spontanément, se taire plutôt que d’y participer activement 196 & Reading, Writing and Listening Skills de peur de commettre des ‘fautes’, et, par consé-quent, d’être pénalisés. À l’égard de la ‘faute’, il nous semble utile de rappeler que ce terme, ayant une valeur religieuse et morale en même temps qu’une valeur scolaire, relie le scolaire à la morale et à la religion, et fait de la ‘faute scolaire’ un cas particulier de la ‘faute éthique’: violer donc la langue étrangère, c’est faire une ‘faute’, elle aussi morale. En d’autres termes, la peur de la ‘faute’ et de ses conséquences mène à la violation de la morale dans un enseignement fondé sur la morale. Ainsi, le laconisme, l’évitement et le silence sont des tactiques fréquentes adoptées par un nombre considérable du public captif (Kiyitsioglou-Vlachou 2001). Dans le parcours historique de la Didactique des langues-cultures étrangères, s’inscrit le remplacement de la notion de ‘faute’ par celle d’‘erreur’, voire une tendance vers l’analyse et la dédramatisation de l’erreur. Analyser les erreurs, c’est mieux comprendre le processus d’apprentissage, ce qui nous renvoie à un objectif théorique, mais c’est aussi démythifier l’erreur afin d’améliorer l’enseignement et, ce dernier, concerne l’objectif pratique. Dorénavant, on peut classer les erreurs selon deux grandes catégories:1 l’erreur de compétence, due à une méconnaissance des règles linguistiques, et l’erreur de performance ou occasionnelle, due à une non application des règles connues (Robert 2001). L’erreur est donc conçue comme inévitable et utile: inévitable parce qu’elle est présente tout au long de l’apprentissage, soit sous forme d’erreurs interférentielles, soit sous forme de négligence ou de relâchement de l’effort de la part des usagers; utile parce qu’elle n’est pas une défaillance de l’apprentissage, mais au contraire une déviance qui témoigne de l’activité de l’esprit. Dans cette perspective, l’apprentissage des langues-cultures étrangères passe par l’erreur, tire profit de l’erreur et envisage souvent l’erreur, notamment l’erreur interférentielle, comme une habitude, un transfert positif, voire une étape indispensable dans la transmission des savoirs et des savoir-faire ainsi que dans le développement des compétences de communication langagières. 3. LE RANSFERT POSITIF VS L’ERREUR INTERFÉRENTIELLE L’analyse contrastive, née du structuralisme et du behaviorisme américain, traite du recours à la langue source (L1) dans l’apprentissage 1 Pour les cognitivistes, «la faute relève de la performance, alors que l’erreur, elle, relève de la compétence transitoire de l’élève» (Robert 2001: 39); à ce propos, voir Corder S. P. (1980). «Que signifient les erreurs des apprenants?». In Langages No 57. Rineta Kiyitsioglou 197 des langues secondes ou langues étrangères (L2, L3 +) sous le prisme des notions de ‘transferts’ et ‘d’interférences’. La notion de transfert est formalisée par R. Lado.2 Ce linguiste considère que, «puisque dans les productions des apprenants apparaissent de nombreuses erreurs que l’on peut identifier comme des formes appartenant à la langue première, c’est qu’il existe un phénomène de transfert; si la similitude entre deux langues aide à l’apprentissage, les différences vont au contraire créer des difficultés puisqu’elles seront sources d’interférences» (Giacobbe 1990: 116). L’intérêt des travaux de Lado réside, entre autres, dans le fait d’avoir exploité la comparaison interlinguistique, jusqu’alors étudiée et limitée dans un cadre théorique et descriptif, et d’avoir comparé non seulement les systèmes linguistiques, mais aussi les cultures considérées comme systèmes de comportements structuraux partagés par un groupe social donné. Or, de nombreux didacticiens ont démontré les insuffisances de l’application de l’analyse contrastive à l’apprentissage des langues étrangères; un effort qui n’a pas pu atteindre l’objectif escompté. Lado, tout en focalisant son analyse sur les différences entre les systèmes linguistiques, a considéré «la faute comme une erreur à extirper» (Galisson et Coste 1976: 125), sans prendre en compte la complexité et, surtout, le dynamisme des processus d’apprentissage. Le contact donc entre deux ou plusieurs systèmes linguistiques a été rendu ‘responsable’ de ces erreurs, en raison des habitudes qu’ils opèrent d’une langue sur l’autre. À cet effet, Giacobbe estime que «l’amalgame entre une constatation linguistique et une explication psycholinguistique dérivée d’une conception behavioriste de l’activité langagière est responsable d’une confusion qui s’est installée dans les études sur le rôle de la langue première: l’identification entre influence de la langue première dans la construction de l’interlangue et une conception behavioriste du langage» (Giacobbe 1990:116). En ce qui concerne le terme interférence,3 et par la suite la notion d’erreur interférentielle, nous assistons à une évolution analogue. Depuis la méthode SGAV jusqu’à nos jours, l’erreur interférentielle fut l’objet de nombreuses tentations de définitions, d’interprétations et surtout d’acception, selon lesquelles les erreurs interférentielles, commises par les usagers/apprenants d’une langue étrangère, sont conçues comme des fautes, voire des transferts négatifs qui retardent et contrarient l’apprentissage de la langue étrangère. 2 3 Terme utilisé par R. Lado dans son ouvrage Linguistics across culture (1957). Terme imposé par U. Weinrich dans son livre Language in contact (1953). 198 & Reading, Writing and Listening Skills Revenons brièvement sur le parcours de la notion d’erreur interférentielle: En didactique des langues, les interférences sont les «difficultés rencontrées par l’élève et fautes qu’il commet en langues étrangères du fait de l’influence de sa langue maternelle ou d’une autre langue étrangère étudiée antérieurement» (Galisson et Coste 1976: 291). Les mêmes auteurs font la distinction entre les interférences phonologiques/ phonétiques, morphosyntaxiques, lexicales et culturelles, tout en les associant avec les transferts. Dans le même ordre d’idées, Cuq conçoit les interférences et les transferts comme «des systèmes des langues en présence dans les contextes d’enseignement-apprentissage, afin d’identifier les similitudes et les différences, posant par hypothèse que celles-ci favorisent l’apprentissage (transfert) ou constituent la cause essentielles des fautes (interférences)» (Cuq 2003: 139) Puren entend par erreur interférentielle, «l’erreur de compétence pouvant provenir d’une interférence avec la langue maternelle, de l’insuffisance du matériel linguistique dont dispose l’élève par rapport à ses besoin d’expression» (Puren 1988: 382). Le Centre National de Ressources Textuelles et Lexicales4 définit les interférences comme «phénomène résultant du contact de deux ou plusieurs langues et se manifestant par l’emploi, dans une langue, d’éléments propres à une autre langue». En somme, «la problématique d’interférence est considérée par certains didacticiens des langues étrangères comme liée à celle de la faute» (Dubois et al. 2002: 253). Autrement dit, lorsque les habitudes de la langue source (L1)5 sont différentes de celles des langues étrangères (L2 ou L3 +), il s’agit, en termes de linguistique, d’interférences et de transferts négatifs. Les interférences se manifestent donc sous forme de fautes: soit des fautes intrinsèques dans la langue cible, et par conséquent susceptibles d’être commises aussi bien par des natifs que par les étrangers, soit des fautes extrinsèques provenant par les étrangers et en l’occurrence par les hellénophones, les russophones, les albanophones, etc. Mais, qu’il s’agisse des fautes intrinsèques ou extrinsèques, les interférences et les transferts aboutissent au même résultat, à savoir aux mêmes ‘fautes’. Cette conception de l’interférence-transfert-faute, induite des études contrastives, a incité les didacticiens à lui accorder une 4 CNRTL dictionnaire en ligne. L’influence de la langue source sur la ou les langue(s) cible(s) est soutenue par des spécialistes de l’enseignement/apprentissage des langues étrangères ou secondes (Besse et Porquier, 1984, Gremmo, 1981; Germain, 1991). 5 Rineta Kiyitsioglou 199 place bien différente de celle qu’elle occupait auparavant. Les travaux de Corder, de Noyau et de Selinker sur l’interlangue ont renforcé, à l’époque, l’adoption d’une nouvelle tendance dans le domaine de la didactique. Or, comme nous avons pu constater lors de nos cours, les étudiants, aussi bien hellénophones qu’allophones, ayant, souvent, une certaine difficulté soit à décoder, soit à intérioriser la règle en français, exploitent leur répertoire plurilingue et pluriculturel, formulent leurs propres hypothèses et développent leurs propres compétences langagières, bien qu’ils aboutissent à des formes erronées, puisqu’ils ne disposent pas des connaissances suffisantes en français. Ils transfèrent donc en langue cible des habitudes, à savoir des interférences phonologiques, morphosyntaxiques, lexicales, culturelles, de la langue source ou des langues étrangères apprises antérieurement. Il s’ensuit donc que les étudiants procèdent par des activités cognitives, qui sont à l’origine des erreurs interférentielles. À l’heure actuelle, contrairement à la méthodologie d’enseignement behavioriste, qui postulait un apprentissage par conditionnement, nous considérons tout à fait légitime que les usagers/étudiants de la langue étrangère puissent filtrer, à travers la langue source ou les langues étrangères étudiées antérieurement, tous les savoirs, toutes les informations. De surcroît, ils ont également le droit de développer et de tirer tout profit de leur répertoire linguistique et culturel dans le but de s’engager «dans un acte de communication avec un ou plusieurs interlocuteurs afin de répondre à un ou des besoins dans une situation donnée» (CECR 2001: 46). 4. L’ERREUR INTERFÉRENTIELLE EN RELATION AVEC LE RÉPERTOIRE LINGUISTIQUE ET CULTUREL Personne ne peut nier le fait que nous vivons tous dans des sociétés multilingues et multiculturelles. Qu’il s’agisse d’un plurilinguisme/ pluriculturalisme, dû au flux migratoire et/ou à la mondialisation des échanges facilitée par les technologies, per-sonne ne peut prétendre aujourd’hui que les citoyens partagent une seule et même langue. Cette réalité, qui s’amplifie du jour au lendemain, nous incite à reconsidérer le rôle de chaque langue et ses implications sur les autres langues et à réexaminer le fonctionnement d’une langue (langue source, langue(s) cible(s)) et ses emprunts aux autres langues. Partant du principe, que l’utilisation de la langue source et/ou des langues étrangères apprises antérieurement est valorisante et facilitatrice pour un enseignement/apprentissage efficace et créatif, et qu’il n’y a pas 200 & Reading, Writing and Listening Skills de tabula rasa dans l’apprentissage d’une langue étrangère, «les moyens de communication, de représentation et d’organisation du monde par la parole se révèlent interlinguistiques» (Chardenet 2004: 54). Ceci dit, la notion de compétence plurilingue et pluriculturelle, faisant état de la variété des langues, trouve sa pleine signification dans la mesure où le développement de cette compétence présuppose que les sujets/étudiants possèdent «un répertoire langagier dans lequel toutes les capacités linguistiques trouvent leur place» (CECR 2001: 11). Coste définit le répertoire linguistique comme «l’ensemble de variétés linguistiques -plus ou moins bien maîtrisées ou développées- que possède un acteur social donné et dont il peut jouer, selon les situations, en faisant appel à telle ou telle de ces variétés. […]. Un des intérêts du concept du répertoire est qu’il n’impose en aucune manière que les variétés considérées relèvent toutes d’une même langue: mon répertoire peut être plurilingue et comprendre des variétés, plus ou moins élaborées, de plusieurs systèmes linguistiques» (Coste 2001). Or, la mobilisation du répertoire langagier et la mise en œuvre des capacités linguistiques variables de la part des sujets/étudiants, afin que ceux-ci puissent réaliser leurs activités de communication langagières, montrent «que la variabilité des compétences est un fait social consubstantiel des situations plurilingues et non le résultat de mauvais apprentissage» (Mondada, 2002, citée par Chardenet 2005: 90). Puisqu’ «apprendre une langue étrangère, c’est toujours mettre en relation des langues entre elles» (ibid.: 91), il s’ensuit que la diversité linguistique est un facteur déterminant et révélateur dans l’activité d’apprentissage. On peut donc s’interroger si et dans quelle mesure le répertoire plurilingue et par là la compétence plurilingue, «ne consistant pas une simple addition de compétences monolingues, autorisent des combinaisons, des alternances, des jeux sur plusieurs tableaux» (CECR 2001: 105). À cet effet, les propos de Springer, concernant le rôle des langues dans l’apprentissage des L3 et plus, nous paraissent fort pertinents: «est-ce toujours le recours à la L1 qui prime dans l’apprentissage des L3 ou est-ce que toutes les langues connues/apprises (L1+L2s) sont susceptibles d’influencer la construction de la L3? Il tente de montrer que toutes les langues du répertoire de l’apprenant jouent un rôle dans la construction de compétences en L3, les L2s en tant que ‘fournisseurs externes’ de mots et de structures» (Springer 2009). Or, partant du constat, que les usagers/étudiants, tout en exploitant leur répertoire plurilingue et pluriculturel, sont en mesure: de choisir Rineta Kiyitsioglou 201 des expressions adéquates «pour obtenir la parole ou pour gagner du temps» (ibid.: 28); de s’exprimer, soit oralement soit par écrit, en utilisant «un répertoire lexical large dont les lacunes sont facilement comblées par des périphrases» (ibid. 33); d’utiliser «un mot inadéquat de son répertoire et [de] faire des gestes pour [le] clarifier» (ibid.: 54); de mobiliser des «stratégies pour faciliter la suite de la conversation ou de la discussion» (ibid.: 71); de se servir de formules morphosyntaxiques pour réaliser des activités de communication langagières, nous sommes à même de déduire que tous ces processus peuvent être envisagés comme des transferts positifs/erreurs interférentielles en langue cible (en l’occurrence en français) des habitudes acquises en langue source et/ou en langues étrangères apprises antérieurement. De cette façon, le transfert positif/erreur interférentielle peut devenir, d’une part, un déclencheur pour entreprendre une correction d’envergure combinant les systèmes de langues différentes; de l’autre, il peut être un ‘inspirateur’ pour l’enseignant qui, tout en s’appuyant sur la richesse du répertoire langagier de ses étudiants, peut en profiter afin d’entamer une discussion constructive qui permettra aux étudiants de reconnaître leurs erreurs et d’en prendre conscience. Or, il s’agit d’une démarche qui montre comment on peut intervenir auprès des étudiants, au moins pour réviser et modifier le spectre de l’erreur et essayer de l’apprivoiser. Accorder au transfert positif/erreur interférentielle un statut d’étape de l’apprentissage et non pas d’échec de ce même apprentissage, permet aux étudiants d’avoir un regard conscient et ‘déculpabilisé’ sur leurs habitudes, voire sur leurs erreurs interférentielles. Cette conception du transfert positif demande de comprendre les erreurs interférentielles avant de les combattre. 5. LA MISE EN ŒUVRE D’UNE OSMOSE INTERLINGUISTIQUE ET INTERCULTURELLE De nos jours, on a passé de l’ère de compétence de communication et d’une «réflexion centrée sur le bilinguisme» (Coste 2001) à l’ère de compétence plurilingue et pluriculturelle. Cela a comme conséquence la mise en question du schéma traditionnel de l’apprentissage qui se veut une addition du type: langue source + langue étrangère 1 + langue étrangère 2, etc., ou langue source + langue étrangère. Cette représentation, comme nous venons de le démontrer, favorise le cloisonnement de l’apprentissage, alors que la diversité linguistique et culturelle consiste, justement, à décloisonner le couple habituel langue source-langue cible en insistant sur le plurilinguisme/pluriculturalisme dont le répertoire langagier doit être apprécié et valorisé. Notre expérience, en tant qu’enseignante, nous 202 & Reading, Writing and Listening Skills a permis de faire le constat d’une circulation interlinguistique «encore souvent stigmatisée ou du moins réduite à la question des interférences» (ibid.) chez nos étudiants. Ce constat s’explique, d’ailleurs, par le fait «que les langues qui constituent le répertoire plurilingue entretiennent entre elles un jeu de relations extrêmement complexes. Dans la mise en œuvre de la compétence plurilingue, comme dans son évolution, il y a par conséquent des circulations entre les langues du répertoire» (ibid.). Dans cette optique, nous considérons que les transferts positifs/ erreurs interférentielles sont révélateurs des mécanismes de pensée de l’usager/étudiant dans la mesure où l’enseignant les accepte comme des étapes estimables de l’effort pour les comprendre. Celui-ci s’efforcera non seulement de les corriger, mais de donner à son public les moyens de prendre conscience, d’en identifier la source et de les dépasser. Le rôle de l’enseignant est bien de créer les circonstances adéquates qui lui permettront de faire développer la compétence plurilingue et pluriculturelle. 6. SANS CONCLURE Vouloir concilier les transferts positifs/erreurs interférentielles et le répertoire linguistique et culturel, nous a semblé un défi motivant qui pourrait nous conduire à de nouvelles pistes didactiques. De nos jours, nombre de didacticiens en langues-cultures étrangères s’accordent à reconnaître que les transferts et les erreurs interférentielles constituent en quelque sorte les traces de stratégies d’apprentissage mises en œuvre par l’apprenant et manifestent une opération cognitive de la part de l’apprenant dans la mesure où celui-ci construit sa relation personnelle à la langue selon des stratégies qui lui sont propres. En d’autres termes, les transferts positifs/erreurs interférentielles ne sont pas dus exclusivement aux habitudes des langues antérieurement apprises ou au mécanisme de l’analogie induit par la langue source, mais ils présupposent un savoir conceptuel et un ‘style cognitif’. Commettre des erreurs interférentielles/transferts positifs, «c’est une bénédiction: étape nécessaire dans un processus d’acquisition, révélatrice d’un état de compréhension; elle est un tremplin pour une explication adaptée et profitable» (Kiyitsioglou-Vlachou 2001: 30). Reconnaître à l’erreur interférentielle/transfert positif une fonction opérationnelle dans le processus d’apprentissage, lui attribuer une valeur productive, maïeutique et heuristique pour l’usager/étudiant de la langue comme pour la dynamique du groupe-classe, c’est l’objet d’un travail longitudinal mais efficace et réalisable dans le cadre d’une didactique qui se veut plurilingue et pluriculturelle. Rineta Kiyitsioglou 203 BIBLIOGRAPHIE Chardenet, P. (2005) “Évaluer des compétences plurilingues et interlingues”, in: Synergies Italie, no. 2, GERFLINT, 90-102. Chardenet, P. (2004) “L’interculturalisme roman: Didactique et politique linguistique”, in: Synergies Italie, no. 1, GERFLINT, 51-58. Conseil de l’Europe (2001) Cadre européen commun de références pour les langues, Paris: Didier. Coste, D. (2001) “La notion de compétence plurilingue”, in: Actes du séminaire – L’enseignement des langues vivantes, perspectives, Ministère de la Jeunesse, de l’Éducation nationale et de la Recherche. http://www.eduscol.education.fr/cid46534/la-notion-de-competenceplurilingue.html. Coste, D., Moore, D., Zarate, G. (1997) Compétence plurilingue et pluriculturelle. Vers un Cadre Européen Commun de référence pour l’enseignement et l’apprentissage des langues vivantes: études préparatoires, Strasbourg, Éd. du Conseil de l’Europe. Giacobbe, J. (1990) “Le recours à la langue étrangère”, in: Le Français dans le Monde-Recherches et application, Paris: Hachette, 115-123. Kiyitsioglou-Vlachou, R. (2001) “Les bienfaits de l’erreur”, in: Le Français dans le Monde, no. 315, Paris: CLE International, 30-31. Lado, R. (1957) Linguistics across culture. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan press. Puren, C. (1988) Histoire des méthodologies de l’enseignement des langues, Paris: Nathan, CLE International. Springer, C. (2009) “Le bricoleur, le perroquet et le clone: quels modèles d’apprenant/apprentissage des langues après le CECR?”, Conférence lors du Colloque international d’ACEDLE Les langues tout au long de la vie, 10-12 décembre 2009, Lille. Dictionnaires consultés Centre National de Ressources Textuelles et Lexicales (CNRTL, dictionnaire en ligne) http://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/ Cuq, J.P. (2003) Dictionnaire de didactique du français langue étrangère et seconde, Paris: CLE International. Dubois, J. et al. (2002) Dictionnaire de linguistique, Paris: Larousse. Galisson, R. et Coste, D. (1976) Dictionnaire de didactique des langues, Paris: Hachette. Robert, J.P., (2001) Dictionnaire pratique de didactique du FLE, Paris: OPHRYS. READING ACCESSIBILITY OF DEAF STUDENTS IN HEARING SCHOOLS1 Eleni Kassapi Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece THE SCHOLASTIC LIFE STORIES OF GREEK ADULT DEAF PEOPLE Case 12 S HE WAS BORN IN XXXXXX, COMPLETED her secondary education and graduated at the Technological Educational Institute of Thessaloniki in 2005. Studying at the University, without an interpreter by her side, was not an easy matter for her, as she encountered problems in understanding the professors and their notes. At the T.E.I. of Thessaloniki several problems may occur because of the fact that the use of an interpreter is only allowed in limited occasions, e.g. in 5 out of 10 courses. The A. and the other deaf students did not attend the rest of the courses, as it is impossible for them to understand the lesson without an interpreter. Thus, they considered their presence in the class unnecessary. This situation had a negative effect on the interviewee, as she considers her presence in the courses necessary, not only in order to get her diploma, but also in order to cover any possible knowledge gaps. Nevertheless, she mentions that, although most deaf people do not make any progress in terms of university studies, she believes that success in higher education depends on the individual and his/her own efforts. As a solution to the problems mentioned above, she suggests that special tutors should be hired to visit the deaf people at home in order to help or teach them. In her opinion, simple students do not suffice for this procedure, as the people who are supposed to help the deaf people must know the sign language very well.As for the books, which she considers quite abstruse, the only solution is their substitution. 1 English translation of the protocols and the conclusions edited by M. Panagiotidou, E. Vatali and E. Kassapi [the translators are E. Vatali, M. Panagiotidou, A. Tzorou, O. Machairidou, A. Sambrakou, A. Ene] The interviews were collected by the research team of K. Tsarouxa under the scientific direction of E. Kassapi with the support of the Research Committee of AUTh. The conclusions and the data were elaborated by the research team of K. Tsarouxa under the scientific direction of E.Kassapi. 2 Translation editing: Evdoxia Vatali. Eleni Kassapi 205 Concerning the use of teaching methods, apart from the lecture and the educational infrastructure, it is mentioned that the professors used only the PC in some laboratories, and not the projector, while the lesson was monopolized by the continuous discourse of the professors. Case 23 He was born in xxxxxx and he is now attending a five year Course in xxxxxx, in the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. He is very satisfied with his studies, which he finds very interesting, but the University doesn’t seem to be able to face the challenges posed by the needs of deaf students. An important problem is that, although the books used in the Course are ‘perfect’ in their content, they cannot be used by deaf students, since they are written in a way only hearing people can perceive. Case 34 She was born in xxxxxx, she has finished school (primary and secondary education) and now she is studying at the Technological Educational Institute (TEI) of Thessaloniki, in the department of xxxxx. During her studies she has encountered many problems, like the lack of notes and the absence of an interpreter for deaf people. She mentions that some departments of the Technological Educational Institute (TEI) do not accept interpreters. Furthermore, problems occurred in absence of information, since the students hadn’t been sufficiently notified about certain things. Even if her fellow students helped her by giving her notes, these notes did not cover all the explanations given by the professor. An interpreter was needed. The professor’s lectures are many times different from what is written in the book. With an interpreter’s help, both the professor’s lectures and the book can be connected and fully understood. She believes that the ability to study at a University depends on the place of origin of a person. For example, a deaf person who was born in Thessaloniki has got more opportunities to get a higher education rather than a person born in a small town or village, where there aren’t enough educational institutes. 3 4 Translation editing: Maria Panagiotidou. Translation editing: Evdoxia Vatali. 206 & Reading, Writing and Listening Skills The attendance of the courses was compulsory. Only two of these courses are examined orally. A student can be examined orally in the other courses as well, only if s/he adduces serious reasons. There are three different ways to conduct an oral examination for deaf people when the presence of an interpreter is not allowed. The first way is to write the question down and expect the student to rewrite it, in order to make sure that the student understands the question. Another way is to let the student show in his/her own way that s/he has understood the question. And the last way is to ask the teacher to repeat the question. As far as the answer is concerned, the student tries to speak and make his/her answer as clear and comprehensible as s/he can. The teaching method used by the professor is lecturing, but sometimes other means, like the projector and the computer, are useful as well. The interviewee considers the use of the notes, in addition to the use of the book, necessary. This claim is reasonable, since the professor’s lectures are many times different from what is written in the book, as mentioned above. On the other hand, it is possible that the book is lacking in many things and additional notes are needed. There is always the possibility that deaf students may misinterpret these notes while reading them. This way, the use of an interpreter is considered to be a far more efficient solution in order to help the deaf students. When she is asked whether she is interested in remaining at the TEI to help other students with hearing problems, her answer is positive. Her only problem is whether she will have enough free time, in case of finding a job, relevant to her school’s scientific field. She states her views by saying: “I believe that the presence of a person helping students and people with disabilities is absolutely necessary at the TEI. But this person must be aware of all kinds of disabilities. For example, I only know the sign language, so I am not able to help a blind child. This person must have all his/her senses, his/her sense of hearing and his/her sight, in order to be able to help any person with any kind of problem. She keeps training despite the fact that many deaf people give up, causing her great sorrow. She has got a PC and an email, which she uses to communicate with both deaf and hearing people. At the moment she is still studying. At the same time she is working as a physiotherapist and sometimes as a teacher. If she had another choice she would take up more drama lessons. She has been to England and she has attended seminars and theatrical performances. She is also a volunteer at the xxxxxx of Thessaloniki, where she offers her help and participates in performances, satisfying her passion for the theatre. As we have seen, the deaf students them self make many efforts as many efforts have done in our university. Eleni Kassapi 207 CONCLUSIONS It is easy to spot certain similarities in the interviews mentioned above: 1. Many deaf people faced difficulties at school because of the textbooks, which are difficult to understand and therefore inappropriate. The substitution of these books is an urgent need for the deaf and should involve certain changes, like simplifying the meaning or limiting the number of the texts taught. There aren’t any notes that could fill the gap of the books, not even in the Higher Education Institutions. 2. Many professors do not have a competent knowledge of the sign language. Furthermore, the explanations given are not sufficient, even when the students ask for further clarification. There aren’t any interpreters, who could provide their help by filling the gaps created and by giving the explanations needed. Furthermore, another solution recommended for the arising educational problems, would be the offering of private lessons provided by special teachers. 3. Most of the interviewees faced problems during their exams, since most of the times they couldn’t understand the questions. Furthermore, in many cases there were only written exams provided by the Universities. This way, an oral explanation of the questions, as detailed as needed, was not possible during the exams. 4. Sometimes teachers’ help was limited only in grading and moral support without essential support to the students’ problems. Another problem mentioned is that teachers do not give sufficient explanations on certain issues that puzzle the students. Rarely do they use visual media or auditory materials to improve the teaching process. 5. Furthermore, the number of educational institutes is extremely limited and they exist only in big cities. The creation of a University for the deaf is only wishful thinking. Deaf students are also troubled by the lack of interest and awareness on their particular needs. Studying in the University or in a Technological Institute is considered a difficult matter, by most of deaf students, but not impossible. It depends, nevertheless, from the effort that every person would make in order to succeed. 208 6. 7. 8. 9. & Reading, Writing and Listening Skills However, it is clear from the beginning, that it is more difficult for a deaf person to deal with the problems that even hearing students have to face in the Universities or in the Technical Institutes. Finally, it is stated that in spite of the difficulties, deaf people are interested in getting higher education. All of the interviewees stated that they would like to remain in the educational institutes in order to help other students who need special support. First of all, they would be friends with them, so that they do not feel rejected. They could also facilitate their understanding of the lessons by using the sign language and audiovisual tools. A lot of the interviewees and, especially, those who didn’t get a higher education are willing to work as civil servants or manual workers. Whereas, those who have an academic hope to find an occupation relevant to their studies. In general, they are all satisfied with their current occupations. Those who have an academic degree are very interested in fine arts, such as, painting, photography and theatre and after their studies they get vocational training of some kind. On the other hand, the majority of those who didn’t get a higher education show very little interest in lifelong learning. Nevertheless, the interviewees also had to face unpleasant emotional situations many times, which, in my opinion, could be stated here: In one of these cases, a student failed the exams, despite his/her classmates’ help, and unwilling to repeat the grade, s/he ended up quitting school. Another case mentioned is the one concerning an elementary student, who was sent back to an infant school, although he was 10 years old, as he had knowledge gaps, due to his long term living abroad. Moreover, the teacher’s insufficient explanations to the deaf student’s questions, as well as his indifference towards him, puzzled the deaf student. All the three cases mentioned above brought unpleasant emotions to the 3 students, who still feel chagrined at recalling them. At this point, it would be useful to point out that these people felt particularly awkward because of the fact that their problems were associated with their difficulty in hearing, a fact that had already caused them a feeling of insecurity, which was intensified in the cases described above. Eleni Kassapi 209 REFERENCES Kassapi, El. et al (2005) “Interpreting between Greek Sign Language and Spoken Greek in Aristotle University of Thessaloniki” META 50:4. Kassapi El. et al (2005) “Terminology in Greek Sign Language”, Acts of the 5th Congress of Greek Language and Terminogy, Cyprus, pp. 88-96. Kassapi El. et al (2007) “The Sign Language Interpreting for Academic Purposes: social, functional level in the Aristotle University”, in the digital: Acts of the Congress on Translation, Interpreting and Social Activism, Granada. Theodosiadou, D., Kassapi, El. and Fachantidis, A. (2009) “Practical Aspects of Students with Hearing Impairment in the Greek University”, in digital: Acts of EMUNI SOUK Conference in Thessaloniki. Theodosiadou, D. and Kassapi, El. (2010) “Translated Protocols of Narratives: Deaf Students in Hearing Schools”, in digital: Acts of EMUNI SOUK Conference in Thessaloniki, 2010. 210 & Reading, Writing and Listening Skills APPENDIX Man, Sxxxx He was born in a village near Sxxxx, called Agio Pxxxx. He attended the high school and the senior high school for deaf people. His complaint is that there is no university for deaf people in Greece as there are universities for deaf in both Washington and New York in America. He would like to have the opportunity to get a higher education in a University for deaf people abroad, but the cost would be too high for him. In Greece there are not enough interpreters to help deaf people attending classes and courses addressed only to hearing people. F. is interested in painting and that would be his choice if he had the opportunity to get higher education. The problems he encountered when he was at school had to do with the communication with his peers, his teachers, as well as with his own hearing parents (and that’s the reason why communication with them was limited). The lack of teachers with knowledge of sign language constituted the second problem, while the third one was about the school books. He explains that the books are written, under the auspices of the Greek state, only for hearing people. For the deaf students he proposes summarizing books in suitable writing that would encourage the easy comprehension of courses from students with such disabilities. As for the teachers’ lack of education in sign language, he proposes effective training until the level of interpretation and not just the level of sufficiency. He emphasizes that neither deaf nor hearing people have trouble with each other and so why not facilitate communication between them. He knows that in the past the problem was much bigger and shares his personal experience: teachers used to put him high grades because they wanted to help him, but there was no actual support for his effort and as consequence, there was no progress. Of course they encouraged him to read, but it was very difficult for him. They rewarded his effort with high grades but his progress was constantly reducing. As for deaf student attendance in a university, he says that it always depends on the individual. Without doubt, the effort that someone has to make is great and the situation would be improved very much if there were interpreters. He says that there are already many members of deaf community that want to go to the university. He wishes that this number would increase in the next few years, providing that the infrastructures are created. 211 Eleni Kassapi When asked about whether he would remain at school in order to help deaf people in need, he answered affirmatively and completed: “I have reached a very good level of knowledge of the sign language and I’d like to help other deaf students to make a progress, since our teachers do not know the sign language. I want to support them, teach them, but there is neither response nor a result. They are raising a wall. From the one side “filth”. From the other side we are trying to break that wall”. He has got a computer and he uses the internet 1, 2 or 3 times a week. Via mail he communicates with deaf and hearing people. He is satisfied with his profession (teacher of sign language to hearing people) especially because he sees hearing people’s willingness to learn sign language. He wishes hearing people would get on to the level of interpretation and would practice to a larger extend professions as bank clerks, language teachers etc. He would also like to work in such an institution (bank, hospital), but they never hire deaf people to such positions. He does know how to read the lips but he gets tired when he does it for long time, for example 1-2 hours. Woman, Txxxx She was born in Txxxx, completed her secondary education and graduated the School of accounting in the Technological Educational Institute of Txxxx in 2005. Studying at the University, without an interpreter by her side, was not an easy matter for her, as she encountered problems in understanding the professors and their notes. At the T.E.I. of Txxxx several problems may occur because of the fact that the use of an interpreter is only allowed in limited occasions, e.g. in 5 out of 10 courses. A. and the other deaf students did not attend the rest of the courses, as it is impossible for them to understand the lesson without an interpreter. Thus, they considered their presence in the class unnecessary. As a solution to the problems mentioned above, she suggests that special tutors should be hired to visit the deaf people at home in order to help or teach them. In her opinion, simple students do not suffice for this procedure, as the people who are supposed to help the deaf people must know the sign language very well. As for the books, which she considers quite abstruse, the only solution is their substitution. Concerning the use of teaching methods, apart from the lecture and the educational infrastructure, it is mentioned that the professors used only the PC in some laboratories, and not the projector, while the lesson was monopolized by the continuous discourse of the professors. 212 & Reading, Writing and Listening Skills Man, Fxxxx He was born in Fxxxx and he has graduated from the Faculty of Education of Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, School of Primary Education (S.P.E.). During his study he faced certain challenges. First of all, he couldn’t understand daily lessons because of the lack of sign language interpreters and the lack of visual media and auditory materials. University lacks a unified sign language textbook and the didactic books used cannot be understood by deaf students. Deaf students also have a difficulty in commmunicating with their teachers. To raise awareness on the challenges facing the deaf students among the hearing people, he suggests the creation of an information office, with well trained staff that will be properly taught about the particular needs of deaf students and that sign language interpreters be present during the lessons to facilitate the students’ learning. He believes that people with hearing disabilities are able to study at University only if they have been supported with the proper preparation during High School and, their progress as University students can be facilitated by sign language interpreters. Although he has graduated, he would like to remain in the University in order to help and encourage other deaf students. He often attends seminars relevant to his subject of study. He can use a PC and he communicates every day with deaf and hearing people via e-mail. He is a volunteer sign language teacher at University and he is also working as a fill-in teacher in a special school in Katerini. He is very pleased with what he does. He knows lip-reading or speech reading. Man, Sxxxx He was born in Sxxxx and graduated the School of accounting in the Technological Educational Institute. He attended the secondary school (junior high school and high school) for deaf people at Panorama. He declares himself dissatisfied with the higher education, since there aren’t any interpreters and thus, it is practically impossible to attend the courses. He suggests the use of interpreters as a solution to this problem, in order to facilitate the deaf students. Moreover, he believes that the professors should explain the lessons in a better way, so that both deaf and hearing students can understand equally. He also mentions that, for the deaf, studying gets even more complicated because the professors do not know the sign language and also because most deaf people have difficulty in reading, therefore they cannot understand the meaning of the books. 213 Eleni Kassapi He says that the deaf students can only take written exams and that they did not have the opportunity to be examined orally with an interpreter. Moreover, the professors use additional teaching aids only in laboratories and not in the rest of the courses, which makes it harder for them to comprehend the lesson. When asked if he would like to remain in the university, in order to help the deaf students, his response was positive and he believes he would help them to a great extent by explaining the lesson in the sign language. He likes reading and continues his further training. In addition, he uses the computer and communicates with both the deaf and the hearing people by e-mail. He is the director of the association for the deaf in Thessaloniki and has worked as a sign language teacher for hearing people in Thessaloniki and Edessa. He is satisfied with his profession and does not wish to work in any other field. Finally, he mentions to be an excellent lip reader since childhood, as he has two hearing brothers with whom he needs to communicate. an, Txxxx He was born in Txxxx and he is now attending a five year Course in Film Studies, in the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. He is very satisfied with his studies, which he finds very interesting, but the University doesn’t seem to be able to face the challenges posed by the needs of deaf students. An important problem is that, although the books used in the Course are ‘perfect’ in their content, they cannot be used by deaf students, since they are written in a way only hearing people can perceive. Woman, Txxxx She was born in Oxxxx and she was raised in Txxxx. She has a degree in Early Childhood Teaching from the Vocational Training Institute of Thessaloniki but she has never taken the exams for the State Certification Certificate. She studied at a school for deaf people (primary, high school, elementary) From her experience at school she pointed out some problems. First of all, the absence of sign language textbooks. The existing school books seem to be difficult for deaf students to understand. The second problem she mentioned is that most of the teachers don’t know how to use the sign language and consequently, they lose precious time in the teaching process with the intervention of interpreters. In the question if it is easy for deaf-mute people or a person with disabilities to succeed in school, she answers that it depends, to a large extend, on the method the teacher uses. 214 & Reading, Writing and Listening Skills She mentions that in the Institute of Professional Instruction every semester consisted of a different number of courses, but she doesn’t remember their specific number. The exams were written only for the English Language Course whereas, for all the other courses, they were oral. Fortunately, her sister knows the sign language and she was able to accompany her to the lessons and explain them to her. Furthermore, In the exams she was acting as an interpreter. During the courses, no visual media and auditory materials were used but only the method of lecturing. Except for the practical courses, as the first aid etc. For the exams, students were expected to study the notes distributed by the faculty, since there were no books available. She refers that she would like to help deaf-mute students in their welcoming issues, but she doesn’t know in which way that can happen in practice. She believes that the interpreters should encourage and help them with all the possible means. Woman, Gxxxx She is a student at a Vocational Training Centre and she has to face certain problems, such as the lack of textbooks. Students have to take notes during the lessons, and, to make things worse, the explanations given by the teachers are not enough. Unfortunately, teachers do not seem to be very cooperative. She wishes that teachers would be more helpful and that students would be provided with written notes they can study at home. She believes that it is extremely difficult for deaf students to get higher education, but not impossible. She would like to remain at the Centre in order to help deaf students by using the sign language. Man, Pxxxx He left Senior High School after the end of the 1st year, since he didn’t manage to pass the final exams. The reason for this failure, according to him, was the lack of coherence between the syllabus taught during the lessons and the exams. Furthermore, the concepts featuring in the books were not easily understood by the students and teachers were not even willing to give additional explanations or clarifications relating to vocabulary. He suggests that books contain fewer texts and that teachers learn the sign language. He also says that students will have better results in the exams if they have to study only what was taught during the lessons. 215 Eleni Kassapi It is essential, according to him, that more special schools are created all over the country. He also believes that it is more difficult for a deaf person to get higher education than it is for a hearing one. He works as a doorman but he would be interested in working as a truck mechanic. Man, Txxxx He was born in Txxxx and he attended an elementary school for deaf people. Until the age of ten he lived in Germany. When he returned to Greece, he was placed in the kindergarten, but he was feeling really bad among his classmates, who were much younger than him. He suggests that elementary school books change so that children, and especially the deaf ones, can understand them more easily. He also believes that teachers should learn the sign language in order to improve their communication with deaf students and encourage them to participate in the lessons. He also believes that deaf people who want to get higher education have to make a great and serious effort. His educational activities consist only in reading the newspapers or books at home. He has got a PC and an e-mail, which he uses twice a week at work. In the mornings he works as a garbage truck driver. A few afternoons in the week he works as secretarial assistant in an Institute for deaf people. He is very satisfied with his job but he would like to work in the clothes industry, in the packing section, since he has done it in the past. He knows lip-reading or speech reading. Woman, Kxxxx She was born in Kxxxx, she has finished school (primary and secondary education) and now she is studying at the Technological Educational Institute of Thessaloniki, in the School of Physiotherapy. During her studies she has encountered many problems, like the lack of notes and the absence of an interpreter for deaf people. She mentions that some departments of the Technological Educational Institute do not accept interpreters. Furthermore, problems occurred in absence of information, since the students hadn’t been sufficiently notified about certain things. Even if her fellow students helped her by giving her notes, these notes did not cover all the explanations given by the professor. An interpreter was needed. The professor’s lectures are many times different from what is written in the book. With an interpreter’s help, both the professor’s lectures and the book can be connected and fully understood. 216 & Reading, Writing and Listening Skills She believes that the ability to study at a University depends on the place of origin of a person. For example, a deaf person who was born in Thessaloniki has got more opportunities to get a higher education rather than a person born in a small town or village, where there aren’t enough educational institutes. The attendance of the courses was compulsory. Only two of these courses are examined orally. A student can be examined orally in the other courses as well, only if s/he adduces serious reasons. There are three different ways to conduct an oral examination for deaf people when the presence of an interpreter is not allowed. The first way is to write the question down and expect the student to rewrite it, in order to make sure that the student understands the question. Another way is to let the student show in his/her own way that s/he has understood the question. And the last way is to ask the teacher to repeat the question. As far as the answer is concerned, the student tries to speak and make his/her answer as clear and comprehensible as s/he can. The teaching method used by the professor is lecturing, but sometimes other means, like the projector and the computer, are useful as well. The interviewee considers the use of the notes, in addition to the use of the book, necessary. This claim is reasonable, since the professor’s lectures are many times different from what is written in the book, as mentioned above. On the other hand, it is possible that the book is lacking in many things and additional notes are needed. There is always the possibility that deaf students may misinterpret these notes while reading them. This way, the use of an interpreter is considered to be a far more efficient solution in order to help the deaf students. When she is asked whether she is interested in remaining at the TEI to help other students with hearing problems, her answer is positive. Her only problem is whether she will have enough free time, in case of finding a job, relevant to her school’s scientific field. She states her views by saying: “I believe that the presence of a person helping students and people with disabilities is absolutely necessary at the TEI. But this person must be aware of all kinds of disabilities. For example, I only know the sign language, so I am not able to help a blind child. This person must have all his/her senses, his/her sense of hearing and his/her sight, in order to be able to help any person with any kind of problem. She keeps training despite the fact that many deaf people give up, causing her great sorrow. 217 Eleni Kassapi She has got a PC and an email, which she uses to communicate with both deaf and hearing people. At the moment she is still studying. At the same time she is working as a physiotherapist and sometimes as a teacher. If she had another choice she would take up more drama lessons. She has been to England and she has attended seminars and theatrical performances. She is also a volunteer at the Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA) of Thessaloniki, where she offers her help and participates in performances, satisfying her passion for the theatre. Man, Txxxx He was born in Txxxx and he has studied up to Senior High School.. During his studies, he has faced a lot of problems. First of all, the teachers didn’t know the sign language. Furthermore, deaf students weren’t able to understand and use the schoolbooks. These problems led to a difficulty in the comprehension of the whole teaching procedure. He believes that deaf students do not face any particular difficulties in Primary School or in High School, but it is certainly challenging for them to attend Senior High School. In his school environment the lecture and the use of blackboard were the primary means of teaching. So, he suggests that teachers learn the sign language and that the books are changed in order to be usable by deaf students, too. He also says that teachers should believe in students and help them. In conclusion, the whole teaching procedure should take into consideration the particular needs of deaf students. Another solution that he suggests is that the students learn their daily lessons and the sign language correctly, so that their communication is more efficient. The teachers and the school in general should show more concern on that. He supports that deaf students, for the exams, needed much more than the school book. But, unfortunately, that was their only tool. He believes that, by remaining in the school, he could help a lot of deaf children in their lessons. He could also be a friend to those who are not accepted by their schoolmates, because of their hearing problems. His reading activity consists only in reading newspapers and magazines. He has an e-mail account and a pc and he communicates 3-4 times a week with deaf or hearing people. He works as a pc programmer and he is quite satisfied from his job. He believes that that no other job could be more interesting for him than montage. He knows how to read leaps, but not perfectly. Ω Ω Ω Ω Ω Ω Ω Tina Kanta, Véronique Rey Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales & CNRS, UMR 8562, Marseille, France Ω 1. , - . . « » . , « , » . . - , . « » . », , « », « - , . , , ’ . ; (Kanta & Rey, 2003, 2009 , . . . ), , . , « » . - 219 Tina Kanta, Véronique Rey « » , » « , - . 2. Ω , . , Bloomfield (1933: 55-56) : “In the extreme case of foreign language learning the speaker becomes so proficient as to be indistinguishable from the native speakers round him…In the cases where this perfect foreign language learning is not accompanied by loss of the native language, it results in bilingualism, native like control of two languages”. MacNamara (1967), , , , , . , Haugen (1970) Bloomfield MacNamara . , . Lambert (fr: « » - , (1955) « » bilinguisme équilibré, en: balanced bilingualism) » . , « (fr: bilinguisme précoce), 10 , « , » (fr: bilinguisme précoce simultané), status « » « » bilinguisme consécutif), 10 . , , , . , Grosjean (1994), ,« » , . (fr: - - 220 & Reading, Writing and Listening Skills Ό , , - , . , . . , . , . Ω 3. Ω Ω . Moraïs (1994), , . , - . , , , . , . , , » (fr: principe alphabétique, en: alphabetic » , , , ( Moraïs, 1998). « », . , , - « principle). « , , . ’ , , , » ( fr: conscience phonologique, , , (Habib, 1997). . « en: phonemic awareness). « » . 221 Tina Kanta, Véronique Rey , (Morais 1994, Moraïs, . Libermann (1980), Bradley & Bradley (1983), Morais Kolinsky (1996), , , Alegria & Bertelson 1979, 1989). Ά (1979) (Adams et al. 1998). , . , Stanovich (1988), « » « , » « » , Goswami (1986, 1988) (implicit phonemic awareness) (explicit phonemic awareness). . , , . « » « » - . , - . , , . 2 - , , - . , , . ; 4. Ω Ω : 4.1 (Kanta & Rey, 2003 ), 2009 , , 2 , 222 & Reading, Writing and Listening Skills . , , , . 2 - ’ , , 2 , . . 4.2 “International Bilingual School of Provence”. 50% , . . 22 , 10 9 , , . , 12 4 , , , . , , 5 , 6 , - 50% . , , - , 13 . , . - , . ’ , (fr: logatomes, non mots, en: non words). , . . , , . , , «recherche d’intrus» ( ’ / ). , ). . , ( - ’ 223 Tina Kanta, Véronique Rey , 5 - ( ’ ) . 4.3 , «recherche d’intrus», 53,34%. .Ό - , - . , . , 3,8/10. Rey, Sabater & De Cormis (2001), , : 1 - , 72 2 - . 53 , - , 73 - 42 . , . , , /r/ /l/3, 4 . , «recherche d’intrus», « 7,97/10. , . 63,2% . ’ - - », . 1 , . 2 , , . 3 4 /l/. . 224 & Reading, Writing and Listening Skills 1: «recherche d’intrus» ȈȪȖțȡȚıȘ ȉ1-ȉ2 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 74,59 63,27 T1 Intrus ǹ' īȣȝȞ. 57,07 52,01 50,94 T2 Intrus ǹ' īȣȝȞ. T1 Intrus Ǻ' īȣȝȞ. T2 Intrus Ǻ' īȣȝȞ. T1 Intrus ī' īȣȝȞ. 52,14 T2 Intrus ī' īȣȝȞ. 2: ȈȪȖțȡȚıȘ ȥİȣįȠȜȑȟİȚȢ ȉ1-ȉ2 10 8,5 9 8 8,25 7,16 7 6 5 4,25 3,66 4 3,57 3 2 1 0 ȉ1 ǹ' īȣȝȞ. Ό T2 ǹ' īȣȝȞ. T1 Ǻ' īȣȝȞ. T2 Ǻ' īȣȝȞ. T1 ī' īȣȝȞ. , - , , ’ , d’intrus». T2 ī' īȣȝȞ. , «recherche 225 Tina Kanta, Véronique Rey 5. Ό , , . , , , . , - , , . , - . . , ’ . , , . , - . , , ’ . , . . I ω Adams, M.J., Foorman, B., Lundberg, I., Beeler, T. (1998) Phonemic awareness in young children: a classroom curriculum, Baltimore, Md: P.H. Brookes. Bloomfield, L. (1933) Language, Revised from 1914 edition, New York: Holt. Habib, M. (1997) Dyslexie: le cerveau singulier, Marseille: Solal éditeurs. Morais, J. (1994) L’art de lire, Paris: éditions Odile Jacob. Valdois, S. (1996) Approche cognitive des troubles de la lecture et de l’écriture chez l’enfant et l’adulte, Marseille: Solal. Ά Bradley, L. & Bryant, P.E. (1983) “Categorizing sounds and learning to read: A Causal connection” Nature, 303: 419-421. 226 & Reading, Writing and Listening Skills Goswami, U.C. (1988) “Children’s use of analogy in learning to spell” British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 6: 21-33. Haugen, E. (1970) “Bilingualism, Language Contact, and Immigrant Language in the United States: A Research Report 1956-1970”, Current Trends in Linguistics, 10: 505-591. Kanta, T., & Rey, V., (2003) “Relation entre la conscience phonologique et l’apprentissage d’une langue seconde”, Travaux Interdisciplinaires du Laboratoire Parole et Langage, vol. 22, p.p. 135-147. Lambert, W.E. (1955) “Measurement of the linguistic dominance of bilinguals”, Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 50, 197-200. Kolinsky, R. (1996) “Conséquences cognitives de l’illettrisme” in: Carbonnel S, Gillet PM-D, Martory M-D, Valdois S (eds) Approche cognitive des troubles de la lecture et de l’écriture chez l’enfant et l’adulte, Marseille: Collection Neuropsychologie. Solal. Rey, V., Sabater, C. & De Cormis, C., (2001) “Un déficit de la conscience morphologique comme prédicteur de la dysorthographie chez l’enfant présentant une dyslexie phonologique”, Glossa, no. 78, p.p. 4-21. Macnamara, J. (1967) “The bilingual’s linguistic performance: A psychological overview”, Journal of Social Issues, 23: 59-77. Morais, J., Cary, L., Alegria, J. & Bertelson, P. (1979) “Does awareness of speech as a sequence of phonemes arise spontaneously?” Cognition 7: 323-331. Morais, J., Bertelson, P., Cary, L. & Alegria, J. (1986) “Literacy training and speech segmentation”, Cognition, 24: 45-64. Stanovich, K.E. (1988) “Explaining the differences between the dyslexic and the garden-variety poor reader: The phonological-core-variabledifference model”, Journal of Learning Disabilities, 21: 590-604. / Grosjean, F. - Individual bilingualism. The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1994. Also in Applied Linguistic Studies in Central Europe (University of Veszprem, Hungary), 1997, 103-113; and in Spolsky, B. (ed.) Concise Encyclopedia of Educational Linguistics. Oxford: Elsevier, 1999. L’ACQUISITION DE L’OPPOSITION [+VOISÉ/-VOISÉ] DANS LES OCCLUSIVES: APPRENANTS HELLÉNOPHONES CHYPRIOTES Monique Monville- urston, Fryni Kakoyianni-Doa Université de Chypre, Chypre 1. INTRODUCTION O N SAIT QUE, LES SYSTÈMES PHONOLOGIQUES des langues n’étant pas structurés de la même manière, des difficultés d’origine perceptive peuvent entraver l’acquisition de la phonologie d’une langue cible, d’où l’intérêt fondamental de repérer ces problèmes afin d’intervenir de façon efficace. Nous nous sommes intéressées à l’acquisition de l’opposition phonémique [+/- voisé] dans les consonnes occlusives, qui en français distingue les sourdes (-voisées) [p, t, k] et les sonores (-voisées) [b, d, g]. Les apprenants/usagers considérés sont des étudiants chypriotes-grecs spécialisés en français. Leur langue maternelle, le grec chypriote, ne contient pas ces oppositions. L’objectif de cet article est d’examiner la perception par ces sujets de la sonorité dans les occlusives et d’essayer de découvrir, avec des visées pédagogiques, quels facteurs peuvent faciliter cette perception ou y faire obstacle. Nous présenterons tout d’abord l’expérience que nous avons faite avec nos étudiants, puis nous discuterons les résultats de cette expérience. Celle-ci consistait en trois tests qui demandaient: a) de discriminer entre des paires minimales; b) d’identifier et de transcrire la consonne manquante dans des mots lus à haute voix; et c) de choisir l’item que l’on croyait avoir entendu dans des paires de mots contenant une ou plusieurs occlusives et phonétiquement proches. Comme les sujets se situaient à différents niveaux d’acquisition du FLE, nous comparerons aussi leur degré d’appropriation de l’opposition [+/- voisé]. Nous terminerons sur des remarques d’ordre pédagogique au sujet de l’enseignement de l’opposition [+/-voisé] et de la phonétique en général au niveau universitaire. 2. ANALYSE CONTRASTIVE Le français, comme environ 60% des langues du monde (Maddieson 2005), a une opposition [+/-voisé] dans les occlusives. Il est facile de trouver des paires minimales pour les trois lieux d’articulation (voir 228 & Reading, Writing and Listening Skills par exemple Léon 2007, Tranel 2003, Hannahs 2007). Le rendement de cette opposition est donc élevé dans les occlusives et en conséquence être capable de les percevoir et de les produire est essentiel pour l’appropriation du français. Les phonèmes occlusifs en français sont présentés et illustrés dans la Table 1. Table 1: Les phonèmes occlusifs en français Consonnes Bilabiales Dentales Vélaires Sourdes (-voisé) /p/ pain /t/ tant /k/ car Sonores (+voisé) /b/ bain /d/ dent /g/ gare Le grec chypriote (GC), quant à lui, fait partie du très petit groupe de langues (6.5% des langues du monde, cf. Maddieson 2005) qui possède un contraste [+/- voisé] dans les fricatives, mais pas dans les occlusives. Les descriptions phonologiques du GC diffèrent (voir en particulier Newton 1972; Arvaniti 1999; 2006), mais elles s’accordent pour dire que ce dialecte ne possède qu’une série de phonèmes occlusifs: /p, t, k/1. La Table 2 présente les phonèmes occlusifs du GC pour les lieux d’articulation ‘bilabial’, ‘dental’ et ‘vélaire’.2 Table 2: Les phonèmes occlusifs en grec chypriote Consonnes Bilabiales /p/ chaleur Dentales /t/ Vélaires /k/ fille maintenant Selon Arvaniti (1999, 2006), les phonèmes /p, t, k/ sont normalement réalisés phonétiquement comme des occlusives non-aspirées [p, t, k]; ils sont complètement voisés après une consonne nasale et peuvent être prénasalisés chez certains locuteurs dans les autres positions, en particulier dans les débits rapides. Nous avons donc pour le grec chypriote la distribution allophonique représentée dans la Table 3. 1 Il existe aussi en GC des occlusives géminées, les phonèmes /pH, tH, kH/ et qui ne nous concernent pas directement ici. 2 Le GC possède aussi un phonème occlusif palatal /c/ qui n’a pas d’équivalent en français. Monique Burston, Fryni Doa, Natalie Kitalides 229 Table 3: Distribution allophonique pour les occlusives du grec chypriote [b, d, g] entre une consonne nasale (ou [z]) et une voyelle [kómbos] noeud [∂óndin] dent [pú ga] poche /p, t, k/ [mb, nd, g] en variation ‘libre’ (débit rapide) [p, t, k] (non-aspiré), normalement, ailleurs [kópos] peine [óti] que [síka] figues Ce mélange de distribution complémentaire et de variation libre rend évidemment difficile l’acquisition de la phonologie de langues où la distribution [+/-voisé] est contrastive, comme le français. Newton (1972:28) remarque: “It is interesting to note that Cypriot learners of French (and even English, where aspiration affords an important clue) have considerable difficulty in perceiving and producing the essential voicing contrasts within the stops.” Cette difficulté est mise en évidence par des prononciations erronées du type, [mandam] madame, des graphies telles que *exemble pour exemple (voir aussi pour l’anglais ton touch pour ‘don’t touch’) et des transcriptions incorrectes de textes audio (*quitté pour guidé). Certaines transpositions orthographiques de mots d’emprunt contenant des occlusives voisées sont aussi révélatrices en chypriote. Ainsi [viteo klap] reproduit l’anglais ‘video club’, alors qu’en grec standard, où le voisement est contrastif dans les occlusives, on aura μ [vi(n)deo klab] (Exemple cité par Arvaniti 2006:8) 3. TESTS DE PERCEPTION Concernant l’acquisition des sons d’une seconde langue (L2), nous adoptons la position prise par de nombreux chercheurs3, à savoir que, lorsque les différences entre des sons phonétiquement similaires en L2 et en L1 ne sont pas discernées, la formation de nouvelles catégories pour les sons de la L2 est bloquée et qu’il en résulte obligatoirement des incorrections dans la prononciation. Cela revient à dire que la perception conduit à la production. Cela justifie que nous ayons commencé notre étude par une évaluation de la perception des sujets. 3 En particulier les chercheurs qui se réclament du ‘Speech Learning Model’. Voir par exemple, Flege 1995, Flege 2003. 230 & Reading, Writing and Listening Skills 3.1 But de l’étude Pour juger du degré de perception des oppositions phonémiques françaises /p, b/, /t, d/, /k, g/ par les sujets participant à l’expérience, nous avons assigné à ceux-ci les tests qui seront décrits plus bas. Les tâches proposées avaient pour but: a) d’évaluer plus systématiquement la qualité de la perception des occlusives françaises chez des apprenants/usagers de niveau universitaire, après au moins cinq ans d’apprentissage du FLE; b) de savoir si le point d’articulation de l’occlusive avait une influence sur la perception du voisement ou de son absence et d’établir les contextes où l’opposition [+/-voisé] était le mieux ou le moins bien perçue par les sujets; c) d’en tirer des conclusions pour un enseignement plus efficace de l’opposition considérée. 3.2 Les sujets Nous avons soumis à ces tests 37 sujets, tous étudiants du Département d’Études françaises et de Langues vivantes de l’Université de Chypre en 2009. Ils étaient répartis en trois groupes de profil différent, mais avaient déjà étudié le français pendant au moins cinq ans. Le premier groupe était constitué de 17 sujets (étudiants de première année) récemment arrivés du lycée et qui n’avaient bénéficié d’aucun enseignement systématique de la phonétique française. Le second était formé de 14 étudiants de deuxième année qui avaient suivi en 2008-2009 un cours de phonétique et un cours de langue où l’on donne une grande importance à la prononciation. Les 15 étudiants de quatrième année qui composaient le troisième groupe avaient suivi un cours de phonétique, quatre ans auparavant, mais pas d’autre enseignement guidé de la prononciation; certains avaient fait un séjour Erasmus en France. A ce dernier groupe s’ajoute une étudiante Erasmus de langue maternelle française, qui a servi de sujet témoin de référence. 3.3 Méthodologie L’expérience comme nous l’avons signalé plus haut était basée sur trois tests.4 Le premier test consistait en un exercice de discrimination portant sur des paires de mots identiques (par exemple barrit/barrit) ou différents (par exemple cage/gage). On voit que dans le second cas, il s’agissait de paires minimales ne différant que par un phonème occlusif 4 Un certain nombre des mots et paires utilisés dans les trois tests sont empruntés à l’étude préliminaire faite par Natalie Kitallides dans le cadre de son mémoire de Master I, Les consonnes occlusives orales chez les apprenants chypriotes du FLE, Université de Chypre, 2009. Monique Burston, Fryni Doa, Natalie Kitalides 231 placé au même point d’articulation. Les paires ont été lues aux sujets, qui ont dû indiquer s’ils avaient entendu deux mots identiques ou deux mots différents. Le deuxième test, qui était un exercice d’identification, comprenait une liste de mots transcrits orthographiquement. Il manquait dans chaque mot une lettre correspondant à l’un des membres de chaque paire d’occlusives /p, b/, /t, d/ ou /k, g/. Chaque mot a été lu aux sujets, à qui on a demandé de compléter ce mot sur le papier par la lettre manquante. Par exemple: sou__e, où on imposait le choix entre les lettres ‘p’ et ‘b’. Les stimuli étaient la plupart du temps des membres de paires minimales: par exemple __rame correspondait potentiellement à trame ou à drame. Ces stimuli pouvaient être connus ou inconnus des participants, et les sujets avaient été avertis qu’ils ne devaient pas se fier à leurs connaissances lexicales. Le troisième et dernier test proposait sur le papier des paires de mots identiques ou différant par une ou deux occlusives. Il s’agissait d’identifier le mot entendu. Par exemple: quérir ou guérir, clope ou globe. La plupart des paires avaient été construites sur des confusions observées par les professeurs au cours de leur enseignement. Il faut ajouter que dans le premier et le second tests en particulier les auteurs avaient pris soin de représenter systématiquement tous les contextes d’occurrence possibles des sons concernés à l’intérieur d’un mot: par exemple, pour /b/, en début de mot devant voyelle (bancal), en fin de mot (limbe), devant une autre consonne (esbroufe), entre voyelles orales (rebut), après une voyelle nasale (embout), etc. Il ne nous échappe pas qu’évaluer la compétence perceptive n’est pas chose simple, vu le nombre de variables qui peuvent entrer en jeu. D’un point de vue expérimental, par exemple, il a été démontré que certains aspects du design des tâches à accomplir peuvent affecter la performance des sujets: en particulier le type de tâche, l’utilisation des mots réels ou de mots créés, l’utilisation de syllabes plutôt que de mots, la longueur de l’intervalle entre les stimuli, etc. Pour plus de détails nous référons le lecteur à Mora 2007. 4. LES RÉSULTATS 4.1 Résultats globaux Les résultats obtenus confirment qu’il existe une insécurité certaine concernant l’opposition [+/-voisé]. Sa perception reste problématique chez quelques étudiants jusqu’en dernière année universitaire, c’est-àdire après neuf ans d’étude du français. 232 & Reading, Writing and Listening Skills Les résultats obtenus pour le premier test (discrimination de paires de mots identiques ou différentes) sont consignés, classe par classe, dans la Table 4. Table 4: Résultats globaux: Premier test Fourchette Nombre moyen du nombre d’erreurs par d’erreurs étudiant Nombre total d’erreurs pour les groupes Pourcentage d’erreurs 1ère année (N =17) entre 1-11 4,4 75/340 22% 2ème année (N = 14) entre 0-6 2,5 35/280 12,5% 4ème année (N = 15) entre 1-6 3 45/300 15% Dans les Tables 5, 6 et 7 nous donnons les résultats obtenus, encore classe par classe, pour l’identification des catégories /p/ et /b/, /t/ et /d/, et /k/ et /g/. Il s’agit du second test où les participants devaient choisir entre l’occlusive voisée ou non-voisée. La Table 5 concerne les bilabiales (par exemple hau_an [hauban]), la Table 6 les dentales (par exemple cein_ré [ceintré]) et la Table 7 les vélaires (par exemple _ourre [gourre]). ‘Sans E10’ indique les résultats calculés sans inclure le sujet 10 (quatrième année), qui a eu de grosses difficultés à accomplir la tâche d’identification du deuxième test. Table 5: Résultats globaux: Deuxième test (la paire /p, b/) Fourchette Moyenne du nombre d’erreurs par d’erreurs étudiant Nombre total Pourcentage d’erreurs pour d’erreurs les groupes 1ère année (N =17) entre 0-12 5,6 96/476 20% 2ème année (N = 14) entre 0-4 2,2 30/392 7,65% 4ème année (N = 15) entre 0-15 (sans E10: 0-7) 4,2 63/420 15% (sans E10: 3,4) (sans E10: 48) (sans E10:12,25%) 233 Monique Burston, Fryni Doa, Natalie Kitalides Table 6: Résultats globaux: Deuxième test (la paire /t, d/) Fourchette du nombre d’erreurs Moyenne d’erreurs par étudiant Nombre total d’erreurs pour les groupes Pourcentage d’erreurs 1ère année (N =17) 0-15 5,2 89/476 18,75% 2ème année (N = 14) 0-4 1,4 19/392 4,9% 4ème année (N = 15) 0-9 (sans E10: 0-7) 3,25 (sans E10: 2,6) 49/420 (sans E10: 40) 11,5% (sans E10: 8,6) Table 7: Résultats globaux: Deuxième test (la paire /k, g/) Fourchette du nombre d’erreurs Moyenne d’erreurs par étudiant Nombre total d’erreurs pour les groupes Pourcentage d’erreurs 1ère année (N =16) entre 1-14 4,75 74/448 17% 2ème année (N = 14) entre 0-6 1,7 24/392 6,1% 4ème année (N = 15) entre 0-11 (sans E10: 0-9) 3,65 (sans E10: 3,1) 55/420 (sans E10: 44) 13% (sans E10: 10,4) On remarque pour l’ensemble des participants une progression dans la capacité à percevoir les différences dans les paires d’occlusives: on fait moins d’erreurs en quatrième année qu’en première année. Cependant on remarque aussi que le groupe de la deuxième année obtient de meilleurs résultats en général que ceux de la première et de la quatrième année. Nous voulons croire que c’est à cause du très sérieux entraînement phonétique encore récent que ce groupe a reçu et que nous avons signalé plus haut. Pour la première année, le cours de phonétique n’a pas encore eu lieu (c’est un cours du 2ème semestre) et il n’est pas étonnant que la performance du groupe soit la plus faible. Pour la quatrième année, le cours de phonétique est plus distant dans le temps (il date de plus de trois ans); cependant on observe une certaine amélioration dans la capacité, quoique limitée. Celle-ci est probablement due à l’input français constant que le groupe reçoit depuis trois ans, tous les cours du cursus étant enseignés dans la langue cible. D’autres facteurs, dont l’impact 234 & Reading, Writing and Listening Skills reste à cerner avec précision, peuvent expliquer ce progrès: l’attention plus ou moins rigoureuse donnée à la prononciation par les professeurs, l’aptitude des sujets, leur motivation à s’améliorer, la valeur qu’ils accordent à une bonne prononciation, les séjours qu’ils ont fait en pays francophone, etc. Par ailleurs, il est à remarquer que le niveau de performance total de la quatrième année est statistiquement affaibli parce que, à coté de sujets dont les difficultés sont minimes, on trouve quelques étudiants qui accumulent beaucoup d’erreurs et qui élèvent donc le pourcentage d’erreurs du groupe (en particulier le sujet 10). On note que la dispersion est large: par exemple (voir Tables 5 et 7), on a une fourchette de 0 à 15 erreurs pour l’opposition /p, b/ et de 0 à 11 pour /k, g/. Au total, il n’y a pas d’homogénéité à l’intérieur d’une même classe, sauf en seconde année où les fourchettes d’erreurs sont au maximum de 0 à 6. D’autre part, l’examen détaillé des résultats individuels montre que le niveau de perception des oppositions tend à être constant d’une tâche à l’autre pour un même étudiant, ce qui est rassurant pour la validité des trois tests. Pour ce qui est de la qualité de la perception des sujets selon le point d’articulation des occlusives, on observe peu de différence entre les bilabiales, les dentales et les vélaires (voir les pourcentages d’erreurs dans les Tables 5, 6 et 7). La difficulté semble être légèrement plus grande pour les occlusives labiales, mais ce résultat a besoin d’être confirmé par une étude plus approfondie. En tout cas, c’est un détail dont l’enseignant devra tenir compte. 4.2 Les contextes de l’opposition [+/-voisé] Les trois tests nous ont permis par ailleurs de noter des difficultés plus précises rencontrées dans la perception auditivo-phonémique des occlusives. Nous avons pu observer que certains mots ou paires de mots particuliers avaient posé plus de problèmes que d’autres. Dans la Table 8 nous présentons, pour les trois tests réunis, la liste de mots et paires de mots qui ont occasionné 30% d’erreurs ou plus, le maximum allant jusqu’à 54% pour le mot ampoule. Dans la première colonne, les mots isolés se réfèrent au test d’identification (deuxième test) et les paires de mots aux autres tests. Dans la seconde colonne, C = consonne, V = voyelle, Vnas = voyelle nasale, # = initiale ou finale de mot. Monique Burston, Fryni Doa, Natalie Kitalides 235 Table 8: Liste des mots et des paires de mots ayant occasionné le plus d’erreurs et contexte de l’opposition [+/-voisé] (pour l’ensemble des trois tests) Mot Contexte Pourcentage d’erreurs ampoule (Vnas-p-V) 54% encagé/engagé (Vnas-k/g-V) 46% limbe (Vnas-b-#) 39% vacant (V-k-Vnas) 39% ponton/pondons (Vnas-t/d-Vnas) 37% oncle/ongle (Vnas-k/g-C) 37% mentit/mendie (Vnas-t/d-V) 37% crampon (Vnas-p-Vnas) 37% tonsure (#-t-Vnas) 35% blond/plomb (#-p/b-C) 33% Ricoeur/rigueur (V-k/g-V) 33% Saintonge (Vnas-tVnas) 30% encas (Vnas-k-V) 30% 4.3 Les contextes difficiles Comme la Table 8 l’indique, nous avons aussi analysé les résultats des tests pour faire apparaître la qualité de la perception de l’occlusive selon les divers contextes d’emploi de cette dernière, le ‘contexte’ étant défini comme les sons adjacents à l’occlusive. Comme nous l’avons dit plus haut, ces contextes avaient d’ailleurs été considérés avec soin dans l’élaboration des tests, chaque environnement possible étant représenté un nombre égal de fois pour chaque occlusive. Aucun des contextes n’a été exempt d’erreurs. Mais après analyse plus précise, il apparaît que certains environnements ont été plus propices que d’autres à l’assimilation entre les catégories sourdes et sonores. La Table 9 montre quels contextes ont fait le plus obstacle à la distinction entre + voisé et – voisé, tous tests réunis. Nous ne donnons que les contextes qui ont entraîné 15% d’erreurs ou plus. ‘O’ y signifie ‘occlusive’. 236 & Reading, Writing and Listening Skills Table 9: Liste des contextes ‘difficiles’ (pour l’ensemble des trois tests) Types de contextes ‘difficiles’ Nombre de fois où le contexte a provoqué au moins 15% d’erreurs Vnas+O (Occlusive précédée d’une voyelle nasale) 17 #O (Occlusive en position initiale) 6 O# (Occlusive en position finale) 6 O+Vnas (Occlusive suivie d’une voyelle nasale) 4 V+O+V (Occlusive en position intervocalique - voyelles orales) 4 Comme on peut l’observer dans la Table 9, c’est le contexte ‘Voyelle nasale + Occlusive’ qui a entraîné, et de loin, le plus grand nombre de confusions, puisque dans 17 des mots où il se rencontrait (il y en avait 30 en tout) l’ensemble des participants a mal perçu le voisement ou le nonvoisement de l’occlusive. Le début et la fin de mot semblent aussi être des positions sensibles, avec beaucoup moins de fréquence cependant. Il en est de même pour la position intervocalique, et pour la présence d’une voyelle nasale immédiatement à la suite de l’occlusive. L’influence du contexte ‘Voyelle nasale + Occlusive’ est donc marquante. Si l’on se souvient qu’en CG la consonne sonore (voisée) est l’allophone choisi après consonne nasale et qu’en variation libre, l’occlusive dans la parole rapide peut être prénasalisée, il est probable que le trait de nasalité dans les voyelles nasales françaises produit un environnement favorable à une perception sonorisée de l’occlusive puisque la langue cible associe régulièrement nasalité et sonorité. Il y aurait en somme interférence. Pourtant il est à noter que cette sonorisation n’a rien d’automatique. Ce n’est que dans 60% des cas qu’une erreur de perception est faite dans ce contexte en faveur de la sonorisation (par exemple *amboule pour ampoule). 40% des cas vont en sens inverse (par exemple *limpe pour limbe). Pourquoi donc dans ces 40% de cas, les sujets substituent-ils une sourde à une sonore, créant ainsi une association nasalité+assourdissem ent, qui est contraire à la phonologie du GC? On peut invoquer plusieurs raisons, qui auront besoin d’être évaluées plus strictement dans la suite de notre projet d’étude: la première est que les participants ont déjà une certaine expérience de la phonologie du français et savent qu’elle diffère de celle de leur langue, dont ils essaient de se démarquer; dans 237 Monique Burston, Fryni Doa, Natalie Kitalides le processus il peut se produire des effets d’hyper-correction. D’autre part il n’est pas impossible que l’orthographe contribue à brouiller les choses. En effet, les combinats graphiques (‘mp’) et (‘nt’) qui contiennent des graphèmes équivalant souvent aux lettres romaines ‘p’ et ‘t’ sont en réalité prononcés voisés: [mb] et [nd]. Bien qu’étant des codes distincts l’écrit et l’oral sont apparentés et cela entraîne des interférences intercodales. Ainsi même si un sujet a entendu une consonne voisée (en français) dans le deuxième test, à savoir [b] ou [d], dans sa double activité d’auditeur-scripteur, il se peut qu’il aligne la transcription française de cette perception correcte sur la forme écrite grecque mi+pi ( ) ou ni+tau ( ) et transcrive ces occlusives comme ‘p’ ou ‘t’. Les mécanismes cognitifs deviennent alors complexes. Enfin il peut aussi y avoir eu dans la mémoire lexicale des sujets des liens entre une représentation orthographique connue et ce qu’ils ont cru entendre (par exemple drame est préféré à trame, à cause de sa fréquence d’usage supérieure), et cela malgré l’avertissement qu’il ne fallait pas se fier à ses connaissances antérieures du vocabulaire en exécutant les tests. 4.4 Les substitutions erronées Le second test (identification) nous a aussi permis de faire des généralisations sur le sens dans lequel se produisaient les substitutions erronées faites par les participants. Nous voulions savoir, lorsque les sujets faisaient une erreur, si le renversement s’opérait d’une occlusive voisée à une non-voisée, ou inversement. Comme le montre la Table 10, dans 61% des cas où une erreur a été faite, c’est une occlusive sonore (+ V) qui a remplacé une occlusive sourde (- V). Table 10: Renversements: Deuxième test Lieu d’articulation Nombre total de renversements (N=515) Pourcentage + V pour - V - V pour + V + V pour - V - V pour + V Labiales 115 75 22% 14,5% Dentales 81 75 16% 14,5% Vélaires 119 50 23% 10% Total 315 200 61% 39% Ces résultats peuvent surprendre puisqu’en principe, phonétiquement, l’allophone dominant (non marqué, le plus fréquent) des phonèmes occlusifs en GC est l’allophone sourd. Cela reste à élucider. Une piste à explorer est peut-être l’opposition phonémique qui existe en GC entre /p, 238 & Reading, Writing and Listening Skills t, k/ et /ph, th, kh/. Les consonnes géminées du chypriote5 sont aspirées (Arvaniti, à paraître:4) lorsqu’il s’agit des occlusives sourdes, et ces dernières ont à partager l’espace phonologique des occlusives avec les occlusives sourdes phonétiquement non-aspirées, qui nous intéressent ici, puisque les occlusives sourdes françaises sont elles-mêmes nonaspirées. L’apprenant chypriote est donc très probablement sensible à des différences acoustiques qui ne sont pas pertinentes pour un locuteur français. Et la question est donc: où est pour lui le point critique qui entraîne une discontinuité dans la perception entre occlusive voisée et non-voisée? Où se place le délai d’établissement du voisement (le ‘VOT’)? Où est la frontière entre [p] et [b], entre [t] et [d], entre [k] et [g]? Il faudra une étude acoustique pour répondre à ces questions. 5. ENSEIGNEMENT DE LA PHONÉTIQUE Dans les écoles secondaires chypriotes, l’input non-marqué par un accent est rare: il ne s’étend guère au-delà des petits dialogues enregistrés qui accompagnent les manuels. Les apprenants ont donc peu l’occasion d’entendre du français ‘authentique’. Bien que les textes officiels sur l’enseignement du FLE donnent quelques conseils et plusieurs encouragements pour l’entraînement des élèves à la prononciation, la sensibilisation à la phonétique du français est très limitée pendant l’apprentissage du français. Les lignes qui suivent sont tirées d’une annexe au ‘Programme d’enseignement du FLE’ (2005) pour les professeurs de collège: En tant qu’enseignants du FLE, on a aussi constaté que les élèves chypriotes n’ont pas de grandes difficultés à apprendre le système consonantique français, sauf […] la bonne réalisation des consonnes sonores [b-d-g]. Par contre ce qui pose problème c’est surtout l’acquisition du système vocalique et c’est là-dessus qu’il faut insister. Comme on le constate, le très réel problème de la prononciation des occlusives est rapidement mis de côté au profit du problème tout aussi épineux de la réalisation des voyelles françaises. En conséquence on peut être certain que les difficultés de la sonorisation des occlusives auront de grandes chances d’être négligées. Il arrive qu’elles soient ignorées des professeurs. Pour certains des stagiaires de formation initiale dont 5 Les géminées du chypriote qu’on rencontre pour toutes les occlusives, fricatives et nasales ont été analysées soit comme des phonèmes distincts, soit comme des allophones de la consonne simple correspondante (Arvaniti, à paraître). Phonétiquement elles sont 1,5-2 fois plus longues que les consonnes simples. Dans le cas des occlusives sourdes, elles sont aspirées. Monique Burston, Fryni Doa, Natalie Kitalides 239 nous sommes en charge, l’existence d’une opposition [+/-voisé] dans les occlusives est une découverte. Ils ne se sont jamais aperçu qu’ils disaient *exemble pour exemple. On ne saurait donc s’attendre à ce que les étudiants de première année soient à un bon niveau de compétence dans ce domaine. Il est donc essentiel de sensibiliser les professeurs et futurs professeurs à ce problème phonétique majeur pour qu’ils puissent à leur tour y sensibiliser leurs élèves. 6. CONCLUSION D’un point de vue expérimental, l’étude préliminaire présentée dans cet article devra être poursuivie et raffinée. Il faudra répéter l’expérience pour que la nature des contextes identifiés comme critiques dans la perception de la sonorité soit confirmée. Il faudra aussi procéder à des tests acoustiques pour définir le délai d’établissement du voisement en grec chypriote et le comparer à ce qu’il est en français. D’un point de vue pratique, notre étude a montré l’utilité du travail sur la perception et l’efficacité de la correction phonétique, puisque dans les tâches proposées, ce sont les étudiants de seconde année, ceux qui ont été systématiquement entraînés, surveillés et suivis, qui ont manifesté une aptitude supérieure à détecter le voisement ou son absence dans les occlusives françaises. Il nous paraît important que les enseignants, s’ils veulent améliorer la compétence phonétique de leurs étudiants, ne se contentent pas de faire des remarques ponctuelles, de corriger un peu au hasard et isolément, mais comprennent mieux le système de la L1 des apprenants et le système de la L2 qui est en voie d’acquisition (cf. aussi Baqué, 2004) Pour ce qui est de l’opposition [+/- voisé] dans les occlusives, il nous semble qu’il sera bon de commencer par des exercices de perception auxquels s’ajouteront ensuite des exercices de production (cf. aussi Lauret, 2007). Les activités de perception ont la vertu de sensibiliser les apprenants à la difficulté, de réduire la perception aléatoire et d’intégrer l’opposition [+/- voisé] dans leur interlangue. Le professeur, après un diagnostic préalable similaire à celui que nous avons réalisé dans l’expérience discutée ici, aura une meilleure conscience des erreurs des apprenants, des mots et contextes où les segments sont plus ou moins bien perçus ou plus ou moins bien réalisés et pourra donc programmer une action pédagogique plus efficace. 240 & Reading, Writing and Listening Skills BIBLIOGRAPHIE Archibald, J. (1998) Second Language Phonology, Amsterdam: John Benjamins. — (2000) Second Language Acquisition and Linguistic Theory, Oxford: Blackwell. Arvaniti, A. (1999) “Cypriot Greek”, Journal of the International Phonetic Association, vol. 29, no. 2, pp. 173-178. — (2006) “Linguistic practices in Cyprus and the emergence of Cypriot Standard Greek”, San Diego Linguistic Papers, no. 2, pp. 1-24. — (à paraître) “A (brief) review of Cypriot phonetics and phonology” in Proceedings of the conference ‘The Greek language in Cyprus from antiquity to today’, Université d´Athènes, 23-24 mai 2008. Bacri, N. & Coixao L. (1991) “Perception de contrastes phoniques d’une langue étrangère”, L’Année Psychologique, vol. 91, pp. 121-138. Baqué, L. (2004) “Analyse de l’interlangue de productions phoniques déviantes: un préalable pour la programmation de correction phonétique”, in J. Suso López & R. López Carrillo (eds), Le français face aux défis actuels: Histoire, langue, culture, Granada, vol. 1, pp. 293-302. Flege, J.E. (1995) “Second language speech learning: theory, findings and problems”, in W. Strange (ed.) Speech perception and linguistic experience: Theoretical and methodological issues, Timonium, MD: York Press, pp. 229-273. — (2003) “Assessing constraints on second-language segmental production and perception”, in N. Schiller & A. Meyer (dir.) Phonetics and phonology in language comprehension and production, pp. 319-355. Hannahs, S.J. (2007) “French phonology and L2 acquisition”, in D. Ayoun (ed.), French Applied Linguistics, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 50-74. Lauret, B. (2007) Enseigner la prononciation du français: questions et outils, Paris: Hachette. Léon, P. (2007) Phonétisme et prononciations du français, 5e éd., Paris: Nathan. Leather, J. (ed.) (1999) Phonological issues in language learning, Oxford: Blackwell. Maddieson, I. (2005) “Voicing in plosives and fricatives”, The world atlas of language structures online (Ch 4), http://wals.info/feature/4 (10/10/2009). Monique Burston, Fryni Doa, Natalie Kitalides 241 Major, R.C. (2001) Foreign accent: The ontogeny and phylogeny of second language phonology, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Millet, A. (dir.) (1992) Des lettres et des sons, LIDIL7, Grenoble: Presses Universitaires de Grenoble. Mora, J. (2007) “Methodological issues in assessing L2 perceptual phonological competence”, Phonetics Teaching and Learning Conference, 24-26 août 2007. (5 pages) Newton, B. (1972) Cypriot Greek: Its phonology and inflections, The Hague: Mouton. Programme d’Enseignement du FLE destiné aux quatre années d’enseignement obligatoire (2005) Nicosie: Ministère de l’Education et de la Culture. Shea, C.E. (2007) “Acquisition of conditioned alternations in a second language” in M. Radišic (ed.) Actes du congrès annuel de l’Association canadienne de linguistique (11 pages). Tranel, B. (2003) “Les sons du français”, in M. Yaguello (ed.), Le grand livre de la langue française, Paris: Le Seuil, pp. 259-315. COMMUNICATION SKILLS FOR PROFESSIONAL LANGUAGE EXPERTS: THE INTERACTION BETWEEN COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE PROCESSES Periclis Tagkas Technological Educational Institution of Epirus, Greece 1. INTRODUCTION T HE ERA OF GLOBALIZATION HAS undoubtedly brought about significant changes. With countries like China or Thailand and cities like Dubai or Singapore becoming Anglophone in order to attract more investments, there seems to be an increasing demand for English-speaking employees and workers. Language studies, therefore, must necessarily follow current trends and developments – even more so in the case of applied foreign languages, given that taking into consideration the needs of the markets is one of the prerequisites of a successful curriculum. One of the most important courses in the above-mentioned field of language studies is communication skills development. Whether it be a professional presentation, a negotiation to finalize a deal, a business meeting or even a telephone conversation, possessing the appropriate verbal and nonverbal dexterity cannot only make the difference but is, arguably, a sine qua non requirement for a language expert that is aware of the demands of his/her role (cf. Tangas 2006: 35-43). What is then the best and most effective way to educate our students? In my view, there will always be the lucky few who possess both the knowledge (linguistically speaking) and the talent (in terms of “performance”) to cope in almost every setting and context. However, those in need are usually the majority and they are characterized by either a lack of aptitude (linguistic competence) or of attitude (scarcely managing to stand in front of an audience) – or both. 2. INCREASING METACOGNITIVE AWARENESS While most people are influenced by external factors, experts have the ability to reflect upon their thoughts. This process, which is called “metacognition”, is based on the premise that our inner world determines the results we get in the outer world. While, therefore, amateurs become Periclis Tagkas 243 victims of their thoughts, professionals attempt to take control of their thought processes and get to the root of the thoughts, knowing that eventually we become what we are thinking about. This “upgraded thinking” helps them to eliminate all thoughts of lack, inadequacy and frustration, which manifest in behaviours that create scarcity and negative mood. In other words, they try to monitor how their mind works and figure out what causes their feelings, behaviours, and actions. Instead of victimizing themselves, they opt for upgraded thoughts and positive ideas, which in turn induce positive feelings and behaviours (cf. Siebold 2005). This involves removing anything in their life that is not working for their good (Anthony 2003: 54) and adopting more positive habits and thinking patterns for better results both at personal and at professional level. One may, therefore, employ an array of techniques to deal with building up self-esteem and self-confidence before turning to skills enhancement. In other words, or, to use “metalanguage”, cognitive abilities presuppose a metacognitive process of “thinking about the way we think”. In classroom language this means, for instance, realizing that we may not have the right purpose in mind when giving a presentation: to “give” rather than “receive” should be our goal (cf. Orman, 1996), as this strategy, besides its altruism, liberates us – as presenters – from the inherent anguish of someone who wants to get (admiration, respect, love, applause) rather than give (information, knowledge, assistance, guidance). What you give is what you get – and not the other way around – and therefore focusing on our audience, on offering our listeners something of value, by giving the best of ourselves, stems the fear of rejection because it sets aside our approval addiction right from the beginning. Another common mistake related to public presentations is also what one might call “overflow of information” – that is, adopting the attitude that “it’s not enough” rather than “a little is too much”. This results from fears or feelings of inadequacy but all it can lead to is “blurring” the message due to exposing one’s audience to excessive information, possibly translated into slides packed with data and text that is impossible to grasp within the limited time of a presentation – which should focus on presenting the main points and communicating clear messages. It is essential, therefore, to realize that learning this “technology” of communication is feasible, as long as students follow systematically a series of steps that will transform them into professional thinkers and performers. In this process, learning to cope with feelings of anxiety and uncertainty is also essential; yet, drawing from the classical tradition of ancient orators like the famous Demosthenes, we can learn by their example and attempt to respond to those standards. 244 - Communication Skills 3. AIMS OF METACOGNITIVE PROCESS: FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE One of the primary objectives of metacognition is to initiate prospective language experts – students in our case – into the “technology” of communication. In practical terms, students must conquer elements such as the following: — Structuring a presentation — Structure/agenda of a meeting — Style, tone, attitude — Wording – the actual discourse elements — The presenter as “transmitter”: Expressions (verbal - nonverbal) – body language (eye contact, gestures, motion, expressiveness, etc.) A factor that is conducive to building up solid communication skills is overcoming our “finite” limits; breaking out of our comfort zone; venturing out to the unknown; for that is where opportunity has always lain, waiting patiently for someone to pick it up and turn it into reality – and profit, either material or immaterial. During this stage, it is also essential to help students become aware of the power of intelligence, the potential hidden in ideas, which they need to approach as “real” things, in the Platonic sense. Finally, they have to realize the importance of mental discipline and diligent execution of a plan they should start preparing both in terms of their personal lives and from the aspect of enhancing their potential for success in their future careers. The next step, after these and other similar approaches have been analyzed in class, offering students the opportunity to reconsider whether they should remain as they are or start to become more aware, more conscious of their behavior – and less self-conscious, hopefully – is practice. First, students are advised to use metacognition and appropriate self-language (Helmstetter 1987: 25) while practising at home, in front of a mirror, if possible (or, otherwise, with a friend who will be acting as their “director”). The second element involves the cognitive part, which implies that they will have to plan, structure, develop – and ideally, write down their talk. This means that they must possess the required knowledge in terms of vocabulary and structures that will help them to present their ideas in the most expressive and meaningful way, using the right style and the appropriate tone of voice as well. Apart from the purely verbal part, attention should also be paid to the way presenters conduct themselves. Helpful, active listening and observation from fellow-students results in constructive remarks after the presentation is over. Could they have structured it in a more coherent way? Should they have used better or more visuals? A larger font perhaps? Was Periclis Tagkas 245 their talk brimming with errors, slips of the tongue, lack of linking words, and/or appropriate vocabulary and structures that might enable them to convey their meaning in a way that would not only be understandable but also memorable? Could their body language be more expressive? Better eye-contact, using gestures (instead of skulking and “sinking” in ourselves with – or without – our hands in our pockets), moving while speaking, smiling perhaps or even shrugging our shoulders to show doubt are all signs of a healthy, fearless individual who defies the common belief that standing in front of an audience is inherently conducive to agoraphobia and feelings of vulnerability. Instead, he/she chooses to develop consistency by seeking certainty within the very heart of uncertainty that common belief usually associates with fear (of the unknown). If practice, then, along with metacognition – either by using selflanguage when observing ourselves, as well as our thoughts, feelings and attitudes or by seeking a “buddy’s” help (Silver 2003: 7) to do that for us -- leads to consistency, the diligent student will eventually become disciplined in executing his plan: he/she has done his/her “homework” both in terms of language and metalanguage (see also Wierzbicka 2009: 13) both from the cognitive and the metacognitive aspect; acting both as the observer and the observed; as his/her own teacher and as a student, without confusing the two roles. In this way, students appreciate in reality their actual performance and as a result they make it more accessible and less fearful as a potential activity in which they, too, can participate. In analyzing all that process, the emerging dualism works “therapeutically”: language-metalanguage, cognitive-metacognitive – thoughts “at work on the fringes of… awareness”, as Donald might put it (2001: 84) – verbal-nonverbal, body-mind, visible-nonvisible, certaintyuncertainty, theory-practice. Delineating the correlation between each pair of these poles helps determine the parameters governing the “histrionics” of communication; to put it differently, the interrelation of textual and nontextual elements. 4. THE COGNITIVE ASPECTS OF COMMUNICATION It is at this stage that we should present briefly the “material” aspect of a communication setting. What should one focus on in terms of language expressions? The following skills necessitate the use of appropriate lexis and structure (cf. Comfort 1996, Powel 1996): a. Presentations: Language practice — Welcome and introductions — Sequencing and linking — asking for and giving feedback 246 - Communication Skills asking questions, showing interest emphasizing, being convincing downtoning your language making suggestions and proposals concluding and closing b. Meetings: Agenda, brainstorming ideas, taking it in turns, allowing all participants to contribute their ideas rather than having 1-2 persons dominate the meeting, etc. c. Negotiating: developing a “win-win” rather than “win-lose” attitude. E.g.: “We got them right where we want!” as opposed to “Why don’t we then…” or “What would you say if we…” (tentative language given its increasing role in management) (cf. Comfort 1998). — preparation and making opening introductions — controlling the negotiation process — establishing positions — clarifying positions — handling conflict — making and responding to proposals — bargaining practice — closing the negotiation d. Telephone conversations: Pronouncing and enunciating words in a clear, comprehensible manner (cf. Comfort 1996). — — — — — What is essential, is learning the “mechanics” of public-speaking activities: appropriateness of linguistic expressions, invested with fitting body language; ‘performing’ vs. ‘delivering a message’, to make sure our words are not only perceived but also retained in memory – and are, therefore, convincing, as well. A consistent, disciplined adoption of the above strategies, techniques and attitudes is, I believe, congruent with both the short-term goal of enabling students to communicate more effectively in simulations of the above-mentioned settings and the long-term goal of initiating the process of their transformation into professional – disciplined, consistent, methodical and, ultimately, successful – language experts. Because success is not to be discovered in some place but is purely what someone becomes by achieving what he/she has carefully planned and equally carefully executed. In this framework, students must also realize the importance of learning to play roles; as Shakespeare put it, it is an essential attribute of people’s lives that they are going to adopt several roles as they grow and proceed through various stages. Therefore, one must come to terms with the reality that, in a quasi-archetypal manner, we all have to play – to a bigger or smaller degree – at least some of these roles. Periclis Tagkas 247 To sum up, students need, firstly, to achieve the short term goal of public-speaking and, secondly, to initiate the process of transforming into a professional intercultural mediator, with the self-confidence and verbal/nonverbal knowledge and skills emanating from the use of metacognition, as well as the willingness to expand their “comfort zone”. Learning from an early age to “think about how they think” will help them in the future to make corrective moves, when necessary, and to grow into mature thinkers and responsible citizens. 5. BUILDING UP SELF-ESTEEM WITH METACOGNITION In the final analysis, what is crucial for students is to realize the magnitude of mental and spiritual vastness. One can expand mentally to an infinite degree. This builds up confidence and makes students aware of the possibilities lying ahead of them once they have learnt to stop identifying with their limited ego and its short-term desires for pleasure, fears of the unknown, guilt for criticism taken or failure to acknowledge the importance of compromising in a world where “it takes two” to make even the simplest of agreements. Instead of all that, they learn to focus on longterm gratification; to trust the unconscious mental and spiritual powers that are bigger and higher than themselves and may actually determine the evolvement of certain situations; to develop in themselves emotions of certainty and composure in the face of new realities or “uncharted waters”, “making their way” as they move forward; to discard the “primordial” fear or the guilt superimposed by a society demanding perfection and obedience from the individual during every step: from family life to school requirements, army regulations, job rules and restrictions and so on – all signs of an orderly, yet quite often oppressive way of life, which stifles spontaneity, imposes uniformity, and promotes submission as a necessary requirement for the survival of the “system”. Instead of feeling imprisoned in the finite limits of the physical world and their physical body with its five senses of limited only perception, students need to allow themselves to connect with the infinite creative force of the universe through their imaginative powers. Thus, instead of emotions of panic, fear and uncertainty triggered off by the unknown, they should be overwhelmed with an infinite scope for spiritual and emotional expansion, which has also its applications in the world of business. Living in a global environment which thrives on the concepts of “innovation” and “entrepreneurship”, an appropriate realization of the potent realities lurking in the convolutions of their brain, dependent upon a fresh, innovative connection of two or more known elements, has the potential of transforming students into the pioneering entrepreneurs of tomorrow’s 248 - Communication Skills business world. Evidently, this presupposes the metacognitive build-up of a framework of virtues, values and emotions. Meanwhile, introspection is also necessary for establishing a solid ground based on principles, strategies and plans executed with discipline, so as to guarantee success and incremental feelings of self-confidence and self-esteem that will in turn enhance certainty and provide liberation from frustration and inertia. Let us recall the famous Greek writer Kazantzakis, who found a liberating path by refusing to want or desire anything and opting for freedom: it is this freedom that students must seek after by becoming “givers”, constantly focusing on providing rather than receiving (“He that does good to another does good also to himself”, to quote Seneca), thus becoming actually bigger, stronger, independent and self-sufficient, as they learn to live within their means, “investing” at the same time in the cornucopia emanating from the universe surrounding us. It is through our spiritual and emotional selves, which are infinite – as opposed to our physical self – that we can connect, by means of our imaginative powers, with the infinite creative source of the universe surrounding us. Moreover, as I have pointed out (Tangas 2005: 95-96), the importance of emotion and virtues is essential in achieving our goals, which should be part of our “surrender” to a higher purpose in life. 6. EPILOGUE I have attempted to clarify the visible and non-visible factors influencing oral communication: on the one hand, speaking in front of others; on the other, speaking to oneself and thinking about how one is speaking (metacognition), why one should be positive, what feelings one wants to create in one’s job – and life, what attitudes one considers constructive and would like to adopt and, finally, what sort of life one would like to live, in a world that is becoming increasingly complex in terms of working conditions and relationships. By training our students to monitor their thoughts and emotions, we teach them how to change or “adjust” their thinking patterns, adopting the most productive and creative ones, aiming to communicate purposefully as language experts. The “tripartite soul”, as depicted in Plato’s Phaedrus, consists of reason (the charioteer), emotion (the white horse) and instinct (the black horse). The “taming” and “tuning” of these three elements, by employing appropriate cognitive and metacognitive strategies, will in the long run determine our stance and outward performance. Ultimately, by coordinating mind and body, too, we render them more efficient and this is reflected in our overall communication with other people. If, therefore, our students want to communicate effectively and attain integrity, they need to constantly hone their verbal and non- Periclis Tagkas 249 verbal skills but also develop the metacognitive ability to monitor their thoughts. This will enable them gradually to take control by changing their thinking patterns and adopting the ones that can make the difference in both personal and professional interactions. REFERENCES Anthony, R. (2003) The Ultimate Secrets of Total Self-Confidence, Brisbane, Australia: Total Success Publishing. Comfort, J. (1998) Effective Negotiating, Oxford University Press. Comfort, J. (1996) Effective Meetings, Oxford University Press. Comfort, J. (1996) Effective Presentations, Oxford University Press. Comfort, J. (1996) Effective Telephoning, Oxford University Press. Comfort, J. (1997) Effective Socializing, Oxford University Press. Donald, M. (2001) A Mind So Rare: The Evolution of Human Consciousness, New York: Norton. Helmstetter, S. (1987) What to Say when you Talk to Yourself, New York: Pocket Books. Orman, M. (1996) “How to Conquer Public Speaking Fear”, http://www. stresscure.com/jobstress/speak.html. Powell, M. (1996) Presenting in English, Language Teaching Publications. Siebold, S. (2005) 177 Mental Toughness Secrets of the World Class: The Thought Processes, Habits and Philosophies of the Great Ones, London House Press. Silver, J.A.K. (2003) An Evaluation of the Employability Skills Acquired by Industrial Placement Students, Education in a Changing Environment Conference Proceedings, University of Salford. Tangas, P. (2005) “D.H. Lawrence’s Mystical Materialism and Platonic Philosophy”, Etudes Lawrenciennes, vol. 33, pp. 81-104. Tangas, P. (2006) “Revising the ESP Curriculum of the Department of Applied Foreign Languages in Management and Commerce”, Proceedings of the 1st International Conference of the Department of Applied Foreign Languages in Management and Commerce, Foreign Language Teaching in Tertiary Education, Athens: Dionikos, pp. 35-43. , . (2007) Έ : D.H. Lawrence , : University Studio Press [Tangas, Pericles (2007) Eros kai Politeia: O D.H. Lawrence kai o Platonismos, Thessaloniki: University Studio Press]. Wierzbicka, A. (2009) “Language and Metalanguage: Key Issues in Emotion Research”, Emotion Review, vol. 1 no. 1, pp. 3-14. MULTIMODALITY AND THE EACHING OF LANGUAGES IN TERTIARY EDUCATION Maria Dimasi*, Makrina Zafiri**, Gregoria - Carolina Konstantinidou*** * Democritus University of Thrace, Greece, ** University of Thessaly, Greece, *** Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece 1. INTRODUCTION I MODERN MULTILINGUAL AND ULTILINGUAL and multicultural societies the teaching of foreign languages is conducted within a communicative framework, thus, formally “registering” teaching as a communicative discipline (Tokatlidou, 2004: 108). In the case of the development of novel skills in different languages and more specifically in the “partial” development of communicative skills in languages, particularly foreign languages, it has become imperative for the foreign language teacher in Greece to develop or use new techniques which will aid and guide students, not only, in their learning process, but also, in their personal, social and professional lives (ibid: 142). The process of needs analysis thus becomes necessary so as to specify the needs of foreign language students, and more specifically the needs of the particular group of foreign language students which are under scrutiny. There have been a diversity of bibliographical references which probe into different modals concerning needs analysis. Nevertheless it seems that there is only one modal which shows positive results concerning its application level - especially - in foreign language departments, in tertiary education and this is the ethnographic model (ibid: 163-165). N 2. LANGUAGE LITERACY Linguists have formulated (as early as the 1970’s) the communicative approach to language teaching. In the beginning of the 1990’s there had been an attempt to redefine and ascertain the position of communicative language teaching in the teaching field. Communication is not only a list of linguistic rules, principles and practices to which a user of the language has to abide to but the adoption and use of appropriate strategies which are necessary for an effective communicative process. Literacy thus becomes the focal point in language teaching (Brown, 1994; Hadjisavidis, 2005). It is necessary to stress here that literacy does not only concern the domain of language and education, in general, but also Maria Dimasi, Makrina Zafiri, Gregoria-Carolina Konstantinidou 251 sociology, anthropology, history and psychology. In other words when talking about literacy we mean linguistic, visual, moral, informatics, etc., literacy. To cater for the aforementioned needs different modals of literacy have been constructed, these are the “skills development modal”, “the functional literacy modal”, etc. (Kostaki, 2001). 2.1 Economic and Social Parameters of Literacy In western countries social and economic developments have brought to light inadequacies concerning education and literacy, it thus became necessary for a new modal of teaching to be introduced. This new modal had to ensure that human communication was effective and that text types, were successfully interpreted and used including the use of new technologies, the domination and sovereignty of the mass media, and the multimodal use of texts (Hadjisavidis, 2005). This does not mean that the concept of literacy is rejected but it does mean that it needs to be supplemented so that new and necessary skills are developed to facilitate students in the understanding of multimodal texts and to enable them to adapt their language (written and oral) to meet the needs of a multicultural and polymorphic environment. This led scholars, in 1996, to formulate the basic principles of multiliteracy (ibid), which specify the diversity of texts which deal with information technology and multimedia, as well as, different text types which are produced within a multilingual and multicultural society. 2.2 Methodological Approaches to Language Teaching Multi-literacy has lead to the use of new methodological approaches to language teaching (Hadjisavidis, 2007). The methodological approach which each teacher will choose to apply will depend on those aspects of the language which he wishes to emphasize upon, thus he may use a functional or a holistic (or any other appropriate) methodological approach in language teaching. The new European policy concerning language teaching has taken into consideration the multicultural and multi-linguistic dimensions of different societies. Language learning is strongly associated with the understanding and respect of the ‘other’ the ‘different’, both in its cultural and its linguistic dimensions. At a national level, European countries, encourage life long learning and take measures to confront problems of illiteracy and indifference to learning after the age of 34. Besides the aforementioned, measures have also been taken by European countries so as to combat the exclusion of certain groups of people, usually marginalized groups of people, or people who have immigrated to European countries and need to be embodied within the system. Recently there has been an attempt, among different educational institutions, to collaborate with other similar institutions 252 - Communication Skills and to allow the free movement of people for educational, research and professional purposes. Educational training today has to be in line with the needs of modern society, as well as, the needs of the market (Markati, 2009). The format Language – Society – Professional Specialization seems to be a trend in Europe today (Samiou, 2006). Educational politics concerning tertiary education in European countries focuses upon the purposes and aims which accompany the aforementioned format Language – Society – Professional Specialization (ibid) for the education of adults and the intergovernmental cooperation of universities at all levels (http://ec.europa.eu//education. EuropeanCommission-Education and Training). Changes which have taken place in education and which apply in tertiary education and more specifically in foreign language teaching, give students the ability to acquire specialized knowledge, to learn the necessary terminology and to develop specific skills which will aid them in their vocational training as well as in their inservice training (Papastamatis, 2003). All this has brought about radical changes in the university curriculum as there has been “a change of direction” in the way we approach teaching in tertiary education today. What dictates the aims of multi-literate language programmes are the ever changing needs of the students, as they (the needs) have been presented earlier, the methodological approach, the contents and the type of teaching material used, as well as the process which is being used. The focal point seems to be the needs of the market, it thus becomes necessary that a set of “professional”, and readily exploitable skills be included in the curriculum, these should be in line with modern educational principles and “with the identity of the course” (Vlachopoulos, 2006, 49). The basic principles which should govern the design of a curriculum in order to bring about a balance between the educational principles concerning the development and self-amelioration of a person (Tangas, 2006) and the acquisition of those skills which are both necessary and course specific, are “Specialization”, “Compatibility” and “Effectively” (Tzifas, 2007). Among the methodological choices which exist in language teaching and which could be applied, is the ethnography of communication (Hofmann, 2005). Its principles aid in the involvement of a student in the process of socialization through daily routine life observations including the particular habits of a group of people whose language s/he is learning. As a consequence a multiliteracy approach to language teaching is necessary in order for students to develop their critical thinking skills. The application of methodological approaches is detected mainly in the use of authentic sources of language teaching which may be written texts or even oral speech simulation which students might meet up with in their everyday lives but it could also be gestures or non-linguistic features which nevertheless convey meaning. The aforementioned are Maria Dimasi, Makrina Zafiri, Gregoria-Carolina Konstantinidou 253 productive processes which expose students to the target language (Sephianou, 2005; Markati, 2009) or encourage students in the production of language and research on the internet. Teaching foreign language in tertiary education involves a range of modes including writing, reading, speech, movement, gestures, bodylanguage, etc., this lead us to believe that teaching and learning are multimodal. The foreign language classroom in tertiary education becomes a sort of “arena” in which a range of teaching modes shape the curriculum bringing about a “domino effect” as these different modes introduce different learning strategies which learners are invited to adopt and put into use. Multimodality in teaching and learning involves each student in “making personal sense of the combination of modes as they are organized in the classroom” (Jewitt, 2003: 84). According to Beavis (1998) becoming literate today is becoming complex and elusive, as the student is actively “involved in the complex work of processing information starting with the multimodal resources available in his classroom and moving to a more restricted modal response in the form of writing (ibid). Becoming literate also means becoming able to develop a speaking competence (EslamiRasekh, 2005) in the foreign language. Speaking competence in a foreign language is facilitated by multimedia applications as it provides students with multimodal representations that might help them to “gain a broad access to oral communication both visually and auditory” (Tschirner, 2001: 305). Thus the starting point for all foreign language teaching and learning is multimodality (Haralampopoulos, 2003). 3. MULTIMODALITY The social and economic evolution and development of the western world have demanded for a multimodal communicative approach which brings forth the need for a multimodal “administration” of all methodological tools in the teaching of foreign languages and at the same time it exploits multimodal texts to suit the needs of the lesson. 3.1 The Definition of Multimodality Multimodality is defined as the way a cultural product is presented in which more than one semiotic modes are combined and presented. The following are examples: written language, oral language, the picture, the photograph, the drawing/the sketch, the diagram, the color, the font, the music, the sound, the rhythm, the animated picture, the gestures (Gazani & Hadjisavidis, 2005: 27; Grosdos, 2008: 72). For the formation of a multimodal product there is a need for a combination of mono-modal products which are interwoven and in reciprocating interaction and interdependence. 254 - Communication Skills 3.2 Multimodal Texts Multimodal texts are based on multiple semiotic systems which in contrast to the mono-modal ones especially those which are exclusively linguistic, are created with more than one semiotic code in mind: linguistic, visual, acoustic etc., which function in a complementary fashion to the transmission of a message (Hondolidou, 1999). These are primarily texts which are computer mediated as they combine the traditional code of written language with illustrations which are either static or motion pictures, video, etc., but they may also include oral language (voice messages, music, etc.). The production of text meaning, with the aid of new technologies, is not produced exclusively with the aid of a linguistic – semiotic code but within a framework of other semiotic codes there is a co-existence and co-operation with other semiotic modes which may be visual, acoustic, etc., (Kress & Leeuwen, 1990: 94; Kress & Leeuwen, 1998: 187; The New London Group, 2000: 681-682, 688). It must be stressed here that the printed form of the material used in the teaching of a foreign language has the power to “communicate” with a reader in many ways, some of these ways are the following: diagrams, the font, the tables, the pictures, etc. Written texts which exploit their visual power utilize their iconographic devices to proliferate and intensify their articulative power (Grosdos, 2009: 75). Thus text analysis must include not only linguistic features but also non-linguistic ones. Students are trained to de-codify and understand these non-linguistic features in this way acquiring meaning from both written texts and illustrations (Kress, 2000). 3.3 Multimodality and Language Teaching Multimodality in communication and text teaching demands for the development of a new dexterity – that of multi-literacy – so that the recipient becomes aware of the diversity in form that semiotic modes of information and texts present, especially after the appearance and proliferation of the new technologies as well as multimedia technologies which have aided students in the critical processing and evaluation of information (Hadjisavidis, a, b). If all these changes are included then very important reformations at a cultural, social and linguistic level may occur. The development and evolution in the field of technology and multimedia have led contemporary linguists to rethink about who is or who is not linguistically competent. Language material can consist of all text types (acoustic or visual - acoustic) which depict every day situations or are used in every day situations, sound excerpts of conversations and transmissions and visual excerpts which thoroughly cover a communicative circumstance. The authenticity of these materials constitute one of the most important factors in language learning and teaching as teachers Maria Dimasi, Makrina Zafiri, Gregoria-Carolina Konstantinidou 255 - through students communicative competence – become aware of the real needs and difficulties that students face in the foreign language (the language which is spoken by native speakers) (Arvanitis, 2007). 3.3.1 Multimodality and teaching language through drama Drama techniques also seem to contribute effectively in the learning of a foreign language (Wessels, 1987). Through drama and more particularly through a dramatic dialogue students are able to use the foreign language pragmatically. Theatre and drama are directly connected to multi-literacy and are considered multimodal teaching material (Koroneou, 2001). 3.3.2 Multimodality and teaching language through written texts or texts in electronic form The effective teaching of foreign languages in Greece, especially in tertiary education, is highly influenced by Western European countries. As aforementioned there have being very important studies conducted in Western European countries concerning the use of modern technologies, the internet and last but not least multimodality in the teaching of language. Studies conducted in the field of content evaluation especially in the form of a text or in electronic form focus upon the verbal form of a text and its use, thus even the teaching methodology or approach is influenced or affected by the aforementioned. The teaching of foreign languages still seems to follow a mono-modal approach even when texts are multimodal in form (the exceptions seem to be Koutsogiannis, 2000; 2005; Panagiotidis & Arvanitis, 2009). 3.3.3 Multimodality and teaching language in tertiary education Students in Greece enter universities and more specifically foreign language departments after sitting for very tough and strict exams, especially for the English Language Department. One of the prerequisites for students entering a foreign language department (be it the English, German, French, etc.) is the good, if not excellent, use of the foreign language which they are going to learn. Thus, the student starts his/ her studies possessing a functional use of the foreign language. The teaching material also plays a very important role in the teaching of the aforementioned languages. Course books used in the teaching of English, French, German and Italian have a diversity of topics which attract, students’ attention to language, unfortunately these books do not foresee or promote the use of multimodality in foreign language teaching. It would be very interesting to conduct a study, in Greece, which would promote multimodality in the production and use of teaching materials in foreign languages. There are so many sources available to every foreign language 256 - Communication Skills teacher today, to create a diversity of teaching materials which could become a starting point for other teachers who are also willing to enforce a multimodal approach in their teaching practices. The use of pictures, drafts, tables, diagrams, internet material, self-tuition, etc., as well as, the multimodal material which is used are the tools for modern but effective language teaching today. Nevertheless the tide seems to change when it comes to teaching the Balkan languages in Greek Universities as well as the languages of countries located by the Black Sea. Students in this case are not obliged to have any previous knowledge of the foreign language offered by their departments (Albanian, Bulgarian, Rumanian, Russian, etc.). In the department of “Languages, Literature and Civilization of the Black Sea Countries” at the Democritus University of Thrace, there have been many written M.A. dissertations on the teaching of Turkish, Russian and Rumanian languages in tertiary education in Greece (Dimasi, 2004; Markati, 2009). There have also been many evaluations of textbooks which are used in the teaching of these languages, including the Bulgarian language. The studies aforementioned ascertain the following: — The material used to teach the foreign language is in written form. — Most textbooks are prepared and published in the country in which the language is spoken, not bearing in mind the particular needs of the Greek students or the needs of the country the language is taught. — There is usually an ‘”agreement” among all University Departments as to which textbooks should be used. — The structural method is used and so is the communicative approach (at a teaching level). — The contents of the course books are one-dimensional. Texts are not authentic, the illustrations are rare if not few, and the teaching of grammar is in the forefront. — In cases where authentic texts are used the teaching aim focuses mainly upon the text’s verbal elements. — The audio-cassettes which some course books have are considered complementary to the lesson and are not regularly used. Students usually learn the foreign language, especially reading and writing. Unfortunately students are unable to use the language outside the class room, the only exception is the Turkish language at the Democritus University. The only remedy to this is to allow students to study in the Balkan countries where they are sure to acquire more practice in the language they are learning. This is usually done through exchange students programmes, or through pre-organized summer courses offered by the host country in which the language is spoken, or if students decide Maria Dimasi, Makrina Zafiri, Gregoria-Carolina Konstantinidou 257 to continue their studies at an M.A. level after they have received their B.A. The teaching of these languages in Greek Universities could become more effective if modern methodological tools are used. This is where multimodality could be exercised. Semiotic codes (besides linguistic codes) which students’ do not usually have a command of could trigger other forms of literacy such as: visual, technological, social, cultural, etc. This is why the material, which the foreign language teacher chooses to use, should trigger student’s pragmatic competence in an attempt to develop their communicative competence in the target language. Pragmatic competence does not only presuppose a thorough knowledge of morphosyntactic linguistic structures but social and cultural norms which exist in a particular community. Teachers in tertiary education should bring into their classrooms the pragmatic dimensions of a language. This is one of the many reasons why multimodal texts are necessary in the teaching of a foreign language in tertiary education (Giakoumatou, 2000 & 2003). It is thus important that other forms of teaching materials be used for the teaching of all foreign languages in tertiary education. These could be: — Educational scenarios and activities — Internet courses — Internet educational software programs and lists of educational software programs. — Material which will aid in the design and organization of a foreign language lesson (dictionaries, downloadable programmes). — Electronic libraries. — Teachers’ and students’ interest to inform themselves and to communicate effectively through attending an educational forum, through conventions, through teacher-students associations, through scientific articles, through the use of bibliography, etc.). — Supplementary material which will be included and used in the textbooks (audio-visual material, web-sites). — Well organized material which aims at further educating teachers. — The creation of a multimedia digital library1 concerning teaching material is also necessary (Gabrielidou& Paizanou, 2005). The aforementioned will give teachers access to material which contains authentic language and which will aid teachers in the production and organization of a unit/chapter. It will also aid teachers in the use and administration of multimodal texts, bearing in mind the specific 1 Digital libraries are data bases which are stored in computers and are directly accessible by those interested, or they may become accessible through a computer network, or through the internet. 258 - Communication Skills needs of the user/student. Research and experience deriving from the teaching field especially in the field of modern technology and informatics has shown that the incorporation of multimodality in education - at an international level - demands for the following: infrastructure, content, training and support (NGFL, 2002; Eurydice, 2001). The last three points - infrastructure, content, training and support - should be developed equally and in parallel to each other. Multimodality is very frequent in the case of “content” in which we see a vast variety of instructional sources and services which are available electronically and may consist of a simple picture or a work-sheet or it may be something even more specialized and sophisticated such as instructional software or even a network test concerning students’ language skills. 3.4 Digital Libraries and Multimodal Teaching Material As aforementioned the creation of a multimedia digital library (Arvanitis, 2000) is both important and necessary. This library will give students access to authentic language which is necessary for the organization and arrangement of a unit and the manipulation of multimodal texts bearing in mind the particular needs of the students who will be using them. The concept of multimedia digital libraries for the teaching of Eastern European languages demands for extra work on the part of the teacher as s/he will be expected to search for, collect, classify and create the necessary material. At this point it should be mentioned that the Democritus University and more particularly the Department of Languages, Philology and Civilization of the countries located by the Black Sea is in full cooperation with the University of Lomonosov of Moscow enforcing teaching programs which apply the most modern and innovative methods and techniques in teaching foreign languages. 3.5 Motivational Factors Influencing Second Language Learning Teachers’ in-service training is necessary as one of the factors influencing second language learning is motivation and teachers should be able to detect their students’ needs so as to cater for them (KoutsosimouTsinoglou, 2000). Adult learners usually learn a foreign language for work reasons or for reasons of personal enjoyment. These motivational factors reflect adults’ natural and biological innate needs such as development prospects and autonomy which shape their educational needs. Adults actively want to participate in the learning process but they want to be treated as adults by their teachers. With them, adult students in tertiary education bring in Maria Dimasi, Makrina Zafiri, Gregoria-Carolina Konstantinidou 259 the classroom their experience, their needs and wants, they express their self-confidence, self-respect, and self-perception, they learn better when they feel secure and when their ego is not threatened by the teaching practice. They utilize their own learning strategies and learn at their own pace. They also come to the classroom in a different physical condition to younger learners (Markati, 2009). We thus see that the concept of motivation surfaces as one of the most important factors together with the teaching material, the students themselves and their tutor. Through the presentation of the concept concerning: a) motivational factors in foreign language learning by adults, b) their particular and individual characteristics and expectations, c) and the very important role played by the teacher, we ascertain that the aim of this particular category of students is not only linguistic. Motivation is usually derived from adults` needs which can be pinpointed in areas such as their workfield and their social and personal environment, which means that this motivation is either acquired before or it may follow the teaching process (Tokatlidou, 2004). Thus teachers who are teaching a foreign language to adults should bear in mind their particular and individual needs as well as the factors which have motivated them in the learning process. This is why it is very important that teachers’ focus upon those teaching materials and teaching practices which are appropriate for these particular students and which aspire to turn these students into adequate users of the foreign language (not just passive “receivers” of the language). For these people the foreign language will be the means with which they will “function effectively” within a different cultural environment which is constantly changing. 4. CONCLUDING REMARKS To round off, it should be stressed that in-service training is necessary today for foreign language teachers working in tertiary education especially with the use of modern teaching techniques and tools (Koutsosimou-Tsinoglou, 2000), so that: 1. Teachers become acquainted with modern teaching practices and techniques in the teaching of languages, this includes texts. 2. Similarities and differences concerning the characteristics of contrasting texts or communicative strategies must be pinpointed and rationalized. 3. Teaching strategies as well as activities for the classroom must be carefully selected and brought to the forefront so that the general educational process is organized more effectively. 260 - Communication Skills REFERENCES Arvanitis, P. (2007) Designing multimedia programmes. Multimedia databases, unpublished Ph.D. Thesis: Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. Beavis, C. (1992) “Computer games, culture and curriculum”, in I. Snyder (ed.) Page to screen: taking literacy into the electronic era, London: Routledge. Brown, D.H. (1994) Principles of Language Learning and Teaching, Eaglewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents. Dimasi, M. (2004) Languages of the countries located by the Black Sea – The students’ opinion of the course books used, Department of Languages, Literature and Civilization of the Black Sea Countries: Democritus University of Thrace. Eslami - Rasekh, Z. (2005) “Raising the pragmatic awareness of language learners”, ELT Journal, vol. 59, no. 3, pp. 199-208. Eurydice (2001) Basic Indicators on the Incorporation of ICT into European Education Systems: 2000/01 Annual Report: European Commission. Gabrielidou, M. & Paizanou, A. (2005) “Educational sources and the use of the internet in the teaching of foreign languages”, Conference Proceedings of the 2nd Educational Conference in Syros, http//www.epyna.gr/ ~agialama/synedrio-syros_4/kneses-glwsses (accessed: 5.11.2009) Gazani, E. & Hadjisavidis, S. (2005) “Multimodality and monomodal / fictitious language: from a perceptive to a constructive child’s subject”, in Konstantinou & Semenoglou (eds) The image and the child, Thessaloniki: Cannot Design Publications, pp. 25-35. Giakoumatou, T. (2000) “Presenting a sample multimodal teaching of texts”, Conference Proceedings of the 2nd Panhellenic Conference Informatics and Education, Thessaloniki: University of Macedonia. Giakoumatou, T. (2003) “New technologies meet up with Greek schools”, The Association of Greek Philologists of Aigialean and Kalavrita: Dokei Moi, vol. 1, pp. 44-52. Grosdos, S. (2008) Visual literacy and multimodality. The role of illustrations in language teaching in the second grade primer, Unpublished M.A. Thesis: Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. Haralampopoulos, A. (2003) “New technologies and multimodality in language”, Philologos, vol. 1. 113, Athens: Savvalas. Hadjisavidis, S. (2005) “From the pedagogics of literacy to multi-literacies: new trends, dimensions and perspectives in teaching language”, in K. Balaska & K. Angelakos (eds) Language and literacy in primary and secondary schools, Athens: Metehmio, pp. 35-52. Maria Dimasi, Makrina Zafiri, Gregoria-Carolina Konstantinidou 261 Hadjisavidis, S. (2007) “Contemporary trends in language teaching and their exploitation by the School Curriculum and the School Course books in Junior Highschools”, in G. Haritidou (ed.) Seminario 34 School Programmes concerning courses in philology in tertiary education and the new course books, The Panhellenic Association of Philologists, Athens: Ellinoekthotiki, pp. 80-90. Hadjisavidis, S. (a) “Linguistic literacy and the pedagogic of literacy. Theoretical components and data from the teaching field” (accessed: 5.11.2009) http://users.auth.gr/~sofronis/dimos/docs/ergasia116.pdf Hadjisavidis, S. (b) “Multi-literacies and the teaching of languages” (accessed: 5.11.2009) http://users.auth.gr/sofronis/dimos/docs/ergasia93.pdf Hofmann, N. (2005) “Intercultural communication and symbolism”, in the proceedings of the International Conference, Foreign language teaching in tertiary education, Technical Institute of Epirus, Department of Applied Foreign Languages in Management and Commerce, Athens: Dionikos, pp. 220-234. Hondolidou, E. “Introduction to the concept of multimodality”, http:// www.komvos.edu.gr/periodiko/default.htm (accessed: 12.10.2009). Jewitt, C. (2003) “Re-thinking Assessment: multimodality, literacy and computer - mediated learning”, Assessment in Education, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 83-102. Koroneou, A. (2001) “Schools and Mass Media Communications” in Savallas (ed.) The Child and the Cinema, Athens: Savallas, pp. 20-30. Kostaki, A. (2001) “Informative Literacy: Creating Autonomous and Critical Administrators in the provision of information in the 21st century”, in the Proceedings of the 10th Panhellenic Conference on Academic Libraries, Pedagogical Institute: Thessaloniki. Koutsosimou-Tsinoglou, B. (2000) “Polyphony and multimodality: indicators of speakers attitudes and the design of ‘an ordinary written piece of work’. Pre-educational analysis” The Language Computer, vol. 1, http: //www.komvos.edu.gr (accessed: 5/11/2009). Koutsogiannis, D. (2000) “Language Education and the Internet: Possibilities and Restrictions”, Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Language Sector, Department of Philology: Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. Koutsogiannis, D. (2005) “The multimodal theory of communication as a tool for the evaluation of educational software”, in KonstantinidouSemoglou (eds) The image and the child, Thessaloniki: Cannot Design Publications, pp. 621-632. Kress, G. & Van Leeuwen, T. (1990) Reading Images, Geelong: Deakin University Press. 262 - Communication Skills Kress, G. & Van Leeuwen, T. (1998) “Front Pages: (the Critical) Analysis of the Newspaper Layout” in A. Bell & P. Garret (eds) Approaches to Media Discourse, Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, pp. 186-219. Kress, G. 2000 «Multimodality». The New London Group, Multiliteracies: Literacy learning and Design of Social Futures, London and New York: Routledge, pp. 164-180. Markati, D. (2009) “The teaching of Turkish in Greek tertiary education: methodology and contents of the course books”, M.A. Thesis, Department of Languages, Literature and Civilization of the Countries Located by the Black Sea: Democritus University of Thrace. Panagiotidis, P. & Arvanitis, P. (2009) “Digital Libraries of Multilingual, Multimodal Texts for Language Learning”, in the Proceedings of the 3rd Panhellenic Conference on Open and Distance Learning, Patra: O.U.P., pp. 273-283. Papastamatis, A. (2003) “Designing Educational Programmes for Adults”, Makednon, vol. 11, pp. 36-45. Samiou, A. (2006) “By-thematic and intercultural approaches, in the teaching of the French Civilization in tertiary education, used as methodological tools for life long vocational training, and integration in the European labour market”, in the Proceedings of the International Conference, Foreign language teaching in tertiary education, Technical Institute of Epirus, Department of Applied Foreign Languages in Management and Commerce, Athens: Dionikos, pp. 241-250. Sefianou, M. (2005) “Discourse Analysis and the teaching of Greek as a foreign language” in A.S. Moshonas (ed.) Greek as a foreign language: from words to texts, Athens: Pataki, pp. 93-127. Tangas, P. (2006) “Revising the ESP curriculum of the Department of Applied Foreign Languages in Management and Commerce”, in the Proceedings of the International Conference, Foreign language teaching in tertiary education, Technical Institute of Epirus, Department of Applied Foreign Languages in Management and Commerce, Athens: Dionikos, pp. 35-43. The New London Group (2000) “A pedagogy of multi-literacies: Designing social futures”, in B. Cope & M. Kazantzis (eds) Multi-literacies. Literacy learning and the design of social futures, London and New York: Routledge. Tokatlidou, B. (2004) Language, Communication and Linguistic Education, Athens: Pataki. Maria Dimasi, Makrina Zafiri, Gregoria-Carolina Konstantinidou 263 Tschirner, E. (2001) “Language acquisition in the classroom: The role of digital video”, Computer Assisted Language Learning, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 305-319. Tzifas, A. (2007) “By-thematics as a teaching proposal: Limits, historical data, comparisons, critique, indicative teaching program”, in Seminar 34, Study programmes Concerning Philological Studies in Secondary Education and the New Course books, The Panhellenic Association of Philologists, Athens: Ellinoekthotiki, pp. 41-44. Vlachopoulos, S. (2006) “(Re-)Forming curricula in higher education: The case of the Department of Applied Foreign Languages in Management and Commerce”, in the Proceedings of the International Conference, Foreign language teaching in tertiary education, Technical Institute of Epirus, Department of Applied Foreign Languages in Management and Commerce, Athens: Dionikos. Wessels, C. (1987) Drama, Oxford: OUP. A PRELIMINARY STUDY OF LEARNING STRATEGIES IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION: STUDENTS’ BELIEFS ABOUT STRATEGY USE Alexandros Papanis Democritus University of Thrace, Greece 1. INTRODUCTION T HE LITERATURE ON LEARNING STRATEGIES IN second language acquisition emerged from a concern for highlighting the characteristics of effective learners. By the term “learning strategies” we mean the “steps taken by learners to enhance their own learning” (Oxford 1990: 1). O’ Malley and Chamot (1990: 1) define learning strategies as “the special thoughts or behaviours that individuals use to help them comprehend, learn or retain new information”. Oxford (1999:518) claims that the term refers to “specific actions, behaviors, steps or techniques that students use to improve their own progress in developing skills in a second or foreign language. These strategies can facilitate the internalisation, storage, retrieval or use of the new language”. According to Oxford and Nyikos (1989: 291), “the use of appropriate learning strategies enables students to take responsibility for their own learning by enhancing learner autonomy, independence and self direction”. Consequently, strategies are especially important for language learning, because they are tools for active, self–directed involvement, which is essential for developing communicative competence. Appropriate language learning strategies result in improved proficiency and greater self-confidence (Oxford, 1990). A lot of typologies have been proposed in order to classify learning strategies (Rubin 1975, Stern 1983, Oxford 1985, O’ Malley and Chamot 1990, Dörnyei 2005). According to O’Malley and Chamot (1990: 44), whose classification is adopted in the present study, they are divided into three major categories: 1) Cognitive strategies that “operate directly on incoming information, manipulating it in ways that enhance learning”. 2) Metacognitive strategies which are “higher order executive skills that may entail planning for monitoring, or evaluating the success of learning activity” and finally Alexandros Papanis 3) 265 Social/ affective strategies which “represent a broad grouping that involves either interaction with another person or ideational control over affect”. Various researchers have studied parameters related to choice of language learning strategies such as language being learned, language proficiency, degree of metacognitive awareness, often related to knowledge of more than one foreign language, gender, career orientation, motivation, personality traits, language teaching methods, etc. (for a detailed review see Oxford 1989). Rubin (1975), Naiman et al. (1978), Oxford (1985, 1986) have identified strategies reported by students or observed in language learning situations that seem to contribute to learning. More recent studies (O’Malley and Chamot 1990, Wenden 1998) emphasized on the importance of metacognition in learning strategy use while some others (Politzer 1983, Erhman and Oxford 1988, Oxford and Nyikos 1989, Lynn 1994, Green and Oxford 1995, Rosen 1995, Sheorey 1999) focused on the relation between the strategy use and the gender, stating that the final strategy selection by males and females is closely related to their cultural background and to the prevailing social conditions of the local community they live in. Moreover, some researchers (Politzer 1983, Chamot et al 1987, Oxford and Nyikos 1989, Artelt, Schellhas and Lompscher, 1995 and Halbach 2000) found that learners with a higher proficiency in a foreign language tend to use a higher number of strategies (especially metacognitive) every time they face linguistic difficulties in L2, compared to those with a lower proficiency in the foreign language, whose strategy use is relatively low. Several studies, on the other hand, have shown that career orientation influences choice of language learning strategies. Politzer and McGroarty (1985) and Oxford and Nyikos (1989) found that humanities, social science or education majors used significantly more strategies than engineers. The Greek literature on learning strategies is comparatively poor. In chronological order, first Papaefthymiou-Lytra (1987) aimed at discovering the communicating and learning strategies the learners employ to achieve maximum communicative effect in a problem solving situation with whatever knowledge of English they might have. PsaltouJoycey (2001) studied the effects of strategy instruction on developing speaking skills. Psaltou-Joycey (2003) investigated the kinds of learning and communication strategies employed by advanced foreign language learners and their possible relationship with factors such as students’ self-evaluation of their proficiency in English, motivation and enjoyment of language learning in general. Kazamia (2003) discussed the language 266 - Communication Skills learning strategies of EFL civil servants in relation to tolerance of ambiguity. (2004) examined the strategies of pupils having Greek as a second language attending fourth, fifth and sixth class. She also studied ( 2006) language learning strategies employed by Muslim adults having Greek as a second language and attending to Second Chance Schools. Finally, Psaltou-Joycey (2008) examined culturespecific learning strategies of students learning Greek as a second/foreign language in an academic setting. Very important issues of language learning strategy study (such as the list of strategies preferred by Greek-speaking students of different age or the impact of strategy training programs on learning a foreign language) have not been examined. The purpose of the present study is to investigate strategies reported by Greek university students to be used while learning a foreign language. More precisely, the major objectives of the study are: 1. To identify the range of strategies reported to be used by university students learning English as foreign language, 2. To determine whether the reported strategies varied, depending on the proficiency in foreign language, gender, knowledge of more than one foreign language and career orientation of the students. 2. METHODOLOGY 2.1 Sample One hundred and seventeen randomly selected Greek-speaking students (54 boys and 63 girls) attending the Democritus University of Thrace (n1=57 students attending the Civil Engineering School of Xanthi and n2=60 attending the Preschool Education Department of Alexandroupolis), who participated in English language courses, were examined. 2.2 Instrumentation The instrument used to collect data was a 36-item, Likert-scale self-report questionnaire which measures the frequency of strategies employed by the respondents. Its design was based on the 50-item Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL)1 and the classification of Learning Strategies proposed by O’Malley and Chamot (1990). More precisely: 1. the total number of items contained in SILL was reduced, 2. the SILL memory strategies made part of cognitive strategies in our questionnaire 3. the SILL social and affective strategies were examined together. 1 This choice was made in order to be able to proceed to a luminous comparison between the results of the present study and those of previous surveys. 267 Alexandros Papanis Questions 1-11 assessed metacognitive strategies, 12-26 cognitive strategies and 27-36 socio-affective strategies. The questionnaire was translated into Greek. In addition, subjects were asked to provide personal information (age, foreign language proficiency, years of studying the foreign language, knowledge of more than one foreign language). 2.3 Procedure This instrument was administered to the two groups during ordinary course time and it was filled in and collected the same day. In order to ensure comprehension of the statements, the university professors were given oral instructions. 3. DATA ANALYSIS Descriptive statistics, such as frequencies, were used to identify the range of strategies reported to be used by the sample. A reliability analysis (Cronbachs’ Alpha) was performed to examine the internal consistency of the Questionnaire. An independent sample t-test was used to check the significance of differences in learning strategies use according to gender, career orientation and knowledge of more than one foreign language and an one-way Anova model was used to check the impact of the language proficiency to strategy use. 4. RESULTS The Cronbach’s A was.786. This means a good internal consistency of the questionnaire. The most frequent metacognitive cognitive and socio-affective strategies reported to be used by the students are presented in Tables I, II and III respectively. Table I: Metacognitive Learning Strategies’ Frequencies METACOGNITIVE STRATEGIES % Try to make sense of mistakes and correct them 48,7 Find key words 41,3 Try to improve English by song listening 38 Try to improve English by attentive listening 37 Try to improve English by TV watching 35 Exploit crosswords for learning 30,7 Quick reading of a text 29,3 Use pictures to learn English 26,3 268 - Communication Skills Table II: Cognitive Learning Strategies’ Frequencies COGNITIVE STRATEGIES % Use of Flashcards 53,3 Write down new words for revision 39 Group similar words 35,7 Practice word spelling 35,7 Try to infer words’ meanings using context 27 Try to infer texts’ meaning form pictures 30,7 Quick reading of a text 25 Table III: Socio-affective Learning Strategies’ Frequencies SOCIO-AFFECTIVE STRATEGIES % Ask for clarification 42,7 Self-talking to assure themselves 35,3 Ask questions to classmates 35 Conversation with a fellow in English 31 Results indicated no significant effects of gender on the reported strategy use (see Table IV). Table IV: Descriptive statistics for gender effect Strategy metacognitive cognitive socio/affective Gender Mean ± SD ♀ 2,14±,29 ♂ 2,05±,34 ♀ 2,03±,23 ♂ 1,93±,21 ♀ 1,9±,27 ♂ 1,83±,34 t p 1.003 .318 .584 .560 .790 .431 It was also found that Career orientation had no significant influence on the choice of language learning strategies (see Table V). 269 Alexandros Papanis Table V: Descriptive statistics for career orientation Strategy metacognitive cognitive socio/affective Career orientation Mean ± SD Engineers 2,18±,34 Preschool Education 2,13±,28 Engineers 2,02±,21 Preschool Education 2,04±,23 Engineers 1,87±,31 Preschool Education 1,91±,27 t p .814 .417 .454 .651 .728 .468 Neither knowledge of more than one foreign language had significant effects on the reported use of strategies (see Table VI). Table VI: Descriptive statistics for knowledge of more than one language Strategy metacognitive cognitive socio/affective Language Knowledge Mean ± SD Yes 2,13±,29 No 2,14±,30 Yes 2,02±,22 No 2,04±,23 Yes 1,94±,27 No 1,86±,28 t p .106 .916 .466 .642 1.476 .143 On the contrary, the results of the one-way Anova analysis, which was employed to test the influence of language proficiency2 on the strategy use indicated that there was a significant effect on metacognitive strategies (F=5.348, p<.005). The post-hoc analysis using the Sidak test showed that Proficiency holders use significantly more metacognitive strategies than Lower (MD=.333, p<.005) and Palso holders (MD=.5165, p<.05). 2 The Proficiency levels examined in the present study was the following: Proficiency diploma (equivalent to level C2 introduced by the Council of Europe), First Certificate and Palso (both equivalent to level B2 introduced by the Council of Europe). 270 - Communication Skills 4. DISCUSSION The purpose of the present study was to investigate strategies reported by university students to be used while learning a foreign language. It was found that university students make use of different types of learning strategies in a high degree. Actually, adult learners -such as students – seem to consider the use of strategies as a valuable means to overcome the various linguistic difficulties. Learning strategies cannot probably guarantee the successful use of a foreign language but surely they consist a significant precondition for it (Skehan 1989). In this study, it was also examined whether the reported strategies vary, depending on the proficiency in foreign language, gender, career orientation of the students and knowledge of more than one foreign language. Proficiency in second language. A significant effect of proficiency in foreign language was observed only for metacognitive strategies. This finding fully supports results of previous researches of Bialystok (1979), Politzer (1983), Chamot et al (1987) and Oxford (1990) who found that advanced students, because of their high level of metacognitive awareness use more often strategies such as the metacognitive ones. According to O’Malley and Chamot (1990) one of the most basic mechanisms of the metacognitive strategies is planning, which involves setting goals and using input features – characteristics that seem to be the most useful for performing a task. Our study revealed that the Proficiency holders of our sample scored high marks of these three techniques and alternated widely between them in order to achieve high levels of understanding. They also showed high capacity of monitoring (control of understanding and detecting of the appropriate information for storage), techniques which Anderson (1985) and Weinstein & Mayer (1986) consider as the key processes that distinguish good learners from poor learners. The fact that Proficiency holders used significantly more metacognitive strategies is probably due to the fact that, as they are experienced learners, they tend to focus not on cognitive strategies which help them acquire the foreign language, but on the management of the learning situation, demonstrating thus knowledge (language knowledge, task knowledge) and control over the learning process, which are the two basic characteristics of metacognition. Gender differences. No significant effect of gender in strategy use was found in our research. This result agrees with Psaltou-Joycey (2008) who didn’t find any gender differences but contradicts previous research which revealed a significant effect of the factor “gender” upon the frequency of strategy use (Politzer 1983, Erhman and Oxford 1988, Oxford and Nyikos 1989, Lynn 1994, Green and Oxford 1995, Rosen 1995, Sheorey 1999). For Alexandros Papanis 271 example, Linn & Petersen (1985) and Demetriou & Efklides (1987) observed that males use a higher number of strategies when dealing with visual stimuli, whereas females proceed to an extensive use of strategies when having to deal with the production of synonyms, literature comprehension, reading and spelling. (2004) found that boys report to use more often a wider range of strategies than girls. On the contrary, Politzer 1983, Ehrman and Oxford (1989), Oxford and Nyikos (1989), Green and Oxford 1995 found a greater use of strategies by females. According to Ehrman and Oxford (1989: 260) the gender differences found in their survey “could be related to psychological type”. Consequently the question arises whether other variables, that should be identified, play a role in gender differences found in previous research. Career orientation. It was also found that career orientation does not seem to influence the choice of strategies. This result contradicts previous researches of Politzer & McGroarty (1985) and Oxford & Nyikos (1989) who claimed that students of human or social sciences use more and better strategies than students of mathematics or physics. Nevertheless in the study of Politzer and McGroarty (1985) the mathematics and physics students who used fewer strategies were of Asiatic origin and, as it was supported in other studies (O’ Malley & al 1985), these students do not use ‘reliable’ strategies or do not use strategies at all. It could be said that the career orientation does not seem to influence the strategy use itself but in combination with other parameters such as motivation, knowledge of more than one language, and so on. Knowledge of more than one foreign language. Finally, despite our hypothesis based on Vygotsky (1986) that knowledge of more than one foreign language raises students’ metacognitive awareness, and thus would be related to choice of metacognitive strategies, this factor had no significant effects on the reported use of strategies. This finding should be reexamined with a different sample, in order to arrive to more safe results. 5. CONCLUSION Our research provides many insights about variables influencing the choice of learning strategies by university students. We have demonstrated the effect of proficiency in foreign language on choice of metacognitive learning strategies. This study can contribute to the elaboration of specific curricula of English as a foreign language for university students. More research using a larger sample is required for further investigation of gender differences and the effect of more than one foreign language in strategy use. 272 - Communication Skills REFERENCES Anderson, J.R. 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(1999) “Learning strategies” in Concise Encyclopedia of Education, B. Spolsky (ed.), 518-522. Oxford, R. & Nyikos, M. (1989) “Variables affecting choice of language learning strategies by university students”, Modern Language Journal, 73.3, 291-300. Papaefthymiou-Lytra, S. (1987) “Communicating and learning strategies in English foreign language with particular reference to Greek learners of English”, PhD Dissertation, University of Athens. Politzer, R. (1983) “An exploratory Study of self-reported language learning behaviours and their relation to achievement”, Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 6, 54-65. Politzer, R. & Mc Groarty, R. (1985) “An exploratory study of learning behaviours and their relationship to gains in linguistic and communicative competence”, TESOL Quarterly, 19.1, 103-123. Psaltou-Joycey, A. & Joycey, E. (2001) The Effects of Strategy Instruction on Developing Speaking Skills. Proceedings of the 12th International Conference of the Greek Applied Linguistics Association. Thessaloniki, pp. 425-437. Psaltou-Joycey, A. (2003) Strategy use by Greek university students of English. Proceedings of the 15 International Symposium of Theoretical and Applied Linguistics. Thessaloniki, 591-601. 274 - Communication Skills Psaltou-Joycey, A. (2008) “Cross-cultural differences in the use of learning strategies by students of Greece as a second language”, Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural development, 29, 4, 310-324. Rosen, M. (1995) “Gender differences in structure, means and variances of hierarchically ordered ability dimensions”, Learning and Instruction, 5, 37-62. Rubin, J. (1975) “What the ‘good language learner’ can teach us”, TESOL Quarterly, 9, 41-51. Sheorey, R. (1999) “An examination of language learning strategy use in the setting of an indigenized variety of English”, System, 27. 173-190. Skehan, P. (1989) Individual Differences in Second Language Learning, London: Arnold. Stern, H.H. (1983) Fundamental concepts of language teaching Oxford: Oxford University Press. Weinstein, C.E & Mayer, R.E. (1986) “The teaching of learning strategies”, in M.C Wittrock (ed.), Handbook of research on teaching (3rd ed., 315327) New York: Macmillan. Wenden, A. (1998) “Metacognitive knowledge and language learning”, Applied Linguistics, 19 (4): 515-537. Vygotsy, L.S. (1986) Thought and language, Cambridge: MIT Press. Ω : Ω Ω , 1. Ω ( ) - . ( , ), , . . , (Fearns 2003: 169, Engberg 2008: 2 . .). - . , - (Funk 2003: 175). , . . , ( . . , (Vogel 2003: 213). ). , - 276 - Communication Skills , . - . , . , . , - . , . , - , , . , , , . . (Funk 2003: 177). , , . , . , - , , , . , , , , - . , - , . - , . – - , - 277 , - , (European Commission &Directorate-General for Education and Culture 2005: 1-2). , , . - - . , , , . 2. A E Ω H : • • • , . . . , - . , ( . . . . .) (Lavric, 2008: 156). , , . . Lavric (2008: 156), : • A • A lingua franca . : ) , ) , (Lavric, 2008: 156). lingua franca , - 278 - Communication Skills (European Commission . 2009: 11). . A Ω 3. E A Ω IΩ 3.1 Η , 2008 « - ». . . . . . .« - ».1 , . . , , - . 2008 . ( ) , - , . .Ά , - , . , . , : • , , ( • ), , ( • ), , , , - ( ), • ( ), 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2009). (2009). 279 • , ( ), • ( ), • ( ) , • ( ). . – - . 3.2 Η . , . . . , . - , ( ) ( . 1), =146. ( . 2), , =379. - : « ;» ( ) « ;» ( ). : 1 □Ό □ , : 280 - Communication Skills , . ( - , ) ( .1) : • • • • , , . ( . 2) . - . . SPSS 15.0.0 , , . - , 2 , .2 4. - . - . . . 4.1 , , , . ( . 2 & 3). 2 . (1999), (2005), (1999). 281 2: . - .1 (%) (%) 32 21,9 22,7 109 74,7 77,3 141 96,6 100,0 5 3,4 3: . - .2 (%) (%) 68 17,9 18,8 294 77,6 81,2 362 95,5 100,0 17 4,5 4.2 Η ( ) , Ό - ( ) . , ( 4 . 5). 4: .‘ - ’ .1 (%) (%) 2 1,4 1,4 142 97,3 98,6 144 98,6 100,0 2 1,4 146 100,0 282 - Communication Skills 5: .‘ - ’ .2 (%) (%) 13 3,4 3,6 350 92,3 96,4 363 95,8 100,0 2 4,2 146 379 100,0 , – , , - , . , ‘ ’ ‘ ’. « « ». » - 5.1.2., ( ). 4.3 ( 6 7). ) ( . ( .1) , - , . , ( ( ) , 6 , 7). 283 ( ) - . . . - , , . , . . , - 5, . 6: . - ‘ ’ . (%) (%) (%) (%) 72,0 13,3 14,0 - 7,0 14,7 17,5 4,2 8,4 8,4 12,6 4,9 5,6 2,8 4,9 4,2 4,9 3,5 0,7 - 0,8 1,4 1,4 0,7 2,8 1,4 0,7 - 2,8 0,7 2,1 0,7 2,8 - 1,4 - 2,8 - 0,7 - 3,5 - 0,7 - 2,8 - 0,7 - 2,8 - 1,4 - 4,2 - - - 284 - Communication Skills 7: . - ‘ ’ . (%) (%) (%) (%) 59,2 18,7 14,0 2,5 2,2 3,9 6,6 4,7 2,2 3,9 6,6 4,7 2,1 3,9 6,6 4,7 0,6 0,6 0,6 - 0,8 1,4 1,4 0,7 - 0,6 0,3 0,3 0,3 - 0,6 - - 0,3 - - - - - 0,3 - 0,3 - - 0,3 0,3 Ω 5. - 5.1 ( ) - – ( ) . ‘ ’. . - , . , . . - . 5.1.1 . ‘ ’, ’ ‘ ‘ ’. - 285 5.1.2 ω ω ω - ( . 4.1.) ( . 4.2.), ‘ ’( . 8: ’ 8). - ‘ . - ‘ ’ ‘ ’ E I ‘ O O’ I (‘ ’) I (‘ ’ ‘ - ’) O O (‘ ’) A (‘Ό ’) I (‘ ’ ‘Ό ’) ‘O ’ O (‘Ό Y ’) H (‘ ’ ’) ‘ I (‘ ’) I (‘ ’) 286 - Communication Skills 3 , ‘ ‘ ’ . ’ . . 4.2, - . lingua franca. , . - . ‘ ’ ‘ ’ . ‘ ’ , , - .Ά , ( . 8). ω 5.1.3 , ‘ ’. . 5.1.4 ‘ ’ ‘ ’ . . 3 , , . , , . - 287 , ’ - . ‘ ‘ ’. ‘ ’ ‘ ’. . - ‘ ’ ‘ ’. , . . . , , ‘ ’ . . . . 5.2 . ‘ . ’ , . ‘ . ‘ , - ’ ‘ ’ . , ’ ‘ ’ . , , . . Ό ‘ , ‘ ’. , ’ , ‘ ‘ ’. ’ . 288 - Communication Skills ( . . , . .). ‘ ‘ ’ ’. ‘ ’ ( ) - ( . . ). ‘ , ’. - ’ ’ ‘ ’. 6. Ω Ω 6.1 - Ό 9 ( 10, lingua franca , ) , . ‘ ’ ’, ‘ - ‘ ’. , 4 , . . ( . . 2009: 140). , ( 2007: 268). ) 4 . ( . . 289 9: . ( . . 2009: 140) (%) ‘ ( ’ ) 112 80,6 10 7,2 12 8,6 7 5,0 9 6,5 3 2,2 7 4,8 10: . ( ‘ ( . . 2009: 141) ) (%) ’ 290 80,1 44 12,2 28 7,7 23 6,4 1 0,3 3 0,8 2 0,6 6 1,7 1 0,3 2 0,6 1 0,3 1 0,3 6.2. - ( . . , . , ), , , - 290 - Communication Skills ( . ). . , , , . . 11 12 ( ) . 11: . , - ( ) : • • • • • • , . . . ., , , , , : • • • • • • , , , 6.3. ( . . 4.3) ( 4 ( 5) . 6 . - 7). , , ( 10), . ( 6 9). 7 . 291 , - , . , . , , - . lingua - franca. ( . . 5.1.2, 5.1.4 7. 5.2). ‘ - ’ . , . - . , . , , , , - , . ( . 2009: 143). . ` . `, 2008: 2), (European Commission 292 - Communication Skills (European Commission . 2007: 3, 5; 2009: 9). . , , , , - . Ά , , , - , . - , ( . . 1). ω , ., , ., , . . (2009) « , ., , », : .& : , .( .) - : : , , . . 135-146. . (2005) . , . (1999) : , , . (2008) « ’», : , .& , , ., ‘ - 2 - , . . 267-273. , .& , , . . (2009) , : . (1999) : : , - - . . , - , Carpe Diem: , ., , : SPSS, . 293 ω Engberg, J. (2007) “Wie und warum sollte die Fachkommunikatio nsforschung in Richtung Wissensstrukturen erweitert werden?”, Fachsprache-International Journal of LSP, vol. 29 no. 1-2, pp. 2-25. European Commission & Directorate-General for Education and Culture (2005) Lifelong learning in Europe, Publication Office: Bruxelles/ Brussel. European Commission & Directorate-General for Education and Culture (2007) Key competences for lifelong learning- The European Reference Framework, Publication Office: Bruxelles/ Brussel. European Commission & Directorate-General for Education and Culture (2008) The European qualifications framework for lifelong learning, Publication Office: Bruxelles/ Brussel European Commission & Directorate-General for Education and Culture (2009) Multilingualis . A bridge to mutual understanding, Publication Office: Bruxelles/ Brussel. Fearns, A. (2003) “Fachsprachenuntrerricht”, : Bausch, K.R., Christ, H. & Krumm, H.J. (eds) Handbuch Fremdsprachenunrterricht, 3. edition, Tübingen und Basel: . Francke Verlag, pp. 169-174. Funk, H. (2003) “Berufsbezogener Fremdsprachenuntrerricht”, : Bausch, K.R., Christ, H. & Krumm, H.J. (eds) Handbuch Fremdsprachenunrter richt, 3. edition, Tübingen und Basel: . Francke Verlag, pp. 175-179. Lavric, E. (2008) “Fifteen Theses about business language choices. Plurilingual strategies of companies and of individuals within companies”, Fachsprache-International Journal of LSP, vol. 30 no. 34, pp.156-168. Vogel, K. (2003) “Fremdsprachenuntrerricht an Hochschulen”, : Bausch, K.R., Christ, H. & Krumm, H.J. (eds) Handbuch Fremdsprachenunrter richt, 3. edition, Tübingen und Basel: . Francke Verlag, pp. 214-218. 294 - Communication Skills 12: . . - « » « » ω : 5 16 5 5 18 4 63 6 1 16 2 5 102 4 1 13 ω 5 3 4 ω - 9 9 13 6 84 3 2 5 1 7 18 6 89 1 2 1 124 ω 12 11 ω - 4 1 2 1 6 ω - 4 2 2 1 129 1 295 ω 4 2 2 1 128 2 ω 4 1 131 1 2 ω 4 2 129 4 ω - . . . .& 4 2 1 129 3 ω 4 2 1 128 4 ω ω - 6 3 1 2 1 123 3 ω 4 1 2 1 126 1 4 296 - Communication Skills ω 4 1 3 127 1 ω 4 1 132 2 ω - 4 1 130 4 ω - 4 1 129 5 ω - 4 1 130 4 ω - 5 1 130 3 3 297 ω 4 131 1 1 2 ω 4 2 126 7 ω - 4 2 129 4 INTERACTION BETWEEN ENGLISH AND IMC: ADVERTISING, PR, PROMOTION Nick Ceramella University of Trento, Italy 1. IMC 1.1 Marketing Concept I N ORDER TO UNDERSTAND THE CORE OF THIS essay we had better start by clarifying what the Marketing Concept is. There are two different approaches to it. From the marketing standpoint, it is the idea of a company’ s product and the activity of presenting, advertising and selling it to the public in the best possible way. While from the economics’ point of view, it is the managerial theory that a company should apply, through the coordination of the activities just mentioned, allowing to find out what kind of product can meet customers’ needs, and only afterwards produce it. In this way, both the company’s and the buyers’ aims would be met. Then, we will see how all the above is achieved at its best by bringing into play Integrated Marketing Communication, that is “A way of managing a company’s marketing so that all forms of information about products or the company are carefully linked.”1 In other words, IMC is the coordination of promotional activities, usually a set of advertisements, aimed to inform and persuade customers in order to increase the sales, but obtain also their loyalty. Within this framework, unlike what used to happen in the past, now it has been realized that promotion, ideally, should not be planned and managed by different company units, otherwise the message reaching the customers may end up being incoherent. And here is where IMC comes into play by providing a company with an appropriate method meant to avoid such problems, while easing long term relations with the customers and making an efficient use of promotional resources. No wonder IMC has become increasingly popular with companies at large. Until recently the development of a marketing communication was done by an advertising agency, which provided a whole campaign, or a public relations organization which took care of the company’s image. (We will see in the relevant section below how PR has lately 1 Oxford Business English Dictionary. Nick Ceramella 299 increased its importance and reputation). But nowadays there are many agencies which offer ‘one-stop shopping’ sort of service to those clients who are looking for advertising, sales promotion, and public relations, thus reducing the coordination problems for the company. Of course, due to the continuous boost of costs of all that, the top management expect a painstaking evaluation of any communication activity as well as high returns on their investment. 2 PROMOTION 2.1 Promotion’s Role We have already hinted at the importance of the quality of the product. We will skip price and place, as they would lead us too far from the purposes of this article, and pass on to the last of the four Ps listed above, promotion. This is one of the key elements in IMC whose main aim is to stimulate the demand of products, help build up and keep positive relations with old and potential customers, thanks to clear and effective information presented in a persuasive way. For instance, ‘cause-related marketing’, which is known as marketing linked to benevolent, philanthropic causes, arises interest in the company itself. An excellent example of strategic philanthropy, deserving to be mentioned, is the Ronald McDonald Houses sponsored by McDonald’s hamburger chain. These are facilities usually built near children’s hospitals to help families who wish to stay together for free when traveling for a sick child’s treatment. They maintain over 200 houses in 44 countries worldwide where families can stay and 48 rooms within hospitals for the same purpose. And here is how the communication process, within which this kind of promotion takes place, works. It is based on the following circuit: source (individual or organization), receiver (individual or organization), codification, means of communication, de-codification, and receiver. Figure 1 300 - Communication Skills Most importantly, being communication a circular process, there is a feedback coming from the receiver. In codifying a message, marketers must make sure they use symbols which can be easily recognized by the target market members. It is not by mere chance that the translation of adverts is one of the most difficult tasks in a global market. A case in point is the slogan of KFC chips “fingers liking good”, which in Chinese has been rendered as comically as incomprehensibly “eat your fingers off.” Or the failure of the Fiat Uno, which was car of the year (1983) in Europe, turned into a flop in Finland, simply because “Uno” does not mean “one” like in Italian, but in Finnish means ‘foolish.’2 However unexpected, you may have this sort of problem, even within the same English speaking country: the term “soda” in some areas of the USA means “soft drink”, but in others means “bicarbonate of soda”, an “ice cream drink” (ice cream with seltzer and syrup), or “whisky and soda”. These examples suggest that communication problems may be of a varied nature and not only linguistic. So, companies have to make sure electrical equipment, like radio and TV, are not difficult to listen to or look at because of the effect of other electronic signals or noise interfering. 2.2 Aims of promotion One of the main aims of promotion is to create awareness, that is make customers realize they need the item that is being offered. But it is also a matter of creating brand awareness, which imply that would-be buyers may like to be informed about the working hours of the company, its whereabouts, dimension, and its social policy. Equally important is that on launching an original new product a company gets would-be clients to know all its innovative features, which usually persuades marketers to stimulate the so called primary demand by convincing people that possessing the new item is really relevant and advantageous for them. Alongside this kind of demand there is a much more selective kind which aims more to underline the benefits and strong points of a given brand with respect to others. To convince clients how good what is being offered to them is, they can be invited to try for themselves, for example they can drive a car, or receive free copies of a magazine, etc. Alternatively, new potential clients are selected by getting them to fill in a form coming with an advert which they should send to the company free postage, or may be either invited to call a toll free number, or may even be contacted personally by a sales 2 Ceramella.N. (2008) “Intercultural Challenge and Translation: A Didactic Approach to Build up the Cultural Gap in Business and Management”, in Foreign Language Teaching in Tertiary Education. Ioanina: Carpe Diem, pp. 8-18. Nick Ceramella 301 representative. Whatever the strategy may be, keeping clients for as long as possible is all companies’ main aim. One of them is fidelization, which costs less than acquiring new clients and consists in promotions especially dedicated to an existing “faithful” customer segment. Take for example, the “frequent-flyers” who are encouraged through free tickets not to change company; crash tests, used especially in America, are meant to convince buyers to purchase the same brand, that they already own, which proved to pass the tests brilliantly. As a consequence, most car makers applied the same aggressive strategy not to lose clients. However, we know that factors like seasons, festivities, and the like, can make the sale flow change in certain sectors. Of course, no company can afford to lower its production dramatically, because that implies also having a lower cash flow and perhaps the need to dismiss workers. The solution is the stimulation of sales in the dark periods. For instance, swimming trunk prices usually go down in autumn and winter, whereas in the summer publicity may even be suspended since they may not be able to meet an excessive demand in that period. It goes without saying companies definitely need to develop appropriate promotion programmes. 2.3 Promotional Mix The four possible elements of a promotional mix are: sales promotion, personal selling, advertising, publicity/public relations. Figure 2 They may be used all together or just some of them, depending on the kind of promotion. However, marketers are aware that these ways of informing and, above all, of persuading clients to buy a product work up to a certain extent, because, more often than not, clients trust information from family and friends passed along by word of mouth. 302 - Communication Skills This leads us to the area of sales promotion which should not be confused with promotion, since it is only one aspect of the general area of promotion. Sales promotion is meant to convince clients to buy directly thanks to incentives. For example, games, competitions and lotteries are organized on behalf of the potential customers; or when free samples, coupons are distributed, or rebates (i.e. an amount paid by way of reduction, refund, or return on what has been previously bought) are offered. (See also mail-in rebate – MIR – the most common form of rebate. That is when personal selling comes into. It is much more effective, though it is aimed at a very limited number of customers. By way of example, telemarketing is in this category of sales. Though it must be said the law limitations to this kind of sales and people’s irascibility have decreased its use. Reaching a potential client through an ad is much cheaper than personal selling. But the latter have a bigger impact on the client, and there is an immediate feedback which can be used to improve anything concerning the product as well as the marketing strategy. 3. PUBLIC RELATIONS 3.1 Public Relations/Publicity Public relations (PR) are extremely important not only for clients, but also for stakeholders, that is providers, share holders, media, potential investors, researchers, civil servants, and society in general. To communicate well with all these people, companies usually turn to public relations, that is an ample range of communication activities used to create and maintain good relations between a company and its stakeholders. This can influence sales and profits and even keep the company going in the long run. PR use annual reports, brochures, sponsorization of events and socially useful programmes aimed to safeguard the environment or help people in need. But they use also advertising, which is a component of PR. Good examples of public relations based on ads are news releases, press conferences, and feature articles. The ordinary public relations activities are planned and implemented to create a synergy with the other elements of the promotion mix and thus support them. Depending on the policy and budget of single companies, PR can be the responsibility of an individual or of a department within an organization, alternatively, the activity may be outsourced and entrusted to an independent PR agency. However, every company should have at least one person responsible for public relations in the company or outside at all times, and should always have a PR programme ongoing and not just when Nick Ceramella 303 a negative publicity occurs, due to uncontrollable causes, as when, at a press release, the company in trouble announces its commitment to implement a product recall. Such a case took place in October 2009, when the Daiso California LLC recall of balancing toys and zippers of the purses and pen cases, because the surface paint contained excessive levels of lead. This company recommended parents to take them away from their children and contact Daiso for a free replacement. 3.2 Marketing Public Relations We can distinguish between two kinds of public relations: marketing and financial. Since the latter is not to our specific interest in this essay, I will just say that by financial PR we mean management and coordinating activities of the relations that an organization has with financial institutions, regulatory public relations controlling authorities, investor public relations, institutional investors, managers, stakeholders, shareholders, but also journalists (working for the press, broadcasting, or the new media). And now, we can focus on marketing public relations. But first let’s see what is meant by that. The application of methods and PR instruments contributing to the achievement of particular marketing objectives fixed by a company, which is done by creating, developing and keeping relations with all the people involved in the market line, including stakeholders as well as customers. Marketing public relations, in those countries where PR are considered “mature” (i.e. long-standing), absorb over 50% of companies’ investments, while in the UK and the USA, the two most developed markets in the world, the quote reaches about 70%. Incidentally, if we take the Italian case, unlike the American, where the PR agencies supporting marketing strategies appeared ever since the 1950s, when mass consumption and the presence of television, virtually in every household, boosted the PR market, in Italy due to the opposite sort of situation, the same thing happened only in the second half of the seventies. Until then, in fact, the prevailing Catholic and Marxist views in the country, hindered mass consumption, considered very negative both socially and culturally. Indeed, the companies’ managements were quite reluctant to use marketing, and even less the newly opened public relations agencies, to promote their business. By contrast, PR were accepted as interpreters and consultants of public affairs and to favour the birth and development of relations between companies, unions and politicians. It was only in the 1980s that, thanks to the growth of consumption and the development of commercial TV, the firms’ demand for marketing support increased. This made advertising and promotion 304 - Communication Skills agencies prosper, but left PR organizations out because they did not have the necessary competence to integrate with the marketing mix line. That is why PR began to get involved in promotion by taking care of product publicity, first, to switch to marketing PR in the 1990s. A further change has taken place in the past few years, when the traditional marketing mix (i.e. promotion and sellers’ ability) has proved to be inadequate to meet the new demands coming from the management of companies. In fact, they have become aware of the need to take very good care of the clients and invest in that area of business communication below the line, including direct response, promotion, and public relations, which has pushed towards a growing presence of IMC (advertising, PR, promotion, and direct response). And this is where PR have shown their ability to play a key role in paying due attention to the customers, thus marking the real difference between before and after they came into play. Now, everybody agrees that corporate communication needs to be integrated and synergic with that of the marketing sector. Thus the age of PR has come eventually as they have realized that interacting within specific marketing plans helps to create a particularly favourable situation, which surely works as long as there is a common line with strategies, programmes, timing, and messages. In this ideal situation, marketing public relations can find testimonials, organize events, get the support of opinion leaders and journalists when it is necessary to attract customers’ attention towards a certain brand, keep its leadership on the market, or support directly a particular advertisement, or a promotion. In any case, many surveys have proved that consumers feel that the information coming from journalists is more credible than mere advertising, they see it as a third party endorsement legitimating the offer. This was confirmed by a survey commissioned by the magazine Fortune in the mid-2000s, where 2/3 of the marketing directors of the first 500 companies appearing in their list, believed that while advertising is more effective in creating brand awareness, 4/5 of them thought that PR has a stronger impact than advertising to enhance brand credibility. At the end of the day, it is a fact that PR have gradually taken a leading role in IMC campaigns. But it has also emerged that, if a company cannot afford a proper advertising campaign to launch a new product, PR can often do a better job at half the cost, but can also help to define the marketing strategies and their implementation. Worth of notice is the great success met by buzz or viral marketing, which, after all, is a simple application of PR marketing, aiming to create a trend, hence, the acceptance of a given product. An example in point is what Vespa, the Italian scooter maker (www.vespausa.com) did. They Nick Ceramella 305 hired models to park their scooters right outside trendy restaurants and hotels in Los Angeles, so that their clients and any passerby could see them and perhaps decide to buy a Vespa themselves. 4. ADVERTISING What is advertising? It’s an impersonal communication launched by a company to publicize its products through various means, going from tv, Internet, radio, dailies, magazines, billboards, direct mail, displays, posters on buses, and the like. Ads can reach an enormous target, or be focused in a limited segment, it all depends on the product itself. McDonalds is for people of all ages and walks of life, Ferrari cars are for a top layer of extremely wealthy people. The rate between the cost of advertising and the number of people it can reach is very advantageous. If you take the American magazine Time, a whole page ad in it costs well over $ 190,000; since it is read by 4 million subscribers a week, the cost to be met to reach 1,000 people is just about $ 50 per person. 4.1 Can we live without our daily ‘portion’ of advertisements? Advertising permeates our everyday lives. Our attitude towards it varies, depending on how amusing, entertaining and persuasive ads are, or, on the contrary boring and, sometimes even offensive. Whatever the case, it seems we can’t live without them. If I may quote myself, you can read about an interesting story which, however paradoxical, is true: “You might think people would be sick and tired of adverts. In fact, most French people reacted negatively to a proposal to abolish advertisements from public television, even though the government was prepared to pay compensation of €450 million to the TV stations to cover their financial loss. It seems that we are so used to ads that we cannot imagine a TV programme without those supposedly hated commercials.”3 4.2 How to develop an advertising campaign Mass advertising is no longer used for its high costs and low possibility of reaching the right target audience. Marketing database allow companies to aim at whatever specific target they want/need to by using means such as CD-Roms, Internet, direct mail, TV, specialized magazines, and so on. This is how marketing experts and clients have access to an enormous amount of information to the advantage of both sides, allowing to create the need of an item and even personalize it 3 For a brief introductory note to the history of advertising see my article on “Birth and Development of Advertising,” I, Professional English on Line, www. cambridge.org/elt/pro 306 - Communication Skills according to clear-cut necessities and wishes. An efficient control and management are based on the information one has on each client, the marketing environment and the relevant feedback; this info usually comes from the company’s Marketing Info System (MIS). Figure 3 The continuous development of Information Technology (IT) in general and the specific and dynamic interests of customers are contributing dramatically to a change of approach. This is an area seeing the growth of the importance of the so called CRM (Customer Relationship Management) running at its best this direct communication between sellers and buyers. However, it must be said that advertising can truly be a bliss for a business, but it may ruin it too. It is money going out with an expectation of return. When it goes wrong it is just an expense. But, when the money goes to the right place then it becomes a valuable investment. In brief, it all boils down to these important points that companies need to work on: 1. Redefine products and services. Describe their features and benefits in detail in the advertisements. 2. Define the target market and how to reach it by looking at the various market segments where one intends to enter. That implies that one needs to have a clear mind in demographic terms of the wouldbe buyers: age, sex, family composition, earnings, geographical location, lifestyle, purchasing patterns, buying objections. It is equally important to find out what target customers enjoy reading and listening to. 3. Develop a strategy to convey the message that will produce growth. Make promotional objectives crystal clear and make sure the target market easily recognizes the company. Decide how often it is necessary and whether it is affordable to expose customers to the company’s message to create the growth desired. 4. Know how to track and evaluate the advertisement produced, i.e. receive a feedback, and if not satisfied be prepared to revise it accordingly. Nick Ceramella 307 4.3 Choosing the proper media To achieve all the above, a company has to choose the proper media. Companies should be aware that experience in the advertising field teaches that to reach new markets and new customers, one has to change both old places and messages. That doesn’t mean one has to invest impossible amounts of money, the important thing to grow is that a company, especially if small, finds a niche market. As hinted at above, customers’ age, income, interests, whereabouts, etc., will tell what media are most cost-effective to use. There is time to broaden one’s reach and acquire new clients, so better start with a small target. After all, marketing, like any other kind of business, involves a measure of trial and error. 4.4 Print Advertising Print ads represent the starting point of advertising, which is where the whole idea started from. The whole story of advertising began with advertisements appearing in newspapers.4 But as with most things, there is a positive and a negative side about them. On the plus side, you can get your ad in very quickly, on the downside, newspapers usually have a shelf life of just 24 hours. Therefore, if you run your ad on Monday, you can’t depend on anyone to discover that ad on Tuesday. As the saying goes, “Nobody wants to read yesterday’s news.” If your budget allows for multiple insertions that is, running your ad more than once, do so. Regular exposure of the ad builds recognition and credibility. If some of your prospect customers see, but don’t respond to your first insertion, they may well respond to your second or third. If you have confidence in your ad’s message, don’t panic if the initial response is less than you wanted. More insertions may bring a better response. The second type of print publication is magazines, for which there are specialty categories of every kind. Advertising in this type of publication allows you to target special-interest groups. Another advantage of magazines, especially monthlies, is that they have a much longer shelf life than newspapers; they’re often browsed through for months after publication. So your ad might have an audience for up to six months after its initial insertion. Moreover, readers spend more time per sitting with a magazine than a newspaper, so there’s more chance they will run across your ad. 4 Nick Ceramella & Elizabeth Lee. Cambridge English for the Media. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008. © (The relevant activities are reproduced with permission.) 308 - Communication Skills 4.5 Radio and TV Adverting While radio stations may put ads together for free, TV advertising is beyond most entrepreneurs’means. But this is true mostly at national TV advertising level, while the cost of advertising on local stations and on cable television, though still have to produce your commercials, the cost they charge you is comparatively much cheaper. However, quite surprisingly, local small business owners may find that TV and radio advertising can reach more customers than any other type of ad campaign. The key is to have the right information from the right people, such as station advertising salespeople, a clear mind about the target market and an affordable budget. But there is also the dark side of the moon, so to speak. Especially ads shown during a TV programme can be not so convenient, they cost a lot and people don’t watch them. People can change channel or be distracted by all sorts of things, like preparing a snack, or answering the phone. The problem then, is that you have an immediate feedback, which you obviously don’t know anything about, and, therefore, it is quite difficult to tell how effective it has been. Infomercials (a neologism consisting of ‘information’ and ‘commercial’, a TV ad lasting between 3 to 30 minutes, including a demonstration of how a given product works or is made, seem to be seen as a solution. 4.6 Endorsement Sometimes, a company tries to improve its image, hence its intrinsic value, by an endorsement (the involvement of a famous person, such as a singer or an actor), whom people will do anything to emulate. A case in point is the advert where the fascinating Eva Green, even in extreme situations, says, “Don’t touch my Breil.” Meaning they can do anything to her, as long as they leave her the watch. Likewise, having actors wear a certain item in a film is known as a formidable and most effective way of advertising. 4.7 Digital advertising On the basis of the latest data provided by the Union of Concerned Scientists Website (http://www.ucsusa.org/publications/guide.ch1.html): “The average American is exposed to about 3000 advertising messages a day, and globally corporations spend over $620 billion each year to make their products seem desirable and to get us to buy them.” By way of comparison, Italy has been lagging behind until recently on digital advertising, according to one of the latest study available there has been an increase between 30 to 40% of investments, corresponding to € 665million, that is 41.5 more on 2006. Nick Ceramella 309 5. ENGLISH FOR PROFESSIONALS AND MEDIA STUDENTS 5.1 Producing Teaching Material After the “generously” extensive introductory Part One, dealing with the professional areas involved in IMC, attention will be focused on two aspects in particular: the need media students and teachers alike have for fresh and appropriate material in the media world, and the didactical implications of teaching English applied to the actual use of IMC in a real marketing work situation. As I anticipated in the introduction to this article, I will use as a base platform, so to speak, Cambridge English for the Media, a new leading coursebook in its own right, of which I happen to be the co-author. Allow me to underline that my decision has nothing to do with self-promotion, but is genuinely dictated by the virtual lack of relevant material in this specific area of teaching, and, most importantly, by the high quality of the book which is testified by its success world wide (i.e. it was a best selling in its category at Waterstones bookshop company for about three months, when it first came out in the winter of 2009.) The idea of writing such a book came from the teaching experience my assistant (at the time) and myself built up through the years, which made us realise that teaching English for the media was quite a headache, mainly because very little material had been developed on this discipline. Being unable to meet at the best, as we wished, our students’ needs, for lack of ready-made suitable material, was quite frustrating. There were general coursebooks (too general, and often dealing with the same old grammar set programme), coursebooks for media students whose first language was English (too difficult), business coursebooks (too much business), vocabulary books (not enough of anything else). It was obvious a reinvigorating change was needed. Hence, we thought there was a great need to devise a very special English language course for media students from scratch, which could have a wide appeal and meet a good demand coming from both the professional and the academic world itself. As a matter of fact, now more than ever before, mass media is an undeniably powerful force and, as such, exerts a great fascination which results in thousands of students choosing degree courses in Media Studies every year. UK universities represent a leading example, for this discipline started at Leicester University and developed in the 1960s from the academic study of English and also from literary criticism more broadly. Ever since, Media Studies degree courses began to sprout all over the world to reach an incredible level of interest, involving even secondary schools (cf. GCSE and A level in the UK) from the late nineties onwards. 310 - Communication Skills Fortunately, while we were wondering about all that, they were thinking of facing the same problem at CUP. We combined our ideas and Cambridge English for the Media was realized within a series of “brother” books which came out together. Thus, coherently with all the above, what we have produced is a book that has several novel aspects whilst drawing on the best of established EFL/ESL publishing. Here are the features characterising the course: • The book is focused on English for Media rather than English for Students. In fact it is not focused on the skills that Media students need for their studies (e.g. taking lecture notes, writing essays, etc.), but on what they need for their careers (e.g. marketing and PR language, journalistic writing, giving presentations, interviewing, producing advertisements, etc.). • Each unit is organised thematically around media-related listening activities (i.e. work meetings) and texts (i.e. articles, briefs, minutes, press releases, activity scheduling, etc.), which enables grammar and lexis to be presented/revised in texts relevant to the students’ field of study. In brief, we have done away with any ‘traditional grammar syllabus’ appearing on the website as supplementary activities. The rationale is based on a solid awareness of “good practice” and solid methodology (e.g. progression from one section to the next, balanced coverage of the four skills, etc.) • The skills work sections focus on the skills media students and professionals alike need in English, for each of the topics (units). So, broadly speaking, the material has been designed to enable learners to face the situations they will find themselves in at work, which call upon their English reading, writing, speaking and listening skills. Thus providing them with the functional language used in the media and entertainment industries. All students of Media Studies and related subjects, as well as those working for the first time in jobs such as marketing, advertising, journalism, radio and television production are helped to acquire a good practical grasp of the appropriate terminology in each of these sectors. 5.2 Case Study: Marketing Unit 8 of Cambridge English for the Media is the last in the book and is entitled Marketing. In a sense, it is a further practical application of the preceding unit (Advertising), which can be summarised by the following figure, which incidentally recall most of the points dealt with in Part One of this article: Nick Ceramella 311 Figure 4 Anyhow, the work situation taken in consideration in Unit 8 deals with the falling of sales of Sparkle, a glossy magazine specialising in jewellery. The whole thing starts with a long meeting at the publisher’s headquarter, Canada Media, involving the marketing manager, the marketing analyst, the director of public relations and the press office manager of Sparkle. The Unit develops through four different sections corresponding to the phases of what they discuss under such circumstances in real life: a) 5 “Analysing market trends and taking action” where the marketing analyst shows a set of graphs to illustrate the situation before and at the time of speaking. The marketing manager invites the PR director and the press office manager to start thinking about redesigning the communication strategy, and spot the solution in IMC. By way of example below is one of the graphs appearing in the book on p. 84 of Cambridge English for the Media.5 Ibid., p. 87 312 - Communication Skills Graph 1 151.056 120,845 - 20% 160.000 140.000 120.000 100.000 80.000 60.000 40.000 20.000 2006/7 b) 2007/8 “Setting up a marketing communication strategy” is the second section, where at the second meeting they discuss the activity scheduling for a major international event and the promotion place. Here come a listening activity and a pre-filled table summarising what they say at a meeting is given. The students have to spot three mistakes concerning things which do not correspond to what they hear. (By way of example, you can see below one of the listening activities, appearing in the book.)6 Activity Scheduling Project: Sparkle relaunch 6 Description Next Steps Date Department Responsible Sparkle availability Sparkle available on the market Sep 5 2008 Marketing department Event Event to relaunch Sparkle Sep15 PR dept Invitation Send invitations to celebrities, press, advertisers July PR dept Invitation Save-the-date for event July PR dept Photo shoot Shoots with celebrities March PR dept Press kit Including: copy of Sparkle, press release, CD containing visuals of advertising campaign Ongoing PR dept Ibid., p. 90. Nick Ceramella c) 313 “Organising the relaunch of a product” where they check the state of the art. A press kit, which they had decided to produce is almost ready, with all the other material, a copy of the new restyled magazine, a CD on the history of Sparkle, which will be given to advertisers, VIPS, journalists at the event when the magazine will be relaunched, and most important, two famous actresses will be present as testimonials. (By way of example see the Press release appearing in the book, with some relevant exercises.)7 At this point students have to complete a Press Release using the section headings in the box. Expert advice Accessing the product Historical background Target market Innovative approach CanadaMedia (1. ________________ ) Sparkle first appeared in the early 1970s. It was the only publication covering jewellery in Canada at the time and one of the very few of its kind in the world. Its claim to fame is its history of getting the inside story on some of the most famous and influential designers in the world. (2. _________________ ) Its new stylish, colourful layout is a completely innovative approach. It has a new font advanced graphics, and eye-catching photography. These features contribute further to enhance the timeless beauty of jewellery which combines contemporary creativity with traditional motifs. (3. ________________ ) Sparkle is now aimed not only at the traditional buyers – mature, sophisticated ladies – but also for younger women (25-35). (4. _______________ ) What’s more, our exciting new fashion guru, Samantha Hollinghurst, will be providing advice and ideas on how to combine the latest jewellery designs with the rest of your wardrobe – whether it’s for a black-tie cocktail party or simply to wear to the office. (5. ______________ ) The new Sparkle will be available from all the usual outlets, and from next October readers will also be able to browse our new online edition. 7 Ceramella N. (forthcoming) ‘This is the Age of Professional English’ in Critical Comparison of Foreign Language Studies in the Region of South East Europe. Eds Aleksandra Baniević, Nick Ceramella, Marija Knežević. Introduction N. Ceramella & M. Knežević. University for Foreigners Perugia & University of Nikšić (Montenegro). Nikšić: Kolo Publishing Dep. of English Language and Literature. 314 - Communication Skills Read the press release again. Look at the highlighted adjectives and answer the following questions. 1. How would you describe the adjectives used? • Effective unnecessary negative powerful 2. How would you describe the sentence structure • Colourful short formal focused 3. Why do you think the writer used these kinds of adjectives and this tyupe of sentence structure? d) “Evaluating the success of a relaunch” where they make the point on the effectiveness of the ICM campaign four months after the relaunch, which, incidentally, proves to be a great success to everybody’s satisfaction. 5.3 Conclusion All the meetings (used as listening activities) are recorded on a CD which comes with the course book. They do sound as if they were recorded during real meetings: the language, the tone, the ICM strategy are applied to perfection. It seems that the challenge to create good genre-specific activities, covering the four basic skills, has been met and, most importantly, learners are interested and get involved while learning from the content, not just the language but also contextualised examples of key vocabulary and structures that serve as models for speaking/writing tasks. In particular, as far as the aim of this article goes, I hope I have managed to show the interaction between English and IMC, thanks to a good combination between the best in ELT methodology with real professional practice, can be learnt in theory and put immediately in practice. There is no doubt how extremely useful for anybody who intends to work in the communication field all that is. After all, there is no need to emphasise the key role English plays in a globalised world like ours, where knowing it is a big advantage, easing business transactions as well as any other advanced form of communication. REFERENCES Dickson, T. (2000) Mass Media Education in Transition: Preparing for the 21st Century, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Duncan, Th.R. (2002) IMC: using advertising and promotion to build brands, McGraw-Hill. Duncan, Th.R., Newton F. & Powell, I. (2008) Principles of advertising & IMC, Australia, McGraw-Hill. Nick Ceramella 315 Grunig, L.A., Grunig, J.A. & Dozier, D.M. (2002) Excellent Public Relations and Effective Organizations: A Study of Communication Management in Three Countries, Mahwah, NJ.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Kitchen, Ph.J. & De Pelsmacker, P. (2004) Integrated Marketing Communications: A Primer, London: Routledge. Thorson, E. and Moore, J. (eds) (1996) Integrated Communication: Synergy of Persuasive Voices, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN RUSSIAN UNIVERSITIES: FOREIGN LANGUAGE AND TRANSLATION TEACHING THROUGH THE LENS OF THE ON-GOING INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION Natalya Reinhold Moscow University for the Humanities, Russia 1. INTRODUCTION ‘I N ALL CULTURES THERE IS ONE CONSTANT difference between children and adults, namely, that, for the former, learning their native tongue is itself one of the most important experiences in their lives, while, for the latter, language has become an instrument for interpreting and communicating experience; to recapture the sense of language as experience, an adult has to visit a foreign country.’ From W.H. Auden’s ‘Introduction’ to A Choice of de La Mare’s Verse (1963) I hope my Greek colleagues who visited Moscow very briefly in spring 2008 will not mind my quoting their Christmas greeting of December 2008. It ran something like this: Dear Natalya, How are things in Moscow? We suppose it’s rather freezing this time of the year. Well, we hope everything’s fine with you and your family. We are writing to let you know that the Erasmus Mundus programme has been announced and it seems that now we could provide an opportunity for any students who might be interested in attending your MA programme in Translation. For more information, you can visit the following address: http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/extcoop/call/index.htm All the best again for 2009! Natalya Reinhold 317 Three things strike me in the message. One is a casual question, ‘How are things in Moscow?’ with its weather implication, which can be read as ‘Is it too cold for a Mediterranean person to stay in Moscow this time of the year?’ Second, “We are writing to let you know that the Erasmus Mundus programme has been announced’, informing me that there is international cooperation between Russia and Europe, Russia and Greece under way in the field of tertiary education. And finally comes a tentative suggestion that there may be some Greek students interested in attending the MA programme in Translation at the Russian State University for the Humanities in Moscow (RSUH). To sum up en passage, there are four points I would like to use as the guidelines in this article: • (a) international cooperation between Russian and European universities in the field of foreign languages in tertiary education; • (b) the MA foreign-language and translation-oriented programmes offered by Russian universities; • ( c) the current job market for foreign languages and translation/ Interpreting in Russia, and • (d) the practical issues like the weather, finance, accommodation and subsistence, etc. or, in other words, the conditions under which provisional international students from Greece or elsewhere in Europe can study at a Russian university. To put it in more formal terms, I am writing about the existing types of federal and regional institutions of higher learning in Russia, about the curriculum, programmes and structural changes as have recently shaped themselves in Russian tertiary education in the field of foreign languages and applied linguistics. In particular, I shall focus on the BA and MA degree courses as well as the in-service Continuing Education sector. I will identify those specialties in the applied language tertiary education as are currently in high demand with the home and international students. I hope I will manage to put my message across sharing my expertise on the advantages and the problem areas of international cooperation in the above fields. A few preliminary remarks As a contributor I cannot help bringing my own experience, both academic and personal, to the discussion of the above issues. I rely on my personal experience as a self-starter with several educational projects in the last fifteen years or so. This period of time roughly corresponds to the crucial decades of the 1990s-and 2000s known as the ‘perestroika’ and the ‘post-perestroika’ in the former Soviet Union, present-day Russian Federation. Because of or probably due to 318 , Foreign Languages, Interculturalism and Politics my educational background - English literature and foreign languages, Translation practice and Translation Studies - I became exposed to the urgency of renovating certain aspects of university curricula, or designing them anew, from scratch. I initiated or supported several international projects on curriculum development. These are the TEMPUS (TACIS) Pre-JEP on Modern European Languages and Information Technologies (1993-94), with British and Portuguese academics. The national educational program on British Studies in Russia, sponsored by the British Council, which resulted in the setting up of the Russian Association for British Studies, of which I was elected the first President in 1995. In 1995 I applied to the European Society for Translation Studies for setting up a working group on designing university degree courses in Translation Studies. The group was set up in 1996. As a group we arranged several international seminars for the academics, to thrash out ideas and see what it was really about. In 1996 I was invited by the University of Copenhagen as the guest editor of a collection of essays on Russian Translation Studies. And in 1997 I moved to the Russian State University for the Humanities in Moscow to design from scratch a 5-year degree course in Translation Studies. The curriculum was launched in 1998, and two years later the department for Translation Studies was set up at the School of Philology and History of the above University. Currently I am head and professor of a 30-academic strong body of the Department for Translation Studies, Translation / Interpreting. All these international projects on University curriculum development took me, on the one hand, to visit different regional universities across Russia, besides those in Moscow and St. Petersburg, in Yaroslavl, Oryol, Voronezh, Smolensk, Ekaterinburg and others. On the other hand, I traveled widely visiting the universities in Czech, France, Germany, Montenegro, Poland, Portugal, the UK, the US etc. It is this kind of expertise in the field of the humanities that I am going to use in the article. To go back to the above mentioned preliminary remarks. Despite a long-term experience in tertiary education, foreign language teaching and graduate and postgraduate research, I still keep W.H. Auden’s words about foreign languages at heart: “In all cultures there is one constant difference between children and adults, namely, that, for the former, learning their native tongue is itself one of the most important experiences in their lives, while, for the latter, language has become an instrument for interpreting and communicating experience; to recapture the sense of language as experience, an adult has to visit a foreign country.” Natalya Reinhold 319 Accidentally, I became a witness a couple of weeks ago at the Greece Embassy in Moscow of how a Russian Orthodox priest, a father of four, applied for a six-month study visa to go to Greece to study the Greek language. I take this as a proof of W.H. Auden’s view of language as an experience and a driving force to visit a foreign country. I am sure the same can be said about other languages, other religions and denominations which exist across the world and across Russia as well. So, basing myself on my personal academic experience, with all its constraints and limitations, and on a foreign language study as a great individual experience, I focus on the recent developments in the Russian higher education in foreign languages and translation. 2. INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION BETWEEN RUSSIAN AND EUROPEAN UNIVERSITIES IN THE FIELD OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE EDUCATION AT TERTIARY LEVEL The current educational framework for international cooperation in the field of foreign languages and Translation/Translation Studies at tertiary level is particularly soft, I think, for developing the BA and MA programmes. The reasons are several, the major one is the radical change made in the tertiary curriculum this year of 2009. The dramatic shift is the introduction of the General State Exam (Edinyi gosudarstvennyi ekzamen) at every secondary school across the Russian Federation, and switching from the 5-year tertiary pattern to the 4-year BA and the 2year MA educational patterns. Soon there will be no recruitment for the 5-year programmes. This is a crucial watershed change which will come down in the history of Russian University education as one of its most prominent landmarks. One of the obvious consequences of the above shift is a greater compatibility of the Russian tertiary education system with most of the European university programmes. It seems to signal that international cooperation in the field of BA and MA courses can go quicker and more smoothly, for, from now on, international students, from both ends, so to speak, can take their semester or the whole academic year elsewhere as part of their BA or MA education. Another positive consequence of the above radical change is a greater willingness on the part of the Russian university administration to be more flexible in offering a richer list of the MA programmes by designing the student-market and the job-market oriented modules. For example, there are the MA programmes in “Russian as a Foreign Language, and International Economic Cooperation” and “International Economic Cooperation and Translation/Interpreting” under way at the 320 , Foreign Languages, Interculturalism and Politics RSUH. I am going to expand on this issue in the second part of the article, which covers the MA programme in Foreign Languages and Translation/Interpreting as a case study. The existing types of University education in Russia today are many, embracing both state and private institutions of higher learning. The educational landscape in Russia changed overnight in the early 1990s, with the emergence of tens and hundreds of commercially-based schools, institutions, universities (sic), etc. Now back to the issue of International Cooperation as it currently exists in Russian universities in the field of foreign languages, Translation/Interpreting, applied languages, etc. To make it clearer, let us figure a provisional s/he student who toys with the idea of traveling to Russia to enroll in this or that course. What options are there open to him/her? Option 1: is a traditional way of using a two-way or a one-way agreement with a Russian university. Within its framework, funding student exchange or one-way study visits is a joint effort of the universities involved. It is a highly competitive contest-based one-term or two-term programme, with a foreign language test paid for by the participating students. For example, the RSUH maintains some such agreements with Universtaet zu Berlin (Germany), with Sorbonne (Paris 4) in France, and Dickenson College in the US. Option 2: is the newly launched European programme ERASMUS MUNDUS Extended Cooperation Window (EMECW), with its headquarters in Turku (Finland), which my Greek colleagues mentioned in their Christmas Greeting. 10 universities in 9 cities across Russia have become part of the EMECW consortium. Please, see the websites of the EMECW universities in Russia below: http://www.hse.ru (Higher School of Economics, Moscow, RF) http://kantiana.ru (Immanuel Kant State University of Russia, Kaliningrad, RF) http://www.isu.ru (Irkutsk State University, Irkutsk, Russia) http://www.ksu.ru (Kazan State University, Kazan, Tatarstan, RF) http://petrsu.karelia.ru (Petrozavodsk State University, Petrozavodsk, Karelia, RF) http://www.rsuh.ru (Russian State University for the Humanities, Moscow, RF) http://www.spbu.ru (St. Petersburg State University, St. Petersburg, RF) Natalya Reinhold 321 http://v4.udsu.ru (Udmurt State University, Udmurt Republic, RF) http://www.usu.ru (Ural State University, Ekaterinburg, RF) http://www.novsu.ru (Yaroslav-The-Wise Novgorod State University, Yaroslav-The-Wise Novgorod, RF) Of note are the following aspects of the above web pages. First, there exists a well-developed Russian University computer network. Thanks to the 1995-96 Open Society Institute project of bridging up by Internet two regional universities in the Central and Eastern parts of Russia, the inter-university space was then mapped, and communication made smooth and easy, information open and accessible to the users. Second, every University web page runs into hundreds of pages. Thirdly, almost all university web pages are limited to the Russian version in Cyrillic. Note a few exceptions to the rule among the above quoted EMECW lucky ten: the Petrozavodsk State University has the Russian, English and Finnish homepage versions; the Kazan State University has the English and German versions of their website; the Higher School of Economics can boast of the English AND the French versions et al. Fourthly, note the huge discrepancy in the volume of information found in the Russian and the English versions. The latter is merely a summary of the Russian version in most cases. Fifthly, the curriculum is not accessible online, though the current timetable is, and the latter is in Russian. Also noteworthy is the fact that the EMECW lies in the hands of the International Departments of the constituent universities. Option 3: is the individual enrollment in a MA degree programme. This is a challenging enterprise, which requires a high degree of selfmotivation, self-discipline and a fair sense of priority on the part of an international student. Three prerequisites are the knowledge of Russian (to be able to follow a university homepage), getting in touch with the International Department well in advance, and keeping up a link with a MA programme supervisor via the pipeline. Option 4: is applying for this or that programme via one of the International academic-cum-research centres which operate in some Russian universities. For example, there are fifteen international centres of this type at the RSUH: the Russian-German academiccum-research centre, the Russian-Canadian centre, Russian-Swedish centre, Russian-Turkish centre, Russian-Iranian centre, Russian- 322 , Foreign Languages, Interculturalism and Politics American centre, Russian-Italian academic-research centre, etc1. The centres offer a broad range of foreign-language courses, summer school placements, competitions for scholarships among the undergraduates and postgraduates, international conferences and student exchange programmes. Option 5: is a recent development in the field of international MA degree programmes based of the agreement between two universities, e.g. the RSUH and the University in Freiburg (Germany), which is oriented at a mixed audience of MA students from Russia and Germany. The degree in German Literary Theory they are going to get in two years is validated by two universities, the RSUH and the University in Freiburg. The project is financed by the DAAD (Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst) and was set in motion at the RSUH in 2008. Going back to a provisional student who is considering a study visit to a Russian university, - let him/her go for option 3, that is, the individual enrolment in a Master programme, and let the latter be the MA programme in Foreign languages and Translation/Interpreting/ Translation Studies at the RSUH. 3. A CASE STUDY: THE MA PROGRAMME IN FOREIGN LANGUAGES AND TRANSLATION/INTERPRETING/TRANSLATION STUDIES At the moment the Department for Translation Studies I am a head of runs four tertiary programmes in foreign languages and Translation/ Interpreting and Translation Studies. These are • a 5-year MA-equivalent degree course in Translation /Interpreting and Translation Studies, with the qualification in linguistics and translation to/from two European languages; 1 The Russian-cum-French Centre of Historical Anthropology named after Marc Bloc, the Russian-cum-Swedish centre, The Moscow Quebec Centre of Research, Education and Culture, The Meso-American Research and Educational Centre, Russian-German Centre in Research and Education, The Institute of European Cultures, The Iranian Study, the Russian-cum-Italian Centre in Research and Education, the Russian-Turkish Centre in Research and Education, RussianAmerican Centre of Biblical and Hebrew Studies, The Egyptian Research Centre, the Russian-Swiss Centre in Research and Education, the Higher School of European Cultures and, last but not the least, the Russian-American Centre in Research and Education. Natalya Reinhold • • • 323 a 4-year BA course in Foreign Languages, e.g. English, French, German, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, with the qualification in philology and professional competence in two foreign languages; a 2-year MA course in Foreign Languages and Translation/ Interpreting and Translation Studies, and a 2-year in-service course for mature students in Business English and Translation. Of these, I will focus on the MA programme in greater detail. 3.1. The level of language A/ B/ C competence The Department for Translation Studies runs the UCLES certificatebased degree course in CAE/CPE in English as language B/A, the TCF/ D.A.L.F preparatory courses in French as language B/A, and B2 / C1 in German as language B/A as part of the framework of the BA degree course in foreign languages and the MA degree courses in Translation and Interpreting. As a professional team, my colleagues and myself are interested in taking on well-prepared school leavers who have had their preliminary training in English, French and German in the respective formats. As for the MA programme, it requires the CPE / CAE equivalent of language competence with languages A and B. The range of foreign languages covers English and German, French and Italian, Portuguese and Spanish, including Russian as a foreign language. We are going to expand by launching Swedish next year. The methods and ways of learning foreign languages are set by the international certification standards: • CPE and CAE for English as language A and B, respectively; • D.A.L.F (Diplôme Approfondi de Langue Française) and TCF (Test de Connaissance du Français) for French as language A and B, respectively; • Pruefung Wirtschaftdeutsch (PWD, or C12 ) and B2 for German as language A and B, respectively/ There are two entrance exams to get enrolled in the MA programme: • one is a computer-based test in provisional translation competence from /to languages A and B, • the other is an oral test in language A competence. The real hurdle for the international students, though, is the Russian language competence. Imagine that you are an European MA student visiting a Russian University. The first or second thing you would like to do before you settle for your study visit is to look at the curriculum and get a detailed information about the University in question. You go to the 2 According to „Gemeinsamer europaeischer referenzramen fuer Sprachen“. 324 , Foreign Languages, Interculturalism and Politics Internet. And unless you have a very good command of Russian, you will not be able to get the hang of anything. It is not that the University web pages carry no information, or they are inaccessible. No! Most Russian University web pages run into tens of hundreds of pages. Like huge hold-alls, they comprise anything - from the timetable for the current term to the scholars’ manuals and articles. Academics and students run seminars online. But! All these activities go in Russian, in Cyrillic. For there are few programmes, if any, which have no Russian as the source or the target language. It means that international students should have a fair degree of competence in Russian, both written and oral. That is why we work hard designing such modifications of the MA programme in Translation/Interpreting and Translation Studies that have a strong input of Russian as a foreign language. This year we have designed two modifications of the MA programme, one is in International Cooperation in Business, with the Russian as a foreign language (RaFL) module, and the other is in Translation, with the RaFL plus Business modules. 3.2. The curriculum of the above MA programme in Foreign Languages The curriculum of the above MA programme in Foreign Languages and Translation/Interpreting and Translation Studies reads as follows. The 2-year MA programme in Translation/Interpreting and Translation Studies 4 terms Lecture-cum-seminar courses Сurrent issues in philology (term 1) pass Information technologies and Internet resources for translators (1 term) pass The history and methodology of philological studies (1 term) exam Translation and cross-cultural communication (term 2) exam The history and methods of Translation Studies (2, 3 terms) pass, exam Seminar in research (terms 1-3) Translation Practice Consecutive Interpreting from / to language A (1 term) exam Simultaneous interpreting from / to language A (2, 3 terms) pass, exam Translation practice from/to language A (2, 3 terms) pass, pass Consecutive and Simultaneous Interpreting from/to language B (1, 2, 3 terms) pass, pass, exam Translation practice from/to language B (1, 2, 3 terms) exam, pass, exam Natalya Reinhold 325 A list of courses, with 2 out of 4 and 1 out of 2 being compulsory a) Methods of translation analysis and assessment (1 term) pass Literary translation editing (2 term) Philosophical concepts of Translation (3 term) pass Terminology in Translation (3 term) b) Business text translation (1, 2 terms) pass, exam Literary translation (1, 2 terms) pass, exam c) Legal text translation (3 term) pass Scientific text translation (3 term) pass Finals in Translation and Consecutive/Simultaneous Interpreting to/from languages A and B (4 term, February) External Validation of an MA degree thesis (4 term, May-June) Note: no ECTS (“European Community Course Credit Transfer System”). The assessment is based on the system of scores (A level – 91-100 points, B level – 75-90, C level – 60-74, D level – below 59 points) I proceed to discussing the MA curriculum from the theoretical and practical points of view, by focusing, first, on the Translation theory as the background of the degree course, and, second, on the job market perspective. 4. THE THEORETICAL BACKGROUND OF THE MA FOREIGNLANGUAGE AND TRANSLATION-ORIENTED PROGRAMMES AS ARE CURRENTLY RUN IN RUSSIAN UNIVERSITIES I would like to remind the reader of translation being an art in its own right in Russia; of a long-term and rich history of translation dating back to the medieval times, as well as to the recent history of translation from and into more than a hundred languages of the peoples of the former republics of the former Soviet Union, etc. This remark has an immediate connection with the theme of the article. I once happened to edit a collection of articles on Perspectives: Russian Translation Studies (Copenhagen, 1998), and I am now well aware of the field having changed out of all recognition for the last ten years or so. As is known, the field in question has become diversified since the mid 1990s, when the then Ministry of Education of Russian Federation approved of the introduction of the five-year specialty in Translation Studies and Practice at Russian universities and institutes of higher learning. What also helped the then new venture to come off was the emergence in the 1990s of the new institutions, commercial 326 , Foreign Languages, Interculturalism and Politics schools of translation and interpreting like a well-known Moscow Institute of Translation and Interpreting (MISTI) and others. Thanks to the new diversity pattern of higher education, tens if not hundreds of programmes in Translation Studies and Practice have been launched across Russia, and new Chairs and Departments of Translation have been set up in Moscow, St. Petersburg and regional universities, causing much anxiety on the part of University professors-cumadministrators both about the language and translation/interpreting competence of the newly-fledged trainees, as well as the criteria and standards behind the “new” curricula. Today, however, thanks to the Annual International Conference on Translation and Translation Studies held at St. Petersburg State University3, you can get a clear-cut and detailed picture as to what theoretical approaches are practised at different universities, what theoretical concepts are elaborated, what research seminars are run, and what standards are found behind the courses in Translation Studies across the country. Basing myself on the analysis of the 20052007 Conference Proceedings, I am now going to map the field of Translation Theory as is currently practised at the MA programmes in Russian universities. 4.1 Current Tendencies in Russian Translation Studies: An Outline I have identified three fields of research in the current Translation Studies in Russia: one embraces the linguistics-based developments; the second includes the philology-based moves, and the third one comprises the developments, which stem from hermeneutics and Reception Theory. For lack of space I am going to give a brief account only of the former of the above-mentioned fields, putting a number of significant developments, like Mikhail Gasparov’s powerful research (Gasparov 2003)into the poetry translation and the history of verse translation in Russia, on the back-burner. The linguistics-based developments, which seem to dominate Russian Translation Theory, are no longer as monolithic as they were ten years ago. The scholars who received their bachelor degrees or doctorates in linguistics are turning their eyes in the directions different from high and dry linguistics. Semiotics-cum-(post)structuralism is obviously one the most attractive scholarly platforms for research in Russian Translation Studies. The descriptive analysis of the national schools of Translation Studies makes another area of investigation, 3 “Fedorovskie Chteniia”. Natalya Reinhold 327 with a number of scholars focused on assimilating certain Western theories in Translation. Even the given list of current linguistics-based developments is by no means exhaustive, and for lack of space I will have to limit myself to a few references and comments on the above. 4.2 Semiotics-cum-(post)structuralism scholarly platform I do not find anything surprising in semiotics and (post)structuralism coming as the first priority in the search of Russian scholars for high theory as a scholarly platform for their investigations of language and translation. On the one hand, there is a fine Russian expertise if not a scholarly tradition in semiotics, represented by the works of Vyacheslav V. Ivanov, Yurii Lotman, etc., however diverse are the methods of these scholars. On the other hand, post-structuralism is part of the Russian academia enlightenment project, which has been a primary concern on the part of the most advanced group of Russian philosophers and philologists for the last fifteen years or so. As is known, (post)structuralism had been a forbidden area of scholarship in the former Soviet Union, and there have recently been undertaken scores of academic projects in translating the key (post)structuralist works in order to make up for the existing lacunae. For our purpose, however, it is important to note that until recently (post)structuralism has been part of the philology (and not Language and Translation Studies) game in Russia. It seems that the Moscow school of linguists and translation scholars are more active in researching the possible areas of applying certain semiotic and (post)structuralist approaches to Translation Studies than Russian academics elsewhere. Of the most representative works I would name Nikolai Ivanov’s doctorate ‘The Symbolic Function of Language from the Point of View of Semiogenesis and Semiosis’ (2002),4 and his recent monograph The Problem Aspects of Language Symbolism: An Essay in Theory Analysis (2000).5 The scholar asserts that the objective of his research consists in ‘the comprehensive description of the symbol reality of language as the logical process of the development of language symbolism (semiogenesis), transforming into the experience of semantic functioning (semiosis).’ (Ivanov 2002, 1) Alongside pursuing the central aim of his study, the scholar makes a critical analysis of the basic concepts of language symbolism via 4 Ivanov, Nikolai Viktorovich. Symvolicheskaya funktsiia iazyka v aspektakh semiogeneza i semiozisa. Moscow, 2002. 5 Ivanov, Nikolai V. Problemnye aspekty iazykovogo symvolizma. Opyt teoreticheskogo rassmotreniia. Moscow, 2000. 269 P. 328 , Foreign Languages, Interculturalism and Politics considering the opposing views of two schools of semiotics, i.e. Charles Pierce’s ontological theory vs Ernst Cassirer’s genetic theory. Dr. Nikolai Ivanov makes a special point by subscribing to the views of the adherents of the symbolic and semiotic schools in contemporary Cultural Studies, that is, Ernst Cassirer, Yuri Lotman, Vyach. Vs. Ivanov, Boris Uspenskyi, and others. I cannot help mentioning the original linguistic base from which Dr. Nikolai Ivanov’s research stems, by referring to his 1994 article on ‘The Semantic Function of the Article: An Essay in the Logical-cum-Semantic Analysis based on the Portuguese Language’.6 As for the RSUH Russian School of Anthropology headed by Ac. /Prof. Vyacheslav Vs. Ivanov, they are interested in the verbal/ non-verbal aspects of the sign, and the problems of ‘transmutation’ (Jacobson 1959) in the media as part of Translation Studies. Of note are the recent academic publications of the semiotic aspects of translation, e.g. N. B. Mechkovskaya, Semiotika: Yazyk. Priroda. Kul’tura: kurs lektsii. [Semiotics: Language. Nature. Culture. A Course of lectures] Moscow: Academia, 2004. 428 P. 4.3 The descriptive analysis of the national schools of Translation Studies The Russian scholars in the field of Translation Studies are by no means ignorant of the existing schools in Translation Studies worldwide. The definitions of the Skopos theorie, Gender Studies, etc. together with the names of Hans J. Vermeer, Katharina Reiss, Mary Snell-Hornby, Vanessa Leonardi, Sherry Simon, Lori Chamberlain, Luise Flotow, Luise F. Pusch and others, decorate the monographs, papers and articles of a number of Russian scholars of Translation Studies (TS). Yet it seems that they make rather a kind of inside data available to the adepts alone. For there are few Russian translations of contemporary Western texts in TS, with two (at least) consequences, one is the lack of students’ anthologies, readers, dictionaries of terms, reference books, etc.; the other is the heterogeneity of Russian equivalents of the terminologies used by different schools, which, in its turn, breeds a mess in the use of TS terms. Still the more remarkable is the research project launched about ten years ago by the late Dr./Prof Vilen N. Komissarov, the then head of the Department for Theory, History and Criticism 6 Ivanov, Nikolai V. ‘Smyslovaya funktsiia artiklia: Opyt logiko-filosofskogo analiza (na materiale portugal’skogo iazyka),’ in Voprosy iazykoznaniia, 1994:2, 97-104. Natalya Reinhold 329 of Translation at the Moscow State Linguistic University. It was timely, as it was focused on the descriptive study of the past and the present of Translation Studies in Britain and France, Canada and the States. As a result, three Candidate theses were accomplished and successfully validated, The Theoretical background of the linguisticsoriented approach to Translation Studies in Britain (2000) by Irina Ubozhenko7; The Study of the Historical and Theoretical Background of Translation Studies in the USA (1999) by Olga Polyutova,8 and The Current Translation Studies in France and Canada: The Study of the Historical and Theoretical Background (1999) by Igor Kalinin.9 As Irina Ubozhenko states in the introductory part of her thesis, the current state of Translation Studies, so rich and diverse in theoretical concepts, and methods of research, challenges the scholars with the timely task of analysis and evaluation. (Ubozhenko 1) The author of the thesis makes a survey of the history and the present state of British Translation Studies, pointing out the linguistic, empirical and the integrating schools as the mainstream developments, together with highlighting the work by Peter Newmark and Mary Snell-Hornby as two most rewarding contributions to the British, as well as international science. (Ubozhenko 6-7) The Russian scholar augments her choice by characterizing Peter Newmark as ‘a convinced adherent of the exact semantic method of translation’ and describing Mary Snell-Hornby’s approach as ‘an integral one based of the concept of the prototypology of the text types.’ (22-23) Likewise, Olga Polyutova in her Candidate of Philology thesis on The Study of the Historical and Theoretical Background of Translation 7 Ubozhenko, Irina V. Teoreticheskie osnovy lingvisticheskogo perevodovedeniia v Velikobritanii: Avtoreferat kandidatskoi dissertatsii. [The Theoretical background of the linguistics-oriented approach to Translation Studies in Britain: A Candidate of Philology Thesis Synopsis] Moscow, 2000. 26 P. 8 Polyutova, O. N. Kontseptual’no-istoricheskoye issledovanie perevodovedeniia v SSA: Avtoreferat kandidatskoi dissertatsii. [The Study of the Historical and Theoretical Background of Translation Studies in the USA] Moscow, 1999. Also, see Polyutova, O. N. ‘K istorii perevodovedeniia v SSA.’ [On the History of Translation Studies in the USA] In Aktual’nye problemy mezhkul’turnoi kommunikatsii. [Current issues of intercultural communication] Moscow: MSLU, 1999: 444. 9 Kalinin, I. V. Sovremennoye perevodovedenie Frantsii i Kanady (kontseptual’noistoricheskoye issledovanie: Avtoreferat kandidatskoi dissertatsii. [The Current Translation Studies in France and Canada: The Study of the Historical and Theoretical Background] Moscow, 1999. Also, see Kalinin, I. V. ‘Istoriia perevoda vo Frantsii i frankofonnoi Kanade,’ in Tetradi perevodchika. 1999:24. 330 , Foreign Languages, Interculturalism and Politics Studies in the USA gives the background story of Translation Studies in the USA, and makes a survey of the current schools and theoretical approaches. She points out the ethnographic, culturalreligious (Nida, Beekman, Callow, Larson), literary-critical (Ezra Pound, I. A. Richards, and others), linguistic (Roman Jakobson, Susan Bassnett, and others), and cultural-ideological (Lawrence Venuti, André Lefevere, Douglas Robinson, etc.) concepts as typical of the US Translation Studies, and devotes a whole chapter of her thesis to the ‘religious-cum-cultural’ (religiozno-kul’turologicheskoye) approach in the works of Eugene Nida, John Beekman, John Callow, Mildred Larson, etc. as the weightiest among the existing schools in theory. Her high estimation is based on the notion of ‘dynamic equivalence’ as the central category in Nida’s translation strategy. In his 1999 thesis on The Current Translation Studies in France and Canada, Igor Kalinin makes a survey of the past and present of Translation Studies in France and Canada, by highlighting the linguistic, psychological and pragmatic schools as the mainstream developments in the above countries. Of special note are the translation terminology projects carried out in Canada, which are aimed at accumulating bilingual data bases. 4.4. Assimilating Western theories on Translation Russian scholars find attractive some translation aspects of Gender Studies. For example, A.V. Achkassov writes in his article ‘Translation and gender: key issues’: Gender issues in translation have been a focus of feminist criticism since the 1970s. Crucial claims made by feminist researchers are: translation has been an acceptable way for women to gain access to the world of letters; there is “Mutual identification” between women and translators; rewriting in a feminine language is a sort of translation; male translators generate deformations of female texts, etc. In the last decade, the issue of “gender and translation” has gone beyond the scope of feminist criticism and is now considered in studies of literary translation, linguistics of translation, interpreting (using gender sensitive and gender neutral language), etc. (Achkassov 46) Note the Third International Conference on Gender Studies held at the Moscow State Linguistic University in 2003.10 10 ‘Gender: yazyk, kul’tura, kommunikatsiia. Materially tretjej mezhdunarodnoi konferentsii’ Moscow, 2003 Natalya Reinhold 331 Yet another European Translation theory, which Russian scholars think to be particularly rewarding for their own research, is the Skopos Theorie. For instance, Viktor Shadrin, head and professor of the Department for Translation Studies at St-Petersburg State University, makes ample use of the works by Hans Vermeer and Katharina Reiss in his article on ‘Parallel text as an object of translation studies.’ (Shadrin 2005) Shadrin is interested in ‘some problems related to texttypological conventions and the role of parallel texts for describing translation strategies.’ (Shadrin 2005, 456) In another article, ‘The Cultural Correlates as the object of Translation Studies’ Shadrin focuses on ‘the description of cultural correlates as the basis of comparison in the process of translation… [providing] [a]mple examples of crosscultural communication in Europe...’ (Shadrin 2006, 557) To sum up, a brief survey of some current developments in Russian Translation Studies shows that linguistic, semiotic, reception and comparative poetic theories serve as an inter-disciplinary background of the current MA programmes in Translation/Interpreting and Translation Studies in Russia at tertiary level. 5. THE CURRENT JOB MARKET FOR FOREIGN LANGUAGES AND TRANSLATION/INTERPRETING IN RUSSIA11 The job market for the graduates with the MA degree in foreign languages and Translation/Interpreting is active and dynamic even in the midst of financial crisis. Without exaggeration, it is bursting with vacancies. Information agencies, publishing houses, consulting firms, realtor companies, building industry, media, advertising industry, etc. – they all need services in foreign languages. English comes first as a lingua franca, closely followed by German, Italian, French and Spanish. 11 Professionals used to say that it is a must with the European translation agencies, as well as some firms in Russia, to take on translators with the handson knowledge of TRADOS. It is logical then, in order to meet the job market requirements, that the students of the Translation Studies Departments should acquire the skills of working with the TM software, at one of the University courses: they will better compete then for the well-paid work-placements. The curriculum of the MA course in Translation /Interpreting features the course in MT and TM as a special discipline, a real trademark of the translator’s competence. Together with PROMT, the leading St. Petersburg company in TM and MT, the TS Department arranged a training seminar in November 2003. There was a lively discussion of the pros and contras of Machine-assisted translation among the participants, both academics and students, followed by 332 , Foreign Languages, Interculturalism and Politics ‘The need for translation has rocketed’,12 says Boris Klimzo. (Klimzo 61; my translation.-N.R.) True, many employers take the translation competence for the by-product of a manager’s or secretary’s duties in this country, and with them translation/interpreting per se seldom features as a number one occupation. Nonetheless, the market is lucrative for the foreign-languages-based professions at the moment. The current parameters of the translator’s/interpreter’s jobs in Russia make an interesting though mixed story. Yurii Alekseev makes a sharp observation in his article, ‘A Few Remarks on the Market for Translation Services,’ when he writes that the market for translation in Russia has not been described yet: ‘No one would say how big it is, …what its turnover is like, …or what the paychecks come to. …There is no reliable statistics’.13 (Alekseev 58-60; my translation.-N.R.). We shall better understand the scale of translation practice in Russia, both literary and information text practice, if we keep in mind two points about the historically-bound status of translation in this country. First, traditionally, translated texts are highly acceptable to Russian readers. The European ‘norm’ (Toury 53) of reading foreign texts in the original has not taken root in Russia, as it did in England or France (to limit myself to two examples), and foreign works are translated into Russian on a large scale. Translation is rightly considered to be part of the Russian ‘literary polysystem’ (Even-Zohar 45), an art in its own right. Second, the European (and American, at that) norm of translating exclusively into the native language has not taken root in Russia either. A local translator/interpreter is expected to translate both ways, from and into his/her native language. As Chuzhakin writes, ‘In contrast to their American colleague (Lynn Visson.-N.R.), Russian translation theorists embrace the idea of an adequate translation from the mother tongue into a the training workshop. The overall response to the project was positive, with the agreement between PROMT/TRADOS and the RGGU signed, and the software installed, for a short-term training period; the questionnaire arranged, and the provisional course programme draft made up. (Reinhold 303) Its effectiveness for upgrading the students’ professional competence, and making them more competitive can hardly be overestimated, especially with a view to the two-year curriculum of the Extra Qualification in Translation Practice for the graduates and/or undergraduates in Economics, Management, and Law. 12 Cf. to the original: ‘…seichas, kogda tak vozrosla potrebnost’ v perevodcheskom trude.’ 13 Cf. to the original: “…absoliutnaia neprozrachnost’ rynka… segodnia nikto ne v sostoianii dazhe ves’ma priblizitel’no skazat’, skol’ko (ofitsial’no zaregisrirovannykh) perevodcheskikh biuro rabotaet v Moskve. … Neprozrachnost’ rasprostraniaetsia i na… tsenoobrazovanie. …nevozmozhno … ‘opredelit’ ob’iom rynka perevodcheskikh uslug.’ ” Natalya Reinhold 333 foreign language’.14 (Chuzhakin 82; my translation.-N.R.) This explains the absolute priority of a target text over the original, with the Russian readers; it also confirms the maxim that still matters in Russia: ‘No translation, no book.’ However, the vast translation market in Russia under perestroika and in the post-perestroika period has been left unmapped and unstudied. Apart from lamenting the loss of the old Soviet system of professional translation, and the incompetence of a new generation of amateurs,15 and sporadic observations of translators,16 the current non-transparent market has hardly been analyzed. It certainly needs mapping and evaluating, for there exist no reliable statistics of the number of translation agencies in Moscow and elsewhere; the number of staff and free-lance translators; the financial turnover of translation/interpreting services,17 and the like. Note the translation terminology as is currently used in Russia. Professionals agree that the term ‘tekhnicheskii perevod’ [technical translation] no longer works as a definition for the type of translation practised in firms and companies, where in-house documents, agreements, contracts, protocols, etc. make up a substantial part of target texts. Still another field that needs clarification are the financial and legal aspects of the translator’s/interpreter’s jobs. Regularities concerning contracts, paychecks, working hours and the deadlines, as well as the responsibilities and licenses on both parts, - all these have to be mapped and analyzed. The professional competence of translators/interpreters is a daily headache, for it is only through visibility, transparency, and corporate activities that translators can keep up their professionalism and fight back the deficiency of well-qualified specialists. It is worth noting that the National League of Translators was set up in June 2004 as a non-profitable organization, with its Constitution and Steering Committee.18 14 Cf. to the original: ‘Predstaviteli rossiiskoi shkoly perevodovedeniia, v otlichie ot amerikanskogo avtora (Lynn Visson.-N.R.), ne otritsaiut vozmozhnosti adekvatnogo perevoda s rodnogo iazyka na inostrannyi.’ 15 See Dubin, Boris. Slovo/Pis’mo/Literatura [Discourse/Writing/Literature] Moscow: Nezavisimaia Gazeta, 2001. 16 See Mikhailin, Vadim. ‘Perevedi menia cherez made-in’. [Translate me via ‘made-in’], Novoe literaturnoe obozrenie (2002:1.53) 330-34. 17 According to Alekseev, the latter varies from 30 to 152 mln dollars made annually in Moscow (Alekseev 59) – fantastic figures based on no reliable criteria and data! 18 See Mosty (2004:4) 60. 334 , Foreign Languages, Interculturalism and Politics To sum up in passing, in spite of the above professional problems, the job market for translation exists, and it struggles to become more and more civilized. 6. THE MATERIAL AND FINANCIAL BACKGROUND OF INTERNATIONAL STUDY VISITS AS VIEWED FROM THE RUSSIAN END To conclude, a few words about the conditions under which our provisional student would stay in Moscow or elsewhere in Russia for a term or two, or the four-term period required for the MA. Most probably, s/he will have a double room sharing it with another international student at the University dorms in the quiet quarter in the centre of Moscow or elsewhere. The level of expenses differs from city to city, from university to university, and I will refer to the Russian State University for the Humanities in Moscow as a case study. S/he shall pay from 2 500 roubles per month, which is equivalent to 60 euro plus extra services like TV, phone, Internet, etc. amounting to 12 000 roubles p.m. (c. 280 euro). The current tuition fee for the MA course in Translation/Interpreting is 81 000 roubles (c. 1 800 Euro) per term, and it is subject to change at the beginning of a new academic year. Subsistence is not covered by the accommodation fees, and I would say that the average expenses in Moscow amount to 15000 roubles (c. 300 euros) p. m. Cf. to the tuition and fees as given at the RSUH website (http:// www.rsuh.ru): RSUH dormitory fees amount to 14,500 rubles a month (approx. $580) (1 room shared with a roommate, communal showers and toilets, 2 per floor). The price is subject to change. For on-campus students: 120,000 rubles a year (approx. $4,800), subject to change. For correspondence (in absentia) students: 90,000 rubles a year (approx. $3,600), subject to change. The figures may seem staggering, yet the advantages are worth pursuing: a two-year life-and-education experience in one of the most exciting parts of the globe, fine job and career prospects stemming from the high-quality education and the MA degree in foreign languages and Translation/Interpreting, Russian expertise included, invaluable personal and professional contacts, and so on. Remember W.H. Auden’s ‘to recapture the sense of language as experience, an adult has to visit a foreign country…’ Natalya Reinhold 335 REFERENCES Achkassov, A.V. “Perevod i gender: K postanovke problemy”, [Translation and gender: key issues] in Shestye Fedorovskie Chteniia: Universitetskoe perevodovedenie. Vypusk 6. [Fedorov Readings VI. University Translation Studies] St.-Petersburg: St.-Petersburg State University Press, 2005. pp. 39-46. Alekseev, Yurii “Razmyshleniia o rynke perevodcheskikh uslug.” [A Few remarks on the market of translation services] Mosty (2004:4) 58-60. Chuzhakin, A.P. Posledovatel’nyi perevod: praktika i teoriia. [Consecutive interpreting: Practice and theory] Moscow: R.Valent, 2005. Dictionary of Translation Studies. Ed. Mark Shuttleworth and Moira Cowie. Manchster, UK: St Jerome, 1999. Even-Zohar, Itamar (orig. 1978) “The Position of Translated Literature within the Literary Polysystem”, Poetics Today (1990:11.1) 45-51. Gasparov, M.L. Eksperimental’nye perevody. [Experimental translations] St. Petersburg: Giperion, 2003. 352 P. Gender: yazyk, kul’tura, kommunikatsiia. Materially tretjej mezhdunarodnoi konferentsii. [Gender: language, culture, communication. The Third International Conference Proceedings] Moscow: MGLU, 2003. Ivanov, Nikolai Viktorovich Symvolicheskaya funktsiia iazyka v aspektakh semiogeneza i semiozisa. [The symbolic function of language from the point of view of semiogenesis and semiosis] Avtoreferat doktorskoi dissertatsii [The doctoral thesis synopsis]. Moscow, 2002. -- Problemnye aspekty iazykovogo symvolizma. Opyt teoreticheskogo rassmotreniia. [The Problem Aspects of Language Symbolism: An Essay in Theory Analysis] Moscow: Voennyi Universitet, 2000. 269 P. -- “Smyslovaya funktsiia artiklia: Opyt logiko-filosofskogo analiza (na materiale portugal’skogo iazyka)” [The Semantic Function of the Article: An Essay in the Logical-cum-Semantic Analysis based on the Portuguese Language] in Voprosy iazykoznaniia, 1994:2, 97-104. Jakobson, Roman “On Linguistic Aspects of Translation”, in On Translation, Ed. Reuben Brower. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1959, repr. in The Translation Studies Reader. Ed. Lawrence Venuti. London and New York: Routledge, 2000, 113-199. Kalinin, I.V. Sovremennoye perevodovedenie Frantsii i Kanady (kontseptual’no-istoricheskoye issledovanie: Avtoreferat kandidatskoi dissertatsii. [The current Translation Studies in France and Canada: The study of the historical and theoretical background] Moscow, 1999. 336 , Foreign Languages, Interculturalism and Politics Kalinin, I.V. “Istoriia perevoda vo Frantsii i frankofonnoi Kanade”, [The history of translation in France and francophone Canada] in Tetradi perevodchika, 1999:24. Klimzo, B. “Problemy tekhnicheskogo perevoda”, [The problems of information text translation] Mosty (2004:4) 61-66. Komissarov, V.N. Sovremennoe perevodovedenie: Kurs lektsii. [Contemporary Translation Studies: A Course of lectures] Moscow: ETS, 2000. 187 P. Komissarov, V.N. Lingvisticheskoe perevodovedenie v Rossii. [Linguisticsoriented Translation Studies in Russia] Moscow: ETS, 2002. 181 P. Kunilovskaia, M.A. Obschchaia teoriia perevoda. [A General theory of translation] A Course Book. Tyumen’: Tyumen’ State University Press, 2006. 97 P. Makarova, L.S. Vvedenie v perevodovedenie. [Introduction to Translation Studies] Maikop: Adygei State University Press, 2002. 158 P. Mechkovskaya, N.B. Semiotika: Yazyk. Priroda. Kul’tura: kurs lektsii. [Semiotics: Language. Nature. Culture. A Course of lectures] Moscow: Academia, 2004. 428 P. Perevodovedenie i kul’turologiia: tseli, metody, resul’taty. [Translation Studies and Cultural Studies: The objectives, methods and results] A Collection of articles by the Academy of Sciences, The Institute of Language Studies. Moscow: B. i., 1987. 150 P. Polyutova, O.N. Kontseptual’no-istoricheskoye issledovanie perevodovedeniia v SSA: Avtoreferat kandidatskoi dissertatsii. [The Study of the historical and theoretical background of Translation Studies in the USA] Moscow, 1999. -- “K istorii perevodovedeniia v SSA”, [On the History of Translation Studies in the USA] in Aktual’nye problemy mezhkul’turnoi kommunikatsii. [Current issues of intercultural communication] Moscow: MSLU, 1999: 444. Reinhold, N. “Mapping the Parameters of Translation as Part of the Educational Landscape in Russia”, in Translationskultur – ein innovatives und produktives Konzept. Berlin: Frank&Timme, 2008: 295-305. Shadrin, V.I. Onomasiologiia proizvodnogo imeni v angliiskom iazyke. [The Onomasiology of the name derivative in the English language] St-Petersburg: St.-Petersburg State University Press, 1996. 144 P. -- Paradigmaticheskaia sistema nominativnykh sredstv angliiskogo iazyka: uchebnoe posobie. [The Paradigm system of the nominative means of the English language: A Course book] Leningrad: LGU, 1990. 79 P. Natalya Reinhold -- 337 “Kul’turologicheskie biotopy kak object perevodovedenia” [The Cultural biotopes as the object of Translation Studies] in Sed’mye Fedorovskie Chteniia: Universitetskoe perevodovedenie. Vypusk 7. [Fedorov Readings VII. 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[Translation and Translation Studies: Introductory course of lectures on inter-cultural communication] Krasnoyarsk: SibSTU, 2004. 40 P. THE ROLE OF “TURKISH CULTURE” IN THE SYLLABUS OF INTENSIVE LANGUAGE COURSES IN THE FRAME OF TURKISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE Eda Büyüknisan Bakiner, Celik Yazici Ilkay Çukurova University, Turkey 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 The Importance of Teaching Culture in ELT W HETHER CULTURE OF THE TARGET language is TO be incorporated into second language teaching has always been a concern of L2 teachers and educators. For example, during the first decades of the 20th century researchers discussed the importance and possibilities of including cultural components into L2 curriculum (Sysoyev & Donalson, 2002). Recent studies focus on the interwined relationship between L2 teaching and target culture teaching (Pulverness, 2003; Bada, 2000; McDevitt, 2004). The findings of these studies have emphasized that without study of culture, teaching L2 is inaccurate and incomplete. Genç and Bada (2005) state that for L2 students, language study seems senseless if they know nothing about the people who speak the target language of the country in which the target language is spoken. It has been pointed out that acquiring a new language means a lot more than the manipulation of syntax and lexicon. In other words, linguistic performance alone without cultural awareness does not warrant success in learning. According to Tomalin (2008), the importance of the teaching of culture in ELT needs to be rethought and culture should be treated as a 5th language skill. In her study, Mondashka (2000) states that the students who were actively involved into the culture of the target language in the classroom developed intercultural competence and ability to successfully communicate a foreign – cultural environment, which can be categorized as the direct influence of teaching culture. 1.2 The Importance of Culture in EILC EILC (Erasmus Intensive Language Course) is a part of the student and teacher exchange programs in the frame of Erasmus, Socrates. These courses are specialized language courses in less widely used and less taught languages organized in the countries where these languages are spoken. They provide incoming European students and teachers the Bakiner Eda Buyuknisan, Celik Yazici Ilkay 339 chance to participate in language courses separated into different levels. However, learners are expected to learn a foreign language in a very limited period such as 80 course hours within a four week program. Since 2004 Turkey is successfully active in the Socrates Erasmus exchange program with Çukurova University being one of the universities to provide EILC Turkish courses for different levels since 2006. Teaching culture in EILC is important as Erasmus students will stay and live for a period of time in the country where the language they are learning is spoken. Alongside linguistic knowledge, students should also familiarize themselves with various forms of non – verbal communication, such as gesture and facial expressions, typical in the target culture. Culture teaching allows Erasmus students to increase their knowledge of the target culture in terms of people’s way of life, values, attitudes and beliefs. 2. AIM OF THE STUDY It is a fact that culture has always been an important factor in foreign language teaching and learning. Language teachers and researchers will approve that keeping students interested in the classes is one of the most demanding side in language teaching. At this point, ‘culture’ and ‘cultural aspects’ of the target language are a supporting aid both for the teacher and the learner. The main problem, however, lies in the fact that integrating cultural components of the target language seem to be too time consuming and thus, come too short in the learning program and in some institutes do not even appear in the syllabus of language classes. The aim of this study is to point out the importance of culture in language classes, especially in language classrooms where the culture of the target language shows basic differences from the native language or previously acquired languages of the students. We believe that cultural aspects do play a crucial role in the language development of tertiary students. The present study aims to put light on the issue of Turkish culture in Turkish foreign language classes in Turkey. Furthermore, Çukurova University in Adana has been involved in the Erasmus student and teacher exchange programs for many years and has been successfully participating in the program of Erasmus Intensive Language Courses (EILC). These intensive language courses give exchange students from different European countries the opportunity to learn a new language and a new culture. We support the view that culture is closely related to language and thus, language teaching and learning. Moreover, based on the outcome of the data collected in the present study, we suggest integrating ‘Turkish Culture’ as a separate, compulsory lesson in the EILC syllabus, both for elementary and intermediate classes. 340 , Foreign Languages, Interculturalism and Politics 3. METHODOLOGY Eleven adult European learners of Turkish L2 between the ages 22 and 30 took actively part in this study. The gender of the students participated is not a variable and does not play any role in this study. The students were at intermediate level grouped according to the Turkish placement test which was prepared by YADYO (Institute of Foreign Languages). They were supposed to take this test at the beginning of the four week program. 9 of the 11 students were German native speakers and the two others were Hungarian and Dutch with English being a second language for all of them. All the students were involved in a 15 + 5 hours per week Turkish language program. 15 hours consisted only of pure Turkish language classes covering the basic language skills listening, speaking, reading, writing and grammar with the support of various different teaching aids such as power point presentations, songs, data shows, language laboratory activities and the course book prepared by the instructors of the Turkish Unit of YADYO. In addition, extra course materials, worksheets and handouts prepared by the two course instructors of the intermediate group were distributed. The other 5 hours per week were organized in order to provide students a more practical and authentic Turkish course session such as a “Turkish coffee afternoon”, a “Turkish breakfast morning”, a “Turkish cuisine day” or a “Turkish film session” where students had the chance to practice speaking Turkish. All in all, the students were enrolled in a total of 80 Turkish course hours within a four – week period. The data of the study was obtained mainly from a questionnaire on culture and cultural components in the syllabus of EILC Turkish intermediate classes (see Appendix) and an interview session where the same students were expected to reflect on the role of culture in their language classroom. The questionnaire consisted of a total of 10 questions whereof 5 required a yes/no answer and 4 were wh-questions requiring explanations. One question was a multiple choice question giving to optional answers. It is to consider that the participants were free in writing additional information regarding their thoughts and opinions to each question. In addition, an interview with some volunteer participants was made in order to collect more individual opinions related to the course syllabus and the course design based on the integration of ‘Turkish Culture’ in the EILC program. Bakiner Eda Buyuknisan, Celik Yazici Ilkay 341 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Based on the general outcome of this study, it can be stated that cultural components presented in the Turkish book of the intermediate EILC Turkish language students is valued positively, but at the same time definitely insufficient in amount. Furthermore, the activities, worksheets, multimedia learning and teaching aids and workshops were all approved by the students. However, the statics showed here again that the amount of these activities was found insufficient. All ten questions were analyzed and interpreted as presented below. Question 1 asks whether ‘Turkish Culture’ is important in Turkish language learning. Ten of eleven participants gave positive replies pointing out that culture is closely related to language learning. To exemplify some responds of the participants, they believe that every language expresses itself through cultural specialties. They state that ‘‘Turkish Culture’ helps understanding daily expressions a lot.’ Others say that ‘it helps to make classes more interesting’ which shows that ‘cultural components’ in the language classroom are a kind of motivation for the learners. To the second question asking if ‘Turkish Culture’ is useful in Turkish language learning, all eleven participants agreed in the answer ‘yes’. Question number 3 is related to the first two questions of the questionnaire asking for an explanation to why ‘culture’ is useful and important. The responds of the students were quite interesting and different from each other. Some statements are as following: ‘because the way we use language has always impacts from our culture’, ‘learning Turkish combined with culture helps a lot for remembering and understanding’, ‘because language is connected to culture’, ‘it can help to understand the way of thinking in the language’, ‘it makes the classes more interesting’, ‘it can help to lighten up some tiring grammar’, ‘because for me language and culture belongs together, and maybe you understand some expressions better’, ‘cause I will be able to connect better with the people living in Turkey’, ‘culture is part of language, no matter where you are’, ‘as every language expresses itself through cultural specialties, learning ‘Turkish Culture’ helps understanding daily expressions a lot’. The next question (Question 4) measures if the participants think that the ‘cultural components’ in their Turkish Book II are sufficient. 8 of the 11 participants answered with ‘no’, whereas two said ‘yes’ and one was ‘not sure’. Question 5 asks if the students find the cultural components integrated in the lessons sufficient. 6 students said ‘yes’, whereas 4 found them sufficient and one students was ‘not sure’. To Question 6 asking if the presentations and assignments that the students and the teacher prepared during the four – weeks period 342 , Foreign Languages, Interculturalism and Politics teach them anything about ‘Turkish Culture’ all eleven students gave the same positive answer ‘yes’. The next question (Question 7) measures if the students think that the information students’ gained about ‘Turkish Culture’ is enough to be able to understand Turkish people and their lifestyle. Ten of eleven students said definitely ‘no’, whereas one student was ‘not sure’. To question 8 asking what people think about the idea of a separate ‘Turkish Culture’ lesson within the Turkish course program, 9 students gave positive replies and two students stated that it was not necessary. The next question (Question 9) asks students about their expectations related to the content of a ‘Turkish Culture’ class for EILC. The participants wrote many different ideas on the content of a ‘Turkish Culture’ class. Some outstanding replies are stated below: ‘it should be one step above the basic course’, ‘songs, films, cooking, dancing, magazines, conversations would be nice’, ‘song translations should be made’, ‘daily live, politics, history, human interaction can be covered’, ‘info and activities are important’, ‘behaviors, traditions, social and political problems should be taught’, ‘some activities can be made outside the classroom-school: for example visiting Turkish families’. As can be seen, the participants agree in that many different cultural topics can be and should be covered in the intensive language program. Some of the issues exemplified by the students above were already presented partially in the Turkish lessons, but generally the time was too limited to talk about these topics in detail and present authentic visual material. Finally, the last question of the questionnaire asks in what language this separate ‘Turkish Culture’ lesson should be taught. Nine of eleven participants were in favor of ‘Turkish’, whereas two students would prefer the ‘English’ language. As can be interpreted from the outcome of the study, the striking majority of the students involved in this study are aware of the importance of integrating culture in language teaching. They support all activities and extra teachings related to Turkish culture done both in the classroom and outside the classroom, and find the cultural components in the book itself insufficient. Surprisingly however, most of the students are in favor of culture lessons taught in the target language, although generally students prefer explanations of that kind in a language they comprehend better. Whether in Turkish or English, the idea of a separate ‘Turkish Culture’ lesson integrated in the syllabus of the EILC program sounds quite promising, taking the rapid increase in the request of participation in exchange programs into consideration. Bakiner Eda Buyuknisan, Celik Yazici Ilkay 343 5. CONCLUSION The findings of this study indicate that culture should be treated as an additional subject in the syllabus of Turkish courses in the frame of EILC. If students are equipped with the elements of the culture of the target language they are supposed to learn in a limited time, they will be more motivated to learn and teaching L2 will be more successful. In other words, linguistic performance with cultural awareness does guarantee success in learning. Regarding the answers of the students, the results of the questionnaire suggest that the students have a positive attitude towards cultural aspects and learning them as a separate course. REFERENCES Bada, E. (2000) “Culture in ELT. Çukurova University”, Journal of Social Sciences (6), 100-110. Genc, B. & Bada, E. (2005) “Culture in language learning and teaching”, The Reading Matrix, vol. 5, no. 1. Mondashka, V., Ivanova, S. (2000) “The Cultural Syllabus and its Effect on the Englısh Language Teaching Profession in the Town of Shoumen”, online documents at URL http://www.beta-iatefl.org/ pages/publications/Stara_Zagora/Stasy.doc McDevitt, B. (2004) “Negotiating the Syllabus: A Win - Win Syllabus”, ELT Journal 58(1), 3-9. Pulverness, A. (2003) “Distinctions and Dichotomies: Culture - free, Culture - bound”, online documents at URL http://elt.britcoun.org. pll//forum/distanddich.htm Sysoyev, P.V. & Donelson, L.R. 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(2008) Art, médiation et interculturalité, Nancy: Presses Universitaires. Thiéblemont-Dollet, S. (2000) L’interculturalité dans tous ses états, Nancy: Presses Universitaires. 361 Volcy, M.-Y. et al. (1992), Mini trousse L’Éducation interculturelle, Dossier d’information, Québec, Montréal: Centre d’éducation interculturelle et de compréhension internationale. / , . (2007) « , . ( 2005-2006, , , : . (2006) « , », , , : , : . & -. , − », − .) : , , . 143-152. , .( .) , . 7-15. . (2007) « , », : , .( , 2005-2006, .) , , . 219-235. , . (2007) « , : , - : », : , . ( , 2005-2006, .) − - , , : , . 109-116. Mangiante, J.-M. (2008) «Des référentiels de compétences en français à visée professionnelle: des outils pour concevoir des formations pour publics spécifiques» : Bertrand, O. et Schaffner, I., Le français de spécialité−enjeux culturels et linguistiques, Paris: éd. de l’École Polytechnique, . 84-88. , . (2006) « », : , .( .) , : - . , . 87-90. , . 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( 10/09/2009) 363 www.canaltheatre.com: http://depts.uop.gr/departments/depart14/spoudes.shtml: / http://www.festival-automne.com: http://www.festival-avignon.com: vignon http://www.festival-aix.com: en-Provence http://www.festivaldanjou.com: Anjou http://www.festivaldemarseille.com: http://www.lesfrancophonies.com/index.html. Limoges. Aix- THE ALBANIAN LANGUAGE S SECOND LANGUAGE N HE GREEK MINORITY AREAS Edlira Mantho University of “Eqrem Çabej”, Albania 1. A GENERAL OVERVIEW OF THE SITUATION OF THE BILINGUALISM IN THE GREEK MINORITY B ILINGUALISM IS A WIDESPREAD PHENOMENON discussed by many sociologists and psycholinguists, both regional and international.1 This phenomenon is related to the “simultaneous and competing use of two languages in the same geographical, economic, or political area.”2 (Shkurtaj, 1999: 173) For centuries due to their geographical proximity, the Greek and Albanian people have always been on good terms.3 The linguist Eqrem Çabej emphasises:4 “The coexistence of some 1 We mention the Albanian scholars: Gjovalin Shkurtaj: “Sociolinguistics”, Tiranë, 1999; Gjovalin Shkurtaj & Enver Hysa: “The Albanian language for the foreigners and Albanians outside their country”, Tiranë, 2001; Vasil Bici: “Issues of bilingualism in the minority schools”, Tiranë, 2001; Rami Memushaj: “A look at the bilingualism in Albania” in “Albanological studies”, No. 4, 1997; Dhori Qiriazi: “Bilingualism and the relation of the Albanian language with the Greek one”, in the work: “Eqrem Çabej and Albanian culture”, Tiranë, 2004, page 303-325; Bahri Beci & Merita Bruci: “Learning Albanian in a short period of time”- (with CD), Tiranë, 2007. From the foreigners we single out: Uriel Weinreich: “Languages in Contact, Finding and Problems”, New York, 1953; Charles Ferguson: “Diglosia”, in “Word”, 15, 1959; Francois Grosjean: “Life with two languages: An Introduction to Bilingualism”, Harvard, 1982. 2 Gjovalin Shkurtaj: “Sociolinguistics”, Tiranë, 1999, page 173. 3 The traces of this relationship are expressed clearly by the language reality (langue), in which we notice common phenomena which are quite a few. We mention phenomena such as: the formation of the future tense through the help of the verb “to want” in rigid form; the disappearance of the gerund and its substitution with the subjunctive; the reinstatement of the objects through the unaccented forms of the personal pronouns. For more information refer to: Shaban Demiraj: “Balkan Linguistics”, Shkup, 1994, page 55-66. 4 Eqrem Çabej (1908 - 1980) – illustrious Albanian figure of science and culture and one of the most renowned linguist. We mention the main works: “Introduction to the history of the Albanian language”, Tiranë, 1958; “Historical phonology of Edlira Mantho 365 peoples in a relatively narrow space has made linguistic exchange more intensive. The linguistic nimbleness, especially of the inhabitants of the border regions, led to the use of the mother tongue inside the house, (“lingua del cuore” of Schuchard), and of the other language, outside, in the market (“lingua del pane”), thus giving rise to bilingualism.”5 Çabej, 1973: 99) Bilingualism, or in other words, the instance of diglottism is evident among the ethnic Greek minority in the Southern Albania.6 We assert that the Greek-Albanian bilingualism is of a special kind. According to Gjovalin Shkurtaj: “The status of the Greek and the Albanian languages in the Greek minority is equal. Both of them are equally known and equally accepted and appreciated.”7 (Shkurtaj, 1999: 195) This situation has made possible the equal status of both languages, thereby not generating any linguistic clash. This has been made possible thanks to the education policy of the Albanian government regarding these minorities, a policy which has always been and continues to be prudent, thus making it possible on the one hand to respect the right to educate in the mother tongue, to preserve and cultivate the customs and usages of the respective entity, and on the other hand to watch closely the development and the necessary and adequate acquisition of the Albanian language as an official language. Needless to say, learning the Albanian language occurs as a process, as the minority pupil begins school as a monolingual. In the first half of the first year he has no contact with the Albanian language. Even the school environment, which exerts its influence upon him, is almost totally monolingual. Since the second semester of the first year up to Albanian”, Tiranë, 1968; “Etymological studies in the field of Albanian”, Tiranë, 1976, 1999; “Linguistic studies”, Prishtinë, 1986-1989. 5 Eqrem Çabej: “The Albanian language and the neighbouring ones”, in “Philological studies”, No. 4, Tiranë, 1973, page 99. 6 According to Vasil Bici: “The greek minority is found in some villages in the districts: Gjirokastër, Delvinë, Sarandë and in two villages of the district of Përmet” in “Issues of bilingualism in the minority schools”, Tiranë, 2001, page 6. Whereas the author Dhori Qiriazi emphasises: “Greek-speaking people are found in the regions of Delvina, Saranda and Gjirokastra, and in some villages of Himara.” Refering to N. Sotirit who emphasises that: “In the region of Himara the Albanian-speaking inhabitants live among the Albanian and Greek-speaking inhabitans and vice versa.” (The vernacular of toponymy of Qeparo: The Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Albania, Institute of Language and Literature, Tiranë, 2001), the author Qiriazi explains that “The linguistic situation in the region of Himara has not been studied yet, because is and apparently will continue to be considered as a taboo”: quoted work, page 311. 7 Gjovalin Shkurtaj: “Sociolinguistics”, Tiranë, 1999, page 195. 366 , Foreign Languages, Interculturalism and Politics the final grade of elementary school, in which other than the Albanian language subject no other subject is taught in Albanian, for the minority pupil, the instruction of the Albanian language is felt as that of a foreign language. In elementary school, during the Albanian language classes, precedence is given to speaking skills. “Speaking is necessary to have a language: historically the speech faculty always precedes”8 (Saussure, 2002: 46) - says the linguist Saussure. Speaking makes it possible for a language to develop, but on the other hand it must be well combined with the other necessary skills of reading and writing. All these are systematised and included in the special texts compiled for the pupils of primary school and junior high school (which include 6th, 7th, 8th and 9th grades) of the Greek minority areas, where in the junior high school textbooks is clearly noticed the equalisation of the two languages (Greek and Albanian) and for the sake of truth, this transition from one education segment to the other carries a lot of difficulties.9 In the junior high school things proceed more quickly. Now, the Albanian language is no longer seen as a foreign language. The student has to learn more than half of the subjects in the Albanian language. Now the textbooks and their programs are compiled in such a manner so that he learns Albanian not only as a second language, but also as an official language, necessary for the progress of his further education in the high school10 and then at university. It goes without saying that the course he must follow will be quite difficult, because if until yesterday the sociolinguistic environment facilitated and helped him in the process of acquiring the 8 Ferdinand de Saussure: “Course in general linguistics”, Tiranë, 2002, page 46. 9 We would like to clarify here that (based on the selection of textbooks made by the teacher at the primary school ) are utilised either “The Albanian language” 1, 2, 3, 4 with authors: Mimoza Gjokutaj & Natasha Pepivani & Vasil Bici, Tiranë, 1995-1999. Each book is accompanied by a “Teacher’s book” or: “Speaking” – for the first grade, second semester, a textbook printed in Greece; “ABC book –letter by letter”– for the second grade with authors Mimoza Gjokutaj, Çano & Shezai Rrokaj; “The Albanian language” 3, 4, 5 – for the grades III, IV, V with authors: Rita Petro & Natasha Pepivani, ALBAS, 2006 (first edition); “The Albanian language” 6, 7, 8, 9 – for the grades: VI, VII, VIII, IX with authors: Rita Petro, Idriz Metani, Adelina Çerpja; ALBAS, 2007 (first edition). 10 At this point we clarify that the textbooks utilised by these individuals are the same as those utilised by their contemporaries in the public high schools of Albania and concretely: “Literature and the Albanian language” – for the grades X, XI, XII with authors: Enver Hysa & Gjovalin Shkurtaj & Idriz Metani & Xhevat Lloshi & Mimoza Gjokutaj, 2003; Enver Hysa & Adriatik Kallulli & Idriz Metani & Musa Vyshka & Jorgji Doksani, 2008. Edlira Mantho 367 Albanian language, now he is obliged either to attend classes in high schools outside his area or to accept remaining in the same environment, to the detriment of his education due to the difficulties encountered by the teaching staff in regard to the Albanian language.11 Consequently, the bilingual individual confronts the following situation: the Albanian language seen initially as a foreign language then as a second language and later on as an official language. This process, means discovering alternate perception capabilities and undertaking a long internalisation process to build unconsciously alongside the initial perceptions of the mother tongue, other perceptions, under the creative influence of the inherent automatic linguistic patterns of the foreign language, as are felt in the first language. In this way, the bilingual individual has to train to create a relationship between the two linguistic systems, or to lay the foundation of another system of linguistic forms, namely of a system which is not homogeneous with that of the mother tongue. The combination of these two systems and their adaptation in various situations of discourse is achieved with difficulty by the bilingual individual, which results in communicative uncertainty and disfluency for him. So, a minority child, who has finished high school, faces another reality. Now a question is raised: is the minority child capable of dealing with the teaching load given to him at the university, in the same way as his counterpart, at a time when the latter one, has Albanian as his mother tongue? Let us analyse this. 2. THE BILINGUAL INDIVIDUAL AT THE UNIVERSITY. THE MINORITY INDIVIDUAL FACING THE ALBANIAN LANGUAGE Before answering the question mentioned above, I would like to analyse concretely the general linguistic picture of a bilingual individual. Proceeding from my several year long personal experiences with students in the branches of foreign languages at the University of “Eqrem Çabej” and more concretely those of the English, Italian and Greek branches, I would like to single out those of the Greek branch. (We stress here that the Albanian language is an obligatory basic subject over the course of the four years at university in the previously mentioned branches). This is so because the subject “Linguistic formation” (the first and the 11 Here we clarify that the same teaching personnel predominant in the minority areas also teach in the surrounding areas. For detailed information related to this refer to: Shefqet Shehu – Mimoza Çarka – Edlira Mantho: “Information packet in the pre-university education of Gjirokastra 2002-2003”, Gjirokastër, 2003. 368 , Foreign Languages, Interculturalism and Politics second part of the Albanian Grammar: Morphology – Syntax), taken in the first year in the three branches, over an entire academic year (semester 1 + semester 2) is the same and has the same teaching load, namely: 30 lecture classes/30seminar classes, so at a ratio of 2/2. (Only this academic year (2009-2010) the teaching load at the English and Italian branches is at a ration: 1/1.5, that means: 15 lecture classes/23 seminar classes). This means that the level of difficulty in absorbing the lessons is much higher for the bilingual students of the Greek branch, for whom Albanian is a second language, than for the bilingual students of the English and Italian branches, for whom Albanian is the mother tongue. The linguistic competence is significantly different on both sides and this result in a problematic complex situation due to the variety of mental operations to be carried out. In this way we can say that the development of the linguistic abilities depends first of all on the degree of the internalisation of the process of information processing, processing which “implies the absorption of a certain amount of information, its analysis, interpretation, and revision, in the light of the existing information and the integration of both of them.”12 (Rapi, 2007: 70) On the other hand, the knowledge acquired during class is not abstract, isolated from human experiences or the respective subjects, but rather is based on human interactions, engagements and responsibilities they have during their activities. These events or real life situations become concrete during every aspect of teaching. Everything seems normal and easily obtainable when working with the students whose mother tongue is Albanian, but the situation is quite different with the students of the Greek branch, who are characterised not only by a difficulty in the speaking, but by more serious deficits in the writing of the Albanian language. The bilingual difficulties are evident when the students address me quite often in Greek to ask me about things related to the content of the textbooks13 they utilise, which they find hard to perceive on their own. I have made it my mission to facilitate the difficult situation in which they find themselves, that is why I try to summarise and at times illustrate the information given, in their mother tongue, Greek. I emphasise the word summarise. But this is certainly not the main goal of the work assigned to me. One of the goals of the subject, “Linguistic formation”, is to enable the student 12 Leonard Rapi: “Psychological aspects of the development of abilities in foreign languages” in “University research”, No.16, 2007, page 70. 13 At this point I want to emphasize the cooperative work of my colleagues in the department of Albanian language, in the compilation of textbooks adapted to the level of the students of the branches of foreign languages in general. Edlira Mantho 369 to speak and write, and therefore to use the linguistic forms of the Albanian language, including the inflected and uninflected parts of speech, in the same way he uses them in the mother tongue (Greek). But as we mentioned above, it is not so easy for this process to have the desired effect. The scholar Gjovalin Shkurtaj emphasises: “The bilingual individual is under the illusion of being able to think in both languages, but in reality, he does not think in any of them, his thought is not embodied with pleasure, in speaking; he exhibits a speculative linguistic lack, which is the cause of his stuttter.”14 (Shkurtaj, 1999: 70). To this difficulty is added the issue of the ratio of teaching load, a ratio which is the same as that of the students of the English and Italian branches. To tell the truth, this fact gives rise to a hidden wall, this wall on the one hand inhibits them from expressing themselves clearly and fluently in Albanian, in the same way as they express themselves in their mother tongue (lingua del cuore) and on the other hand, there exits the danger of fragmented learning. This is the reality! 3. THE DIFFICULTIES FACED BY THE STUDENTS OF THE GREEK BRANCH IN THE SUBJECT “LINGUISTIC FORMATION 1” (MORPHOLOGY OF THE ALBANIAN LANGUAGE) During classes I have noticed that difficulties are related to all the linguistic branches: phonetics, lexicology, grammar. Concretely: 3.1 Difficulties in the phonetic system — They use the phoneme i instead of y: ngjirë – ngjyrë, (colour); birek – byrek, (pie); mik – myk, (mould found in bread); vishket – vyshket, (to wilt); thiej – thyej, (to break) etc. — They eliminate the phoneme ë by substituting it with e (because the Greek language does not have it): eshtë – është, (to be); mesoj – mësoj, (to learn); endërroj – ëndërroj, (to dream); ben – bën, (to do); berzollë – bërzollë (chop) etc. — They do not use almost at all the hard consonat rr: ruga – rruga, (street); rip – rrip, (belt); ritem – rritem, (to grow up); rush – rrush, (grape); thëras – thërras, (to call) etc. — They encounter difficulties also in writing and pronouncing some diagraphs, ll, sh, xh, ect., as in: logari – llogari, (account); loj – lloj, (sort); soqe – shoqe, (friend); sqiptar – shqiptar, (albanian); spatë – shpatë, (sword); xam – xham (glass) etc. 14 Gjovalin Shkurtaj: “Sociolinguistics”, Tiranë, 1999, page 178. 370 , Foreign Languages, Interculturalism and Politics 3.2.a. Difficulties in the morphological system — They use incorrectly the definite plural number of the nouns in the feminine gender in the nominative case, which in the indefinite form end with stressed i, so they use shtepi-j-at, (the houses); qershi-j-at, (the cherries); lajthi-j-at (hazelnuts) as opposed to the: shtëpi-të, qershi-të, lajthi-të etc. — They use incorrectly the majority of the nouns only in the definite form, and at the same time they accompany it with a proclitic, so they say: nji djali, (a boy); nji vajze (a girl); nji shoku (a friend) etc, instead of: një djalë, një vajzë, një shok etc. — They use incorrectly the personal pronouns: una for unë, (I); aj for ai and they employ clitic doubling, especially the contracted form of the third person plural instead of the second person plural, so they use: U lutem uluni and not Ju lutem uluni (Please have a sit); Juve u vjen mirë të na dëgjoni instead of Juve ju vjen mirë të na dëgjoni. (You enjoy listening to us). — They use incorrectly the possessive pronouns even accompanied with a proclitic. So they use: fëmija i ime for fëmija im, (my child); populli (i) jonë for populli ynë, (our people); atdheu (i) jonë for atdheu ynë (our country) etc. — Especially difficult is the use of tenses and the moods of verbs, mainly the so-called irregular verbs such as: jap-dhashë-dhënë; (to give-gave-given); dal-dola-dalë, (to go out-went out-gone out); vijerdha-ardhur (to come-came-come) etc, following incorrectly the model of the analogy of regular verbs and as a result produce: — jap: do të ipja for do të jepja (would give); dal: duall for doli (go out); vikam for ardhkam (to come) etc. 3.2.b. In syntactic system, which is the highest structural level of language, things are more complicated. Here we see a code switch,15 (Bici, 2001: 73) so the structuring of sentences is generally done under the influence of their mother tongue, the Greek language. Concretely, we see the inversion of the order noun + adjective, an order which is fixed in the Albanian language, so they say e bukura vajzë (the beautiful girl), instead of vajzë e bukur (the girl beautiful); i vështirë mësim (a difficult lesson) and not mësim i vështirë (a lesson difficult) (n.b.: in Albanian the adjective follows the noun. The inversion of order is also found in Albanian, but in Albanian it is used only to produce a stylistic effect, whereas in Greek it is common). 15 Vasil Bici: “Issues of bilingualism in the minority schools”, Tiranë, 2001, page 73. Edlira Mantho 371 3.3. Whereas in lexical system the difficulties can even give rise to misunderstandings, leading to the mixing of words in both languages: Albanian and Greek. The student – this bilingual individual, being in front of alternative to choose one of the two languages, choses the one which he finds more expressive, more characteristic for the given situation, but also the language which he thinks he masters better. So, at this moment takes place what Andre Martinet says: “The individual would be forced to choose, to syncretize, to dualize; he will finally internalize a system of clear contradictions which he will use actively.”16 (Martinet, 2002: 130). Consequently, these bilingual students find it easier to express their thoughts by using more words of the mother tounge, than of the Albanian language. When the minority student can’t find the Albanian word, he spontaneously has recourse to the Greek word, although this is not such a simple process. According to Jakobson: “Code-switching during communication of bilingual individuals is something more than a spontaneous phenomenon, encountered sometimes in the one language, and sometimes in the other; it surfaces as a structured mechanism of selection of two or more languages employed to construct the sentence.”17 (Qiriazi, 2004: 322) As to the above, the bilingual individual makes all this selection to carry out the communicative function of the language, simply to communicate with the others. That’s why quite often are heard such contructions as: “ jam studenti klasa. (I am a student of the forth grade.) Ti je jonë; (You are our teacher.) Sa bukur ! (How beautiful you are dressed today!) etc. As to what was mentioned above, we notice a high level of difficulty faced by these students in speaking and writing the Albanian language. I have to emphasize the difficult task I continuously encounter with these students, the integration of whom is not as easy as the integration of the Albanian students of the Italian and English branches, working with whom is a lot easier. During a free chat I had at the close of the last academic year (20082009) with the first year students, of the Greek branch, after asking them how difficult Albanian is and how accomodating I have been in helping them during classes, the forms of their answers were almost related to the degree to which the professor is helpfull or not when conveying the information. 16 Andre Martinet: “Elements of general linguistics”, Tiranë, 2002, page 130. Rodolfo Jakobson: “Codeswitching Worldwide” – Trends in Linguistics. Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin – New Jork 1998, page. 1 in the work of Dhori Qiriazit, quoted work, page 322. 17 372 , Foreign Languages, Interculturalism and Politics Here are some of the responses: The student Nikollaq Çakuli: “I have noticed that the subjects I study more are those with whose professors I get along with very well, and are the subjects, whose seminars I like the most. I say this because the professors may also alienate the student from the subject, and some of them do not even care about the student and about what they say…If the professors have the right enthusiasm, then it is very easy to win over the students. For example, there is a subject I like and I study with pleasure, despite the fact that it presents many difficulties for me. This is because I have a special professor who is so enthusiastic, who transmits to us a part of his enthusiasm for the subject.” The student Maria Thimjo: “I am sorry to tell you, but when you translate into Greek what you say in Albanian, the work for me is easier.” The student Andromaqi Jovani: “I like the Albanian language, I understand everything that I hear, but it is very difficult for me to express myself without making mistakes, I would like to master it the way I do the Greek language.” As seen from their answers, more important than the subject itself is the method the professor uses during the teaching process. 4. CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS From what we saw above, we noticed that the teaching of the Albanian language in the Greek branch poses many difficulties for them in the acquisition of the required knowledge. 1. The minority students are not expected to master perfectly the knowledge and technical nuances, but should be able to combine and use different ideas in practice. To achieve this goal, attention should be focused not only on the inculcation of grammatical rules, but also on the successful integration of communication in the foreign language. So, Albanian considered as a second language by the minority students, should not be treated merely as a set of grammatical rules, in its morph syntactic aspects, but other skills like active speaking should be taken into consideration. In this way the student will be able to adhere to the conventions of grammar and lexicon (in terms of morphology and syntax) of the Albanian language, not only within the framework of an academic program, but at the same time beyond this framework in all everyday life situations as well. 2. Another factor which inhibits the normal internalisation of the Albanian language as a second language, is the issue of the compiled Edlira Mantho 3. 4. 373 programmes, which are the same for the students whose mother tongue is Albanian (students of the English and Italian branch), as for those who speak Albanian as their second language (students of the Greek branch). In our opinion, the thing that would facilitate the teaching of the Albanian language in the Greek branch is the compilation of special textbooks, particularly adapted for the minorities. The professors of the Albanian language department are about to start a concrete project, a course which will be open to all who consider Albanian as a foreign language, entitled “Learning the Albanian language.” This course will be structured in three levels: I-Beginner, II-Intermediate, III-Advanced. This course, as an introduction to the new three year cycle of the Department of Albanian language and literature, is also a part of the program of continuing education, as a form of lifelong learning. This program aims to give the basics of reading and speaking standard Albanian not only to those whose mother tongue is Albanian, but did not have the possibility to study it at the university level, but also to all of those for whom Albanian is not their mother tongue, but want to learn it. Another factor which negatively affects the progress and the acquisition of the Albanian language as a foreign language by the students of the Greek branch is the lack of weekly hours spent on courses. The students not only need to learn theoretically a certain subject in the Albanian language, but also need to practice, that is why the practice classes, either in speaking or writing, two important components of learning a language, should be alloted more time. Concretely in the Greek branch it would be beneficial to increase the amount of weekly course hours of the Albanian language, making possible the change from the ratio of 2/2 to that of 2/3. Finally, another factor which affects the teaching of the Albanian language to the students of the Greek branch is the way in which the professor conveys the information during class, or in other words, how motivating he is in the eyes of the students. A dry transmission of information stripped of any connection with the practical situation of life would result in a monotonous and boring class. On the contrary, if the actual information of the textbook is supplemented with: cds, DVDs, cassette players, video cameras, projectors etc., all these enable the students to: 374 , Foreign Languages, Interculturalism and Politics practice the foreign language in different contexts and situations, avoiding boredom and repetition — encourage interactive learning, creative and independent work. A good professor should always search for new methods to create such environments that encourage the desire to learn. Often we have to give the opportunity to our students to discuss and exchange opinions and ideas, because in this way we improve academically, and the other element of this communication system, namely the student himself, learns more and becomes more independent in his way of reasoning. And this is actually the key to achieving success in the teaching of a foreign language, and not only: Stimulate students to love the foreign language and not resent it. — REFERENCES Bici, V. (2001) Issues of bilingualism in the minority schools, Tiranë. Çabej, E. (1973) “The Albanian language and the neighbouring languages” in Philosophical studies, Tiranë, no. 4, p. 99. Demiraj, Sh. (1994) Balkan linguistics, Shkup, pp. 55-66. Gjokutaj, M. & Pepivani, N. & Bici, V. (1995-1999) The Albanian Language, no. 1, 2, 3, 4, Tiranë. Martinet, A. (2002) Elements of general linguistics, Tiranë, p. 130. Memushaj, R. (1997) “A look at bilingualism in Albania”, in Albanological studies, no. 4. Qiriazi, Dh. (2004) “Bilingualism and the relation of the Albanian language with the Greek one”, in the work: Eqrem Çabej and Albanian culture, Tiranë, pp. 303-325. Rapi, N. (2007) “Psychological aspects of the development of abilities in foreign languages” in University research, no. 16, p. 70. Saussure, de F. (2002) Course in General Linguistics, Tiranë, p. 46. Shehu, Sh. & Çarka, M. & Mantho, E. (2003) Information packet in the pre-university education of Gjirokastra 2002-2003, Gjirokastër. Shkurtaj, Gj. (1999) Sociolinguistics, Tiranë. Shkurtaj, Gj. & Hysa, E. (2001) The Albanian language for foreigners and Albanians outside the country, Tiranë. LANGUAGE DISCOURSES AT THE HEART OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION Blerta Xheko University of “Eqrem Çabej”, Albania 1. INTRODUCTION C ONTEMPORARY RESEARCHERS HAVE documented the positive impact that bilingualism has on the early childhood years, the importance of the development of minority children’s first language during the early childhood years as well as the negative consequences that often result from language assimilation. Many minority language communities are likely, within a generation, to have no young adult speakers of the heritage languages. Research held in the area of language loss has focused on how language decisions in the home are negotiated between parents and children,the effects that parents ’educational and socioeconomic backgrounds have on language decisions,1 (Tuominen, 1999) the linguistic practices associated with bilingual intermarried couples2 (Okita 2002, Piller, 2002) and language loss through life histories3 (Kouritzien, 1999). Research in the area of first and second language in the early years has been focused on parental intentions, language use, and the consequences of losing the mother tongue. Studies have been concentrated on the effects that childcare institutions or schools have on families intentions to maintain their home languages. This paper addresses some of the discourses that shape immigrant parents and early childhood educators’ views of language maintenance among young children in immigrant families. We use the term discourses to refer to a ‘relatively well-bounded area of social knowledge’ that both constrains and enables how we think and talk about a particular social object or practice. From this perspective, discourses 1 Tuominen,1999 Language and Linguistics Compass Volume 2, Issue 5, Article first published online: 30 JUL 2008 2 Okita, T. (2002) Invisible Work: Bilingualism, Language Choice and Childrearing in Intermarried Families. Amsterdam: Benjamins. Piller, Ingrid (2002) Bilingual Couples Talk: The Discursive Construction of Hybridity. Benjamins, ISBN 1-58811-287-X. 3 Kouritzin, S. 1999. Face[t]s of first language loss. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 376 , Foreign Languages, Interculturalism and Politics are not passive bodies of knowledge; neither are they immutable. Rather they assume different forms depending on historical circumstances. Discourses function in association with power relations in that they are both integral and constitutive of the social relations they describe and in which they are produced. That’s why we are trying to understand the influence of discourses on the development of language in young children in immigrant families. The paper addresses the following questions: 1. What discourses shape immigrant parents’ views of their children’s language socialization? 2. What discourses condition early childhood educators views of first and second-language socialization among young children in immigrant families? 3. How are these discourses manifested in the everyday lives of immigrants’ parents with young children as well as in the practices of early childhood educators working with young children in immigrant families? The study was conducted in a mid-sized city in western England where Albanian minority forms a very small portion of the population. This percentage is consistent with the findings that a small portion of the total new immigrant population chooses to settle outside of England’s three largest metropolitan, multicultural centers. For this reason the issues that this minority faces might be difficult to compare with those faced by groups that live in large metropolitan areas where there are more significant numbers of minorities4 (Lee, 2002). Some evidence indicates that immigrant groups from minority backgrounds may encounter more obstacles to their integration in smaller communities than those who choose to settle in larger metropolitan centers5 (Bennet, 2002). To this point, this paper contributes new understandings of how language domination is manifested in non- multicultural cities. We begin the paper by reviewing analyses of language ideologies and outlining our analytical tools, then we review the available discourses on language, we provide a brief account of the methods used and move on to discuss the data in relation to dominant discourses of language. We conclude by suggesting that existing dominant discourses of monolingualism have become ideological and they need to be challenged to ensure the maintenance of home languages among young children in immigrant families. 4 Lee, S.K. (2002). The significance of language and cultural education on secondary achievement: Bilingual Research Journal 26(2), 327– 337. 5 Bennet, 2002 Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 5: 131-146 Cambridge University Press. 377 Blerta Xheko 2. LANGUAGE IDEOLOGIES Language maintenance among minority groups needs to be considered alongside issues concerning language itself and within the broader framework of social, political and ideological factors.6 (Corson 1998, Macedo 1997). Language operates in our society as one of the most important practices through which cultural production and re-production takes place7 (Corson, 1998). Language ideologies are about more than individual’s speakers attitudes to their languages or speakers using languages in particular way, rather they include the values, practices and beliefs associated with language use by speakers and the discourse which builds values and beliefs at state, institutional, national and global levels. It’s the participation of dominant and subordinated groups in the establishment of language hegemonies that has resonance in the findings described below. This paper shows that both early childhood educator’s and parents’ understanding of children’s language development were mediated by a discourse of monolingualism in that they came to consider English as the natural and legitimate language for young children. This discourse then becomes ideological. The ideology of monolingualism has been addressed through an analysis of the discourse of liberal multiculturalism. Very often democratic, multilingual societies that apparently tolerate or promote heterogeneity in fact undervalue or ignore the linguistic diversity of their population.8 (Pavlenko, Blackledge, 2002: 69). It’s important to mention that the value attached to languages by both dominant and subordinate groups is neither fixed nor static. They are ‘multiple and shifting’. This process isn’t surprising in that language ideologies are often connected to a variety of social contexts, times in history, geographies and locations within which the identities of speakers of the dominant and subordinated languages are developed. 3. ANALYTICAL OOLS The critical discourse analysis is a method as much as it is a theory for studying language in its relation to power and ideology. 6 Corson 1998, Macedo 1997. Language, culture and power: Bilingual families and schools. 7 Corson, D. (1993). Language, minority education and gender: Linking social justice and power. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters 8 Pavlenko, A. Blackledge (2002) Ideologies of language in multilingual communities, Bilingualism and emotions. 21, 1, 45-78. 378 , Foreign Languages, Interculturalism and Politics CDA exposes the ways in which participants spoke about children’s first and second language acquisition. It studies participants’ statements so relationships between discourses could be better understood and explained. 4. MINORITY LANGUAGE DISCOURSES IN ENGLAND The large number of immigrants in England plays a major role in shaping the pluralistic society as well as its multiculturalism policy. There are different kinds of services provided to newcomers as they relate to language issues. Emphasis is placed on teaching immigrants English, but little is said about how newcomers’ linguistic capital is ‘preserved and enhanced’. Learning the official languages becomes the driving force and the minority language preservation is ‘assumed ’to be the responsibility of newcomers themselves. This situation points out the gap that exists between policies and practices. The discourses about language are just one of the many messages that newcomers encounter. One discourse raised by the media defines minority languages as impediment to children’s educational success and their eventual employability. Negative attitudes toward the maintenance of home languages were viewed in the English-language media with articles on how poorly immigrant children and youth are doing in schools, primarily because of their poor English skills. Statements like that may lead immigrants’ parents to rightly believe that their children will not succeed academically unless they learn English as soon as possible. ‘Most students who are illiterate in their first language take years to build reading and writing skills in English’9 (Duffy, 2004: 19) Another strong discourse is the difficulty newcomer’s face in finding employment, even when their educational backgrounds are well regarded. One of the common obstacles the immigrants face in finding employment within their area of expertise is that their language skills are weak and many times ‘lacking’. Issues of pronunciation, accent, word usage and style are highlighted. Another discourse is that of ‘readiness for school’. This discourse refers to the preparation of young children to succeed in elementary schools. This is an important issue for the study in question as it focuses primarily on young children attending child-care centers- institutions that link the child to the educational system. One of the roles is to prepare children for school. Although the discourse of school readiness 9 Duffy, 2004: 19 Press, Toronto, 97-109. ‘Class Struggles: Public Education and the New Canadian’ Blerta Xheko 379 does not necessarily relate to language issues, these issues are very much implicated and implicit. Although our emphasis has been on discourse to which parents are exposed. It’s important to note that, given their location, they are ready available to early childhood educators. Language developments are addressed as part of child development discourses (a discipline that guides the field of early childhood education). Textbooks on child development assume a ‘universal’ child. Sections on language development treat bilingualism and multilingualism as additions to ‘normal’ language development.10 (Berk, 1992). This ‘universal’, ‘true’ child is a monolingual child.11 (Moss & Petrie 2002). Even though the maintenance of minority languages is not ‘discouraged’, it is assumed to be an impediment to success.’ Normality’ is defined as speaking English. Services try to make immigrants more normal by immersing them in English and no interest is paid to the preservation of the minority language. Discourses can produce a range of changes.They are not passive bodies of knowledge We reviewed how these discourses mediate the views of parents and early childhood educators and more importantly how these discourses become ideological. 5. METHOD The data reported in this paper are part of a study that involved Albanian immigrant families with young children and early childhood educators working with immigrant families in a mid-sized city in England. Data were collected from (a) A group of 30 immigrant families with at least one young child. (b) A group of 5 early childhood educators who worked with young children in Albanian immigrant families. The interviews allowed us to see a range of views, develop a deeper level of understanding of the process under study, gain trust, facilitate communication with the participants and fit their particular characteristics. For the family component of the study I collaborated with a group of seven community workers. The collaboration involved several meetings to discuss methodology decisions. For the early childhood educators component, I interviewed early childhood educators who reported some 10 Berk, S. 1992 The Bilingual Courtroom. Journal of Linguistics. Anthropology 2(2): 229-231. 11 Moss & Petrie, P. (2002). From children’s services to children’s spaces: Public policy, children, and childhood. London: Routledge/Falmer. 380 , Foreign Languages, Interculturalism and Politics experience working with Albanian children and families whose first language was not English. Child-care centers were chosen by identifying the areas that had the highest English as a second language immigrant population.Centers were serving children from birth to nine years of age. Following Blackledge and Pavlenko12 (2002), I attended to the ways in which participants referred to English and Albanian. The minority language, the use of specific words, the assumptions made as to what was ‘normal’ and ‘not normal’. I asked questions such as: what tensions can be identified between parents’ and the early childhood educators’ views? What tools do they design to resolve these tensions what is the logic of the text what contradictions are present? 6. THE SHAPING OF THE IMPORTANCE OF DOMINANT AND MINORITY LANGUAGE Data obtained through the family interviews show how English has been constructed as the language of legitimacy. The dominance of English is expressed in explicit as well as implicit ways. In the following quotes, some Albanian parents spoke of the dominance of English in their lives. From the beginning they get new friends who speak English,they communicate with each other and when they come home they use English and they can’t use Albanian anymore….we don’t know how much they understand the Albanian language anymore…only English. (Father, Albanian language, individual interview - family 5). Teachers send your homework in English. You need to read them in English to help them develop these skills. So I help her with her homework in English. There is no time to maintain the Albanian language. (Mother, Albanian - family 12) Furthermore evidence of the dominance of the English language was uncovered when parents described the role that English language and the minority language had in the lives of their children. English was described as a must-a language that their children were required to have, the acquisition and maintenance of the minority language (Albanian), was perceived as a desire seemingly impossible to realize (they used words such as wish,hope, dream). English was considered by the parents as the ‘natural’ and legitimate language. “I just want my children to adapt easily to society without being limited because of not knowing enough English to get around.” (Mother, Albanian interview, family - 9). 12 Blackledge, A., & Pavlenko, A. (2002). Introduction: Ideologies of language in multilingual context. Multilingua, 21, 121-140. The International Journal of Bilingualism, 5(3), 243-257. Blerta Xheko 381 When referring to the minority language; “My dreams are for them to learn how to read, write and speak the Albanian language.” (Mother, Albanian, family - 5). “I only hope that in the future, he will continue to learn and use Albanian. We hope that he will still be able to read Albanian books and understand Albanian television”. As shown in the quotes, when parents were asked about their dreams and hopes, they spoke about their children becoming fluent in the minority language. However, when they were asked about their satisfaction with their child’s language development, they automatically talked about their child’s language development without mentioning at all the minority language. This implies the parents’ understanding of language development which is mediated by dominant discourses that privilege monolingualism and more specifically the attainment of English language. Interviewer: How do you feel about your child’s level of English language development? Participant: With my daughter I feel very fine because she has already learned English, and for my son I am not too much concerned because he is a small kid so he will learn very easily. Interviewer: How would you describe your child’s language development at this time? Are your goals and expectations being met? Participant: My older daughter is fluent in English, she is five and now she is going to kindergarten and she will learn to read so that’s fine. 7. MONOLINGUAL DISCOURSE SHAPING PARENTAL AND INSTITUTIONAL LANGUAGE RESPONSIBILITIES The development of a language different from English was understood by both parents and early childhood educators to be a parental responsibility. They rarely placed any responsibility for the development of bilingual children on child-care institutions. Data show that parents have come to expect institutions to provide support only for English language development. Furthermore, early childhood institutions didn’t provide parents any evidence that it could be any different. There is an agreement that educational institutions play a significant role in the shaping of attitudes towards minority languages among immigrants children13 13 Corson, D. (1998). Changing Education for Diversity. Buckingham, England: Open University Press. Corson, D. (2001). Language diversity and education. Mahwah, NJ: Laurence 382 , Foreign Languages, Interculturalism and Politics (Corson, 1998, 2001; Fillmore14 (2000: 208) suggests that given the rapid rate at which young children are losing their families’ homes languages, parents and teachers should be working together to find other ways to support children’s development of their primary languages. The public institutions are responsible for the development of English. So there is an implicit expectation that the enhancement of minority languages is a personal matter. “I expect the child care to teach the children English language I don’t know what else I can expect from them.Because they have to know the English language, they need it for everyday’ life, at work, everywhere. Because they live in a place where English is spoken.”(Mother, Albanian language group, individual interview – family 11). “I hope my child can keep the mother tongue and I think this depends on the parents to support her Albanian by enriching her vocabulary…I think that if we help her not loose our mother tongue, she will keep some of our roots.”(Father, Albanian language, individual interview – family). Parents observed that child-care institutions helped children to develop only English skills that children who didn’t learn these skills experienced social obstacles and that success in their minority language skills were never acknowledged. “My older child has learned English a lot from preschool,she listened to what others were talking so she started to copy what they said and it became her language of expression”.(Mother, Albanian, individual interview 17). “She wasn’t happy at all because no one spoke Albanian in her class. Especially her teacher I feel that there is a little discrimination. Since my daughter does not speak English very well; the teacher should have paid a little more attention to help her. At least some actions or body language.” (Mother Albanian, individual group 14). In a similar way early childhood educators expressed a sense of division between language at home (minority language) and language development at the English child care-centre. That doesn’t mean that educators discouraged first-language development. But in almost all cases there were no discernable policies or approaches being employed to contribute to minority language maintenance or development. “I haven’t really spoken to them about whether they want to keep their own language or not.But they do still speak to their children, you know, when they do come to pick them up so I know they’re getting some Erlbaum. 14 (Fillmore, 2000, p. 208). Fillmore.“Loss of Family Languages: Should Educators Be Concerned?” Volume 39, Number 4, Autumn 2000. Blerta Xheko 383 of that.” (Early childhood educator 1). “I tell them to continue speaking their language to their children, don’t even worry about speaking English to their children unless they want to practice it themselves. The kids will learn English no matter what the parents speak to them. Keep speaking their own language to the kids at home because they need to know those language first. They are going to get English, they have no choice.”(Early childhood educator 2). 8. PARENTS CONFRONTING LANGUAGE DOMINATION Parents were involved in confronting the dominance of English, the effects of language domination and the assimilatory approaches toward English. “This is our heritage and we need to pass it to our children. Also, the governments and institutions should encourage us to do so. We need to be united to do this and we need to force the government and institutions to help us do this, as well.”(Father, Albanian, individual interview 21). Even though parents surveyed the minority (Albanian) language as their sole responsibility and English as the responsibility of the institution. Early childhood educators were open to discuss issues of bilingualism in their work with families who spoke a language other than English. Many practitioners recognized having a bilingual teacher in the centers to be beneficial when problems of translation came across with children or parents. Another important element to consider is the fact that they primarily identified having bilingual children and families in the classroom as barrier to accomplish their goals for practice. They didn’t see the minority language or the fact that children were learning English as an additional language within the centre as a strength or opportunity. Some early childhood educators considered the fact that the children were learning a second language unimportant when working in the classroom. Goldenberg (1993) says that “differences are to be overcome by diluting them out through assimilation or integration.”15 Language was constructed as synonymous to culture, so child-care programmers primarily emphasized cultural representation and made little acknowledgment of issues of language. 15 Goldenberg, C. (1993). The home-school connection in bilingual education. Bilingual Education: Politics, Practice, and Research (pp. 225-250). 384 , Foreign Languages, Interculturalism and Politics The way in which early childhood educators construct their own role in the language development of children in immigrant families relates to the discussion on whose responsibility it is to develop children’s languages. It’s important to note how educators construct their role and their practices as being the primary responsibility for developing the children’s English language acquisition, even when opportunities are provided for collaboration with the family. Through this construction, early childhood educators work with the minority towards monolingualism and leave the development of minority language to the children’s families. They work toward the creation of the’ normal ’child as outlined in dominant professional discourses. 9. DISCUSSION Given the diversity that exists between the various language groups that participated in this study, the findings presented can not be generalized without challenges. Immigrant families that participated in this study are a minority in mid-sized city, caution should be applied in generalizing these findings to larger urban, metropolitan, multicultural centers in England and elsewhere. 10. CONCLUSIONS We acknowledge that institutions should go beyond from mainly being sites of social and cultural reproduction to become sites of cultural and social transformation. Our discussion with both groups suggests that they are open to exploring new approaches and further resources to enable them to assist young children to maintain their home languages. While the exemplary approaches mentioned here are more often used at elementary school levels, they serve as a starting point and are adaptable for use in early childhood settings, especially child-care centers. By bringing forward these problematic discourses, we create conditions for these sources of knowledge to surface and allow differences to be accepted rather than diluted. REFERENCES Tuominen, (1999) Language and Linguistics CompassVol. 2, no. 5, Article first published online: 30 JUL 2008. Okita, T. (2002) Invisible Work: Bilingualism, Language Choice and Childrearing in Intermarried Families, Amsterdam: Benjamins. Blerta Xheko 385 Piller, I. (2002) Bilingual Couples Talk: The Discursive Construction of Hybridity, Benjamins, ISBN1-58811-287-X. Kouritzin, S. (1999) Face[t]s of first language loss, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Lee, S.K. (2002) The significance of language and cultural education on secondary achievement: Bilingual Research Journal 26(2), 327– 337. Bennet, (2002) Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 5: 131-146 Cambridge University Press. Corson (1998), Macedo (1997) Language, culture and power: Bilingual families and schools. Corson, D. (1993) Language, minority education and gender: Linking social justice and power, Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters Pavlenko, A. Blackledge (2002) “Ideologies of language in multilingual communities”, Bilingualism and emotions, 21, 1, 45-78. Duffy, 2004: 19 Press, Toronto, 97-109. ‘Class Struggles: Public Education and the New Canadian’ Berk, S. (1992) “The Bilingual Courtroom”, Journal of Linguistics. Anthropology 2(2): 229-231. Moss & Petrie, P. (2002) From children’s services to children’s spaces: Public policy, children, and childhood. London: Routledge/Falmer. Blackledge, A., & Pavlenko, A. (2002) Introduction: Ideologies of language in multilingual context. Multilingua, 21, 121-140. The International Journal of Bilingualism, 5(3), 243-257. Corson, D. (1998) Changing Education for Diversity, Buckingham, England: Open University Press. Corson, D. (2001) Language diversity and education, Mahwah, NJ: Laurence Erlbaum. Fillmore, 2000, p. 208. “Loss of Family Languages: Should Educators Be Concerned?” Volume 39, Number 4, Autumn 2000. Goldenberg, C. (1993) The home-school connection in bilingual education. Bilingual Education: Politics, Practice, and Research (pp. 225-250). LE RÔLE DE LA LANGUE DANS LA TRADUCTION PUBLICITAIRE: APPROCHES INTERCULTURELLES Elisa Hatzidaki Université Paul-Valéry Montpellier III, France 1. INTRODUCTION L ’AXE THÉMATIQUE DE CE COLLOQUE NOUS invite à étudier des domaines prometteurs et importants, parmi lesquels nous avons choisi de présenter aujourd’hui le rôle de la langue dans la traduction des messages publicitaires. Ce choix comporte un double intérêt, d’une part actuel et d’autre part intellectuel. Deux mots en ce qui concerne le premier: Théoriquement la route vers la publicité est ouverte dès 1438 avec l’invention de l’imprimerie. Cependant sa grande dimension commerciale est assez récente. Certes, l’apparition de médias au début du XXe siècle, le développement des nouvelles technologies et la création de l’Organisme Mondial du Commerce ont ouvert les frontières et ont renforcé les échanges internationaux. Dans cet esprit de globalisation le marketing joue actuellement un rôle prépondérant et la publicité comme force motrice du commerce occupe une place prééminente. En ce qui concerne le deuxième point, la publicité présente un intérêt intellectuel dans le sens où le langage publicitaire est chargé de connotations et de représentations, autrement dit de charges culturelles que le traducteur est censé détecter et recréer pour l’Autre. La sociologue Anne Sauvageot considère la publicité non pas seulement comme porteuse de messages mais aussi comme un milieu riche de symboles et de stéréotypes, tout comme un récit mythique. Elle y voit des figures symboliques qui partagent le même imaginaire collectif et qui contribuent à la formation d’une identité culturelle (Sauvageot 1987: 15, 28-29, 88). En ce sens, la publicité est régie tout d’abord par des règles d’ordre culturel. Par ailleurs, il est étonnant de constater la fréquence du terme message. Nous parlons toujours d’un message publicitaire. Or, derrière ce terme qui paraît anodin, se cache un contenu sémantique important et à la fois délicat. Etymologiquement dit-elle le terme «message renvoie à la messe qui est liée à la promesse» (Sauvageot 1987: 183). Le message est donc une promesse. Cette promesse qui est indispensable pour la communication publicitaire peut être écrite, orale ou audiovisuelle. Il Elisa Hatzidaki 387 est devenu banal de parler de nos jours du rôle capital de l’image. Dans la présente communication, nous allons nous focaliser plutôt sur les messages écrits au détriment de l’image. La primauté sera donnée à la langue, cependant nous tenons à souligner que la contribution de l’image dans le discours publicitaire est d’une importance considérable, l’image étant aussi indispensable à la publicité que le timbre à un envoi postal. Si on se penche sur la publicité actuelle, on observe que les anciens stéréotypes, comme par exemple le cow-boy en tant que symbole de la virilité ou la femme au foyer en tant que symbole de la femme, s’estompent et laissent place à des slogans publicitaires qui privilégient la parité entre les sexes, la nature, la technologie. Ce tournant indique certes l’évolution de notre société et la publicité est par excellence le miroir de cette transformation. De ce point de vue nous pouvons comprendre en quoi la langue et par conséquent la traduction doivent s’adapter au public visé. Non seulement les mots mais aussi le style et le rythme doivent faire l’objet d’une reformulation toujours dans le but d’attirer les acheteurs potentiels. Nul doute que la traduction publicitaire est un processus qui dépend de deux entités inextricablement liées: la langue et la culture. En effet, le transfert de l’annonce publicitaire ne dépend pas uniquement du traducteur. Il s’inscrit dans l’univers large de la langue et de la communication et dépend de paramètres internes aussi bien qu’externes. En effet, le traducteur se voit souvent face à un défi: il ne doit pas traduire servilement le texte original mais ne doit pas s’en éloigner non plus. Et alors? Est-ce que les méthodes dont il dispose sont capables de transmettre les connotations culturelles? Quelles sont les éventuelles difficultés auxquelles il est confronté? Peut-on parler de fidélité? 2. ANALYSE Nous allons tenter de répondre à l’aide d’une synthèse des approches théoriques et d’exemples concrets. Pour ce faire et étant donne que l’exhaustivité dans le domaine de la publicité est hors de portée, nous avons choisi de constituer un corpus de slogans, originaux et traduits, tirés de la presse internationale. Ainsi, notre étude aujourd’hui sera alimentée par des sources variées. Plus précisément, nous allons tenter d’analyser quelques slogans grecs, français, anglais, italiens, espagnols, allemands et arabes. Les critères qui ont prévalu à cette sélection reposent sur la diversité des langues et donc des cultures ainsi que sur une gamme variée de produits. La réponse aux questions posées sera articulée autour de trois thèmes distincts introduits dans un contexte premièrement linguistique, ensuite culturel et en troisième lieu bibliographique. 388 , Foreign Languages, Interculturalism and Politics Tout d’abord, d’un point de vue linguistique, nous sommes partis de l’hypothèse que la publicité comprend deux dimensions, une concernant le plan commercial et une concernant le binôme langue-culture. Mais encore faut-il pouvoir identifier ces significations culturelles et les enjeux langagiers, à savoir le langage propre et le langage figuré. Anne Sauvageot soutient que la publicité, dans sa démarche persuasive, reprend la plupart des figures de la rhétorique, par exemple l’hyperbole, la métaphore, l’ellipse, l’euphémisme, etc (Sauvageot 1987: 13). Une étude sur les publicités écrites en France a prouvé que sur le plan syntaxique, on trouve souvent les superlatifs, l’impératif affirmatif ou négatif, les pronoms relatifs et les constructions autour du pronom on. A titre d’exemple: «Azzaro, pour les hommes qui aiment les femmes qui aiment les hommes» «Channel, Impossible de résister» «L’Oréal, la plus grande innovation depuis la caresse» «La perfection au masculin» «Mangez bien, mangez sain, mangez à la maison» «N’ayez plus peur des tâches..» «On fait quoi pour vous aujourd’hui?» En outre, le milieu publicitaire est rempli de termes techniques et scientifiques qui accordent une valeur supplémentaire au produit, soulignent de manière élogieuse ses traits et lui attribuent un aspect prestigieux. Par exemple: lames 3G, nouvelle boîte robotisée de Peugeot, technologie Tourmaline pour protection, bio-réseau reconstructeur enrichi de Lancôme. Il en va de même pour les messages publicitaires grecs: Aergel, gel , Smart Tridion, HydraZinc. Cependant bien que le langage publicitaire soit tantôt soutenu tantôt familier, il a toujours le même objectif, comme une arme qui est tournée vers le consommateur. Une arme a fortiori économique qu’il ne faut pas utiliser maladroitement pour éviter les conséquences dans la sphère commerciale. Un autre paramètre qui mérite notre attention est la géographie de la langue. En principe, nous avons bien raison de croire que la langue appartient à un territoire plus ou moins circonscrit. Naturellement le grec est parlé en Grèce, l’italien en Italie, et ainsi de suite. Néanmoins, cette conception peut être parfois assez complexe et poser des problèmes au plan traductionnel. Prenons l’exemple du français qui n’est pas seulement parlé en France mais dans une trentaine de pays, chacun ayant ses propres traits culturels. Ou bien l’exemple de Chypre, où 389 Elisa Hatzidaki la traduction publicitaire se démarque justement dans la mesure où l’alternance anglais-grec ou bien anglais-chypriote est très fréquente dans un même message. Dans ces cas le rôle de la langue est très important car elle réunit sur un même message des publics différents. Par exemple: «1000 ! Areeba. Pay as you talk» «The Balenciaga Lariat: fashionista» «Sephora, Yes to carrots. to carrots» . yes «Redalert, funky » Deuxièmement, en ce qui concerne le contexte culturel, il convient de dire que la publicité est initialement un produit de culture qui véhicule des représentations bien particulières. En outre, le traducteur doit respecter les restrictions socioculturelles relatives à la religion, les traditions, les mœurs et les coutumes de chaque pays. Nous citons en guise d’exemple la référence à la Bible contenue dans la publicité du parfum A man de Thierry Mugler, «Ainsi soit le parfum» (allusion parfumhomme). Le constat est évident: les slogans reflètent des croyances, des normes et des valeurs qui ne sont pas toujours faciles à décoder. En effet, en termes publicitaires ce qui est facile à dire n’est pas forcément facile à traduire. Par exemple dans les pays musulmans, la publicité de tout produit alcoolisé est interdite. Par ailleurs dans certains pays la promotion des sous-vêtements féminins et des produits cosmétiques est assez restreinte. Un autre cas culturel concerne les contes. Récemment la maison Chanel a utilisé Le Petit Chaperon Rouge pour la promotion de son parfum Chanel No 5. Il en va de même pour la marque Puma avec le spot de baskets basé sur la fable Le lièvre et la tortue. Comment donc traduire ces messages pour un public qui n’est pas familiarisé avec les contes auxquels ces messages font allusion? Ou encore comment traduire la nouvelle publicité de la marque NOYNOY: « ’ .». D’autre part, il y a des interdictions juridiques, par exemple au Québec les affiches publicitaires doivent être bilingues. Les Pays-Bas ont des réglementations strictes sur les publicités de sucreries, en Arabie Saoudite il est interdit de montrer un corps féminin à l’exception des caractéristiques du visage. Nous constatons donc que la traduction 390 , Foreign Languages, Interculturalism and Politics publicitaire est un milieu très particulier régi par ses propres normes et que chaque message constitue un phénomène unique non seulement par son contenu mais aussi par son public. Enfin, en troisième lieu, comment ne pas se référer à quelques théories sur la traduction. Quelles sont en effet les méthodes qu’un traducteur peut adopter pour surmonter les obstacles? Hormis le fait qu’il doit posséder des connaissances extralinguistiques et avoir des compétences linguistiques, il doit se poser trois questions: Quoi? Pour qui? Pourquoi? Ce sont les réponses à ces interrogations qui définiront la façon dont on traduit. En effet, on traduit la publicité pour un public spécifique dans le but de le convaincre. Alors comment? En accordant plus d’importance au message qu’à la forme, ce qu’Eugène Nida a appelé initialement l’équivalence dynamique (Nida: 1964) avant d’utiliser le terme d’équivalence fonctionnelle (Waard, Nida 1986). Chez John C Catford (1965: 27), il s’agit avant tout d’une correspondance formelle de nature sémantique. Roman Jakobson pour sa part, évoque une équivalence de message et non pas de langue (Jakobson 1959: 232-239). La traduction acceptée serait alors celle qui reproduit le même but et qui provoque les mêmes réactions. Dans ce sens, nous pouvons dire que la traduction dépasse la formule stéréotypée texte-source (TS) / texte-cible (TC) et forme le miroir du texte original. D’autres théoriciens importants comme JeanPaul Vinay et Jean Darbelnet (Vinay, Darbelnet 1958), Georges Mounin (Mounin 1955, 1963), et Peter Newmark (Newmark 1995), ont proposé des procédés afin de faciliter la tâche du traducteur, qui a priori a le choix entre: le calque, la traduction littérale, l’adaptation, la transposition, la modulation ou l’équivalence. Il s’agit de solutions plausibles qui ne sont pas pourtant toujours possibles et applicables. Dans ce cas de figure, la bonne traduction dépendra de la créativité du traducteur. Et en plus, étant donné que les slogans entrent dans le cadre d’une communication qui se veut directe, la transmission du message doit être rapide et relève donc plutôt de l’interprétariat. Le traducteur-interprète doit alors comprendre le vouloir dire du texte original, résoudre les problèmes socioculturels, décortiquer la forme linguistique du message et exprimer dans une autre langue les idées comprises et les sentiments ressentis. Pour concrétiser tout cela, voyons quelques exemples: Calque: «Fiat Bravo Le choix !.. flancs musclés» En allemand: «Fiat Bravo Ihre Wahl …muskulöse Linien» Il s’agit d’une traduction calquée sur le texte français. En français l’adjectif est acceptable mais en allemand l’expression est étrange. En effet, la ligne comme figure géométrique ne peut pas être musclée, ceci Elisa Hatzidaki 391 renvoie plutôt à des masses organiques. Il serait peut-être mieux de traduire par robuste. Traduction littérale: «L’Oréal. Parce que je le vaux bien» En italien: «L’Oréal. Perche io valgo» En anglais: «L’Oréal. Because I am worth it» Adaptation: «Cellu-Lift. C’est décidé, je montre mes fesses» En arabe: «J’ai décidé de mettre un terme aux tissus adipeux1» Il s’agit d’une adaptation formelle. Le slogan original a été rendu en arabe par une expression moins provocante. «Nivea cool kick, » En français: «Nivea, cool kick, pour le grand frisson» Le message français a un impact direct chez les consommateurs français. Transposition: Computer «Apple. Think different» En français: «Apple. Think different» Il s’agit d’une transposition. C’est-à-dire que le message est transféré avec le même contenu argumentatif, ce qui témoigne de l’universalité du produit. La marque Nike n’a pas dérogé à cette règle et son slogan Just Do It est reconnu à l’échelle internationale. Modulation: «La prairie: Diamants et caviar nourrissent votre peau» En grec: « .. » Nous constatons que le traducteur a jugé plus important d’omettre le verbe nourrir et d’ajouter à sa place des adjectifs qualificatifs pour donner un style pompeux. Réécriture: Lingerie féminine Wonderbra « , » En italien: «Siamo la coppia più bella del mondo2» En français: «Nous avons été séparés trop longtemps» Dans cet exemple, le contenu est radicalement changé mais l’originalité est présente dans toutes les versions. Dove hair minimising « » En français: «Conçu pour un rasage moins fréquent» 1 2 En arabe: «Karrartu an ada‘a haddan lil ansija ad-duhniyya» Traduction de l’italien: «nous sommes le couple le plus beau du monde» 392 , Foreign Languages, Interculturalism and Politics En anglais: «Put an end to that prickly feeling between shaves» En espagnol: «Nuevo Dove Hair Minimising reductor de vello3» La version grecque joue sur l’image, tandis que les autres versions mettent l’accent sur l’effet. Dans d’autres cas la LC se combine avec la LS pour promouvoir des effets esthétiques. Nous citons à titre d’exemple le fromage La vache qui rit qui se traduit en anglais The Laughing Cow. Pourtant, en grec on a gardé l’expression française telle quelle dans le but de conserver l’étrangéité du TS ainsi que la rime. Nous constatons alors qu’il n’est pas obligatoire qu’une phrase soit juste au sens grammatical du terme, il suffit qu’elle fasse passer le message. Ceci signifie que la grammaire et le sens ne sont pas forcément suivis à la lettre. En général, plus la phrase est courte, mieux elle est saisie par le public, étant donné que le but est d’établir le contact avec un minimum de mots pour que le message soit compris avec un minimum d’effort. Prenons le temps de nous attarder sur la notion de fidélité. Que veut dire alors être fidèle? Fidèle à qui? A nous-mêmes? Aux autres? A nos objectifs? Il apparaît que les réponses sont largement partagées. En termes de traduction la fidélité reste toujours la grande utopie pour chaque texte, qu’il soit littéraire ou technique, il y aura toujours une perte. Cette perte peut être morphologique, sémantique, culturelle ou autre. Le traducteur essaie donc à chaque fois et selon les circonstances, de choisir la solution la moins coûteuse et de compléter le vide qui en résulte. En publicité, explique Mathieu Guidère, la fidélité existe mais elle est soumise à d’autres exigences. Ce qui est à traduire, c’est la persuasion qu’exerce le texte sur le destinataire. Pour utiliser ses propres mots: «en focalisant la réflexion sur la réception publicitaire, la fidélité apparaît comme un critère second, mais aussi comme un paramètre secondaire, dans l’élaboration et l’évaluation des traductions» (Guidère 2000: 68), «Les relations d’équivalence entre messages doivent être envisagées avant tout en référence à un objet particulier -le bien de consommationet à une finalité précise -l’achat» (Guidère 2000: 58). En ce sens, les mots isolés n’ont pas de valeur. En revanche, c’est l’énoncé qui compte. Nous aimerions illustrer ce propos par des exemples concrets: «Dune, un moment de rêve» En italien: «Dune, parfum d’évasion» En arabe: «Dune» sans slogan Ce slogan publicitaire nous permet de noter que l’impact de la langue est important non seulement quand celle-ci est présente mais aussi quand elle est absente et que les mots jouent parfois un rôle 3 Traduction de l”espagnol: «Nuevo Dove Hair Minimising réducteur de pilosité» Elisa Hatzidaki 393 auxiliaire, mais pas toujours fondamental. La suppression du slogan en arabe correspond à la volonté de placer la marque sur un marché nouveau. Cette technique montre que le transfert publicitaire obéit à des impératifs qui dépassent le cadre strictement linguistique. L’eau de cologne Paco Rabanne «Osez la lumière» En anglais: «Step into the light» En espagnol: «Desfrute a luz» En arabe: «Sortez à la lumière4» Le dénominateur commun de ces slogans est la lumière. Or le verbe s’adapte à la réalité de chaque pays (entrer, profiter, sortir). «Nissan, on voit les choses autrement» En anglais: «You can with a Nissan» En arabe: «Seule Nissan résiste aux épreuves5» Chaque slogan met en avant un point différent. La traduction française fait valoir l’altérité. La version anglaise opte pour la rime tandis que le slogan arabe souligne la performance de la voiture (par exemple le fait qu’elle est idéale pour le désert). 3. CONCLUSION Les différents contenus des versions présentées montrent que dans tous les cas nous pouvons rester fidèles au texte original, mais de manière différente et pour des marchés distincts. Tous ces exemples présentés aujourd’hui à titre indicatif, donnent un aperçu de cette multiplicité communicative dans la traduction publicitaire et mettent en exergue ses ressources culturelles et langagières. Nous avons centré notre étude sur la langue et nous avons mis en relief les stratégies adoptées par les traducteurs. L’étude de notre travail montre que l’adaptation et la réécriture peuvent donner naissance à des messages aussi intéressants et efficaces que les messages originaux pourvu que le traducteur respecte les normes d’acceptabilité de la langue et de la culture d’accueil. Le traitement traductionnel est donc un compromis entre les exigences de l’annonceur d’une part et les besoins du récepteur d’autre part, une arme stratégique dans une panoplie de produits. J’ose espérer que cette étude, aussi sommaire soit-elle, aura permis non pas de fournir des règles absolues mais de proposer certaines réflexions et d’alimenter des débats dans les domaines de la traduction et de la culture. Je voudrais seulement rappeler deux points abordés 4 5 En arabe: «Al-khurûj ilâ an-nûr», «al wahhida Nissan tûkawm as‘bat» En arabe: «Al-khurûj ilâ an-nûr», «al wahhida Nissan tûkawm as‘bat» 394 , Foreign Languages, Interculturalism and Politics plus haut et tenter de conclure. La traduction publicitaire doit être envisagée comme processus plutôt que comme résultat. Et puis, il ne s’agit pas d’être fidèle à la source mais de communiquer un certain effet car la fidélité dépend de la fin poursuivie. « » affirmaient nos ancêtres grecs et ils avaient parfaitement raison. BIBLIOGRAPHIE Baker, M. (1998) Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies, London and New York: Routledge. Beacco, J.C. (2007) L’approche par compétences dans l’enseignement des langues, Paris: Didier. Catford, J.C. (1965) A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics, London: Oxford University Press. Eco, U. (2003) Dire quasi la stessa cosa. Esperienze di traduzione, Milano: Bompiani. Guidère, M. (2000) Publicité et Traduction, Paris: L’Harmattan communication. Jakobson, R. (1959) On Linguistics Aspects of Translation, Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Ladmiral, J.-R. (1994) Traduire: théorèmes pour la traduction, Paris: Gallimard. Lederer, M. (1994) La traduction aujourd’hui. Le modèle interprétatif, Paris: L’Harmattan. Levy, D. et Zarate, G. (2003) La médiation et la didactique des langues et des cultures, Paris: Clé International. Mounin, G. (1955) Les Belles Infidèles, Paris: Cahiers du Sud. Mounin, G. (1963) Les Problèmes théoriques de la traduction, Paris: Gallimard. Neirynck, J. (2005) La tentation publicitaire, Genève: Jouvence. Newmark, P. (1995) Approaches of Translation, Herfordshire: Phoenix Elt. Nida, E. (1964) Toward a science of Translating, Leiden: E.J Brill. Paulin, C. (2002) Langues et cultures en contact, traduire e(s)t commenter, Paris: Pufc Presses Universitaires Franc-Comtoise. Perrin, A. (1994) Publicité et psychanalyse, Clermont-Ferrand: E. Cross. Piquet, S. (1983) La publicité, nerf de la communication, Paris: Organisation. Elisa Hatzidaki 395 Quinn, P. (2007) Secrets pour rédiger sa publicité, Paris: Chiron. Reiss, K. (2002) La critique des traductions: ses possibilités et ses limites, Arras: Artois Presses Université. Remaury, B. (2004) Marques et récits. La marque face à l’imaginaire culturel contemporain, Paris: Institut français de la mode-Regard. Sauvageot, A. (1987) Figures de la publicité, figures du Monde, Paris: PUF. Tatillon, C. (1978) Traduire la parole publicitaire, Paris: PUF. Vinay, J-P. et Darbelnet, J. (1958) Stylistique comparée du français et de l’anglais, Paris: Didier. Waard, J. de, Nida, E. (1986) From one language to another, New York: Thomas Nelson Publishers. FOREIGN LANGUAGES IN THE PUBLIC SPHERE Themistokles Gogas Epirus Institute of Technology, Greece 1. INTRODUCTION T HE GRADUAL DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIETY from feudal to industrial and the rise of modern civil societies brought along the concept of public sphere. Initially public sphere had to do with the public place, for instance a café, at which discussions of political content took place. This novelty was due to the expansion of leisure time among the bourgeoisie in Europe on the one, while on the other it dealt with the gradual involvement of the masses in politics. For Wasserstein1 pre World War I cafes were the places where a specific culture was formed and a particular type of discourse was exercised: “this was the great era of the café as a social and intellectual centre throughout most of the continental Europe. The coffee-house culture of Budapest, Prague and Vienna provided a home, workplace, club, salon, reading-room, debating-hall, advertising agency, and stock exchange for gossip”. In Habermas’ view, this was a place for exchange of ideas far from any intervention of the state2. Fraser3 argues that, public sphere “provides a way of circumventing some confusions that have plagued progressive social movements and the political theories associated with them”. At a later stage the expansion of capitalist economy (which stabilized the power structure of society) caused the transformation of the actual function of public sphere. It became a political sphere within a public realm, causing thus the intervention of a state apparatus. This apparatus had the privilege of a monopoly over legitimate coercion. The state intervention into this procedure (i.e. of news trafficking) took the form of an highly structured hegemony4. This is reflected upon Habermas’ 1 Wasserstein, B. (2007) Barbarism & Civilization, Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 31. 2 Habermas, J. (1989) The structural transformation of the public sphere, Cambridge Mass: MIT Press, p. 127 3 Fraser, N. (1990) ‘Rethinkng the Public Sphere: A Contribution to the Critique of the Actually Existing Democracy’, Social Text, 26(25/26), p. 56. 4 Hegemony: the supremacy of a social group that manifests itself in two ways, as ‘domination’ and as ‘intellectual and moral leadership’. It is the organisation Themistokles Gogas 397 writing, who claims for the formation of a global public sphere, while national public spheres remain in their political boundaries. In that sense, national public spheres have to remain as the locus for the expression of democratic discourse, providing the democratic legitimation5. The global public sphere have to provide the terrain for the formation of a global political consciousness6. Sociopolitical analyses have tended to focus on modernization processes and public-sphere activism rather than on the rarefied and often nostalgic realms of philology, folklore, literature and traditionalism7. However, political activism has to overcome the reactionary forces, acting under a hegemonic umbrella. Hegemony does not apply in only one level, nor it is only the dominant group of a given society that exercises hegemonic practices upon the subaltern groups. These limitation were fairly enough during the period that Gramsci introduced us to the concept of hegemony (interwar period). In the modernist capitalism existed only one level of subordination for the inferior groups, which was imposed by the dominant group and summed up political, economic, cultural and religious power. In postmodern era the existence the neo-liberal trend demands the absolute dominance of certain cultural producers (i.e. Mass Media) which widens the inequalities on the cultural production between different places of the globe, which leads to the so-called cultural imperialism. The phenomenon of cultural imperialism is not new. In the end of the 19th century England there has been a growing anxiety for the effectiveness of German products to the extend that British considered it as a form of ‘Cultural imperialism’8. This form of imperialism, in relation to and domination of a worldview over the worldview of another social group. See Gogas, Th. (2002) The relationship between teacher training and the social system. A case study in greek education, unpublished PhD thesis, Keele University, p. 57; also, Gramsci, A. (1972) The Intellectuals [greek translation: Oi Dianooumenoi], Athens: Stokhastis, p. 41 5 See editor’s preface in Habermas, J. (2006) The divided West, edited and translated by C. Cronin, Cambridge: Polity, pp. xi; also: Giddens, A. (1991) Modernity and Self-Identity, Cambridge: Polity, pp. 151 ff. 6 Habermas, J. (2006) The divided West, ibid., pp.55-56. 7 Leersen,J. (2006) ‘Nationalism and the cultivation of culture’, Nations and Nationalism, 12(4), p. 573. 8 Umbach, M. (2002) ‘The Vernaculal International Heimat. Modernism and the Global Market in Early Twentieth-Century Germany’, National Identities, 4(1), p. 50. See also: Krasner, S. (1985) Structural Conflict: The Third World Against Global Liberalism, Berkeley: University of California Press. 398 , Foreign Languages, Interculturalism and Politics the globalization process tend to the formation of a hegemony in the cultural sector, other than that in the realm of politics or economy. To this direction traffic of knowledge, of ideas, of news became an imperative mechanism of social coherence through the hegemonic consent. Within this context knowledge became a ‘priviledge’, leading to the formation of a credential society and its consequent ‘Diploma disease’9. Credentialism10, in that sense has two faces: on the one hand it creates a demand for qualifications (mainly educational) while on the other hand it constitutes a disorientation of youth, as the connection is not clear between the actual skills necessary for a particular job and the educational qualifications demanded by the employer for this specific position. Credentialism serves more as a restricting tool for work places in many occupations than a prerequisite training for these jobs. Blackledge & Hunt argue that credentialism acts as an exclusionary closure, enabling professions to maintain a limited number of practitioners in order to upgrade their wages11. However, classes are accustomed to this system for it has been introduced gradually and has reached the level of a common-sense view. This event, if seen within its evolutionary process, gives us another aspect of the connection between school education and State. Althusser claims that the school has become the dominant Ideological State Apparatus12. For a citizen of the modern era the knowledge of foreign languages was just an obligation, or rather a compulsory subject, indicative of his/her generation, race or merely social class. On the contrary, in postmodernism communication through a foreign language became indispensable, for it is required in economic activities. Kymlicka claims that societal culture ‘provides its members with meaningful ways across the full range of human activities, including social, educational, religious recreational and economic life, encompassing both public and private spheres’ (1995: 76). In that sense, it is the societal culture that defines the dimensions of the public sphere. Additionally, the rest of the collective activities (like religious or professional affiliation) are regulated (if not dominated) by culture. However, culture is not something abstract. For Barclay (2007: 511) culture “is defined by 9 See: Dore, R.P. (1976) The Diploma Disease, London: Allen & Unwin. Collins, R. (1979) The Credential Society: An Historical Sociology of Education and Stratification, New York: Academic Press, p. 189. 11 Blackledge, D. & Hunt, B. (1995) Sociological Interpretations of Education [greek translation: Koinoniologia tis Ekpaidefsis], Athens: Ekfrasi, p. 430. 12 Althusser, L. (1994) Positions (1964-1975) [greek translation: Theseis], Athens: Themelio, p. 82. 10 Themistokles Gogas 399 language, not religion, not by how one conducts one’s family life, not by its unique sense of humour, or its dress and food, and so on”. What remains yet unanswered is whether this form of globalised perception of foreign languages will lead to an analogous new form of cosmopolitanism. In contrast to what was believed in the past* cosmpopolitanism I argue is will be a countermeasure to the unlimited expansion of globalization13. 2. A BRIEF HISTORICAL ACCOUNT The end of secondary education in Greece leads to the General Examinations, in which students have to be examined in specific subjects, according to the desired field of study. The marks for each subject are multiplied by a correlation (varying between 0.8 and 2) give a final score up to 20,000 credits. For those pupils wishing to study Fine Arts, Music, Architecture or Foreign Languages one or two subjects (related to the field of study) are examined additionally, giving a final score of up to 22,000 credits. Next, the candidates have to apply for the schools and departments they wish to study, while the selection is made according to the highest scores. Thus, every year, by the end of August the keyword in Greeks’ mouths is ‘baselines’ i.e. the minimum score a candidate had to get in order to join this or that school. In this peculiar ‘bourse’ the estimation of a certain department is made upon the ‘baseline’ which, additionally gives an account of the demand on behalf of candidates. It has to be noted here that the number of students in every department is predefined by the Ministry of Education, hence accepted will be those atop of the candidates’ list. For instance, a baseline of 19,000 units means high demand, for several hundred (if not thousands) of applicants for this department, where the nearly-excellent marks have been chosen. Consequently this reflects the respect a department enjoys among the candidates and definitely among their families. As it is expected each year for a month or so the major public discussion revolves around ‘baselines’, while the public sphere formulates the realm of the discourse, ignoring in some instances major political or economic events taking place at the same period. The child-centred greek society cannot consider on an inferior place its children’s education. Taking into account that in the General Examinations participate more than 13 “… someone who adopts no country [patrie]… and is not a good citizen…”, Dictionnaire de l’ Academie francaise, quoted in Rosenfeld, S. (2002) ‘Citizens of Nowhere in Particular: Cosmopolitanism, Writing, and Political Engagement in Eighteenth-Century Europe’, National Identities, 4(1), p. 25. 400 , Foreign Languages, Interculturalism and Politics 100,000 pupils, it means that nearly 1% of the population is involved, which along with parents, relatives, friends, teachers, examiners etc raises the percentage in a much higher level. It is quite important though to add a crucial parameter, which affected the motion of the baselines recently. Up to the academic year 2005-6 there was not lower level on the baseline. This meant that a student who obtained the minimum possible score would join the University if in the department of his/her preference the demand was low. In that way even a candidate who scored 1,000 units, which means he/she was marked by 1/20 in all subjects would start studying! The then Minister of Education raised the entry level to 10/20, or 10,000 units, expecting the upgrade of the level of studies, since least able candidates would be excluded from studying. The General Exams of 2007 were performed under the new Act, imposing the threshold of 10,000 units as the minimum requirement for University studies. The measure might have been rationale, however it created a lateral problem: empty spaces! Indeed, in many departments, mainly of the technological sector of higher education or on those in minor towns of the Greek periphery, far from major urban centres, nearly 30,000 spaces left empty. The fact itself revealed an inadequacy of tertiary education in Greece, for it showed the surreal of the public sphere as far as selection of studies was concerned. 3. THE DEMAND FOR FOREIGN LANGUAGES IN TERTIARY EDUCATION Thinking that education does not operate in a socio-economic vacuum, the reactions were several: local societies felt the decrease of the income, political parties bashed the government for lowering the number of students in public sector, while parents’ associations demanded for the abolishment of the ‘threshold’ of 10/20 (or 10,000 units). The following table shows the baseline for each one of the ten University Departments offering FL as a single-core academic subject14. 14 The Departments appear here are codified according to language and University. Thus, ENG means Department of English Language and Literature, FR stands for the Dept of French Language and Literature, GER, ITAL and SP stand for German, Italian and Spanish respectively. ATH is the University of Athens, THES is the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki and CRF is the Ionian University at Corfu. 401 Themistokles Gogas Table 1. The ‘baseline’ for each one of the FL Departments of the Greek Universities 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 ENG ATH 20182 18187 17916 17232 17268 17526 18203 18926 19519 20147 20406 ENG THES 20008 18032 17794 17452 17300 17666 18478 18923 19947 20419 20822 FR ATH 15482 14954 11064 12746 6209 5670 11518 11766 11511 11812 9145 FR THES 11333 13984 9333 11125 8230 7100 11740 11892 12234 11950 6769 GER ATH 12670 9599 7564 7234 9817 9499 11899 12093 11704 11618 15825 GER THES 12250 9159 6837 6551 9024 3514 11737 11875 12109 13361 16770 IT ATH 12270 8142 7769 6254 4895 6066 12228 11611 13108 11915 8785 IT THES 14112 7408 8588 7978 5511 5444 12075 12382 12426 12138 7722 SPAN ATH 14172 10368 7354 6687 5991 5545 12482 11875 12127 12628 9404 SPAN CRF - 9756 12169 10890 12356 8543 12034 12971 13573 13436 6265 The study of the above table gives some interesting results. Prima faciae there is a significant ‘supremacy’ of English Language and Literature Departments of both the University of Athens and Thessaloniki. While the scores in English move between 17232 and 20822, the other Departments hardly overtake 10000 units, with the exception of French Language Dept, which for just a brief period of two years (2000 & 2001) reached 15000. The Table below shows a comparative graph of the baseline for the Departments of English and French Language of the University of Athens. For each graph the tension line appears, for it gives clearly the trends towards the baseline for each department is moving. 402 , Foreign Languages, Interculturalism and Politics Table 2. Comparative graphs for English (upper line) and French Language (lower line) Departments of the University of Athens Table 3. Comparative graphs for English (upper line) and French Language (lower line) Departments of the University of Thessaloniki The graphs above show the high level in which the demand for English is moving the last ten years. The tension lines for both English Depts (i.e. Athens and Thessaloniki) are upwards, an indicative value for future demands. On the contrary, French language appears lesser demand, while tension lines move downwards, an indication meaning 403 Themistokles Gogas the lowering of the demand for French language. Also, it is remarkable that the lowest point the English baseline reached (17268 on 2004 Athens Uni) is much higher than the highest point the French baseline reached (15482 on 2000). Note that this figure appears at the University of Athens, while the highest point of the French baseline in Thessaloniki was 13984 on 2001. The difference is striking and if one examines the rest of the languages the difference will be far more distant, in favout –of course- of English language. In my view, the maximum of 15482 units can be considered as conjunctural, since after the year 2000 the fall started reaching its negative peak of 5670 on 2005. The difference regarding both Departments (ENG and FR) is obvious at the mean and standard deviation scores. The table below shows the average and the standard deviation for all FL Departments of Greek Universities. Thus all ten departments are presented. Table 4. Average baseline and standard deviation for FL depts Department Average St. Deviation ENG (Athens & Thessaloniki) 18743,32 1248,1 FR (Athens & Thessaloniki) 10799,5 1802,1 GER (Athens & Thessaloniki) 10578,68 3085 IT (Athens & Thessaloniki) 9492,13 3013,8 SP (Athens & Corfu) 10673,63 2705 In this comparative table (No 3 above) the differences are remarkable. It is not only the average, where English baseline stands much higher than all others. The interesting point is the standard deviation, where for English appears around 6% of the average, a digit indicating steadiness in preferences, in contrast to the 31% of the Italian baseline, a movement resembling to a tidal wave. A final issue concerning FL teaching in Tertiary Education in Greece has to do with ‘empty spaces’. As mentioned above, the threshold of 10/20 left thousands of spaces empty in tertiary education. This had an effect upon the Departments of FL as it is indicated in the following table: 404 , Foreign Languages, Interculturalism and Politics Table 5. Empty spaces per department per year and percentages 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 ENG ATH 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ENG THES 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 FR ATH 0 0 0 18 11 36 121 101 78 30 30 FR THES 0 0 53 9 116 97 141 137 129 104 90 GER ATH 0 19 27 39 10 1 57 67 30 8 8 GER THES 0 33 34 26 10 15 87 43 0 0 2 IT ATH 0 48 72 45 62 37 127 118 84 69 45 IT THES 0 67 63 51 62 35 103 111 79 79 47 SPAN ATH 0 93 83 65 64 49 113 118 61 66 8 SPAN CRF --- 15 25 26 26 25 22 23 27 45 49 36 Total 0 285 358 279 360 292 772 722 506 405 256 0 14.96 19.85 16.19 21.58 17.52 40.63 38.2 31.82 25.74 25.44 0 23.55 31.18 25.41 33.55 27.24 58.93 55.11 47.29 37.85 37.92 % % 16 The above15table16shows that a considerable percentage of places offered in the FL departments remains empty. In the examination of the crucial decade (2000-2010) the percentage of empty spaces varied between 23.55% and 58.93%! This latter figure indicates that nearly three out of five places in the departments under investigation left empty. Moreover, in some instances the number of students enrolled in a department was extremely low. Fro instance, the Spanish Depts in Athens and Corfu respectively accepted students as indicated in the following table: 15 The Department of Spanish Language of Corfu started its operation on 2001, thus there are no data for this year. 16 In this line the percentage of empty spaces is calculated after the incorporation of both the English Depts of Athens and Thessaloniki, while next line calculates the percentage without English, hence figures are more striking. 405 Themistokles Gogas Table 6. Students enrolled in the Departments of Spanish language in Athens (upper line) and Corfu (lower line) per year 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 ATH 130 37 37 50 51 66 37 32 49 44 102 CRF 5 9 9 8 10 12 8 5 1 14 --- One may claim several reasons for this “devaluation” of studies concerning FL. A possible excuse might be the additional examination in the respective language, which must be scored at least 10/20 in order a student to be admitted to the department. However, the tensions for each language are defined in this peculiar ‘bourse’ according to the number of teachers that are appointed in public education sector each year. Having in mind that English is a language taught in all primary school from P3 upwards and all secondary schools from S1 to S6, while French and German are taught in P5 and P6 in nearly half schools, while in secondary education is an elective course, and is offered by just a few schools in major urban centres, the demand is imbalanced in favour of English. 4. CONCLUSIONS The examination of the students-baseline movement above showed an equilibrium between the demand for FL and the public discourse around it17. Major issue in selecting a specific language are the future vocational assurances an individual may gain out of the study. In other words, it is not the actual value of the language and its corresponding culture which attracts a youngster to study it. It is the chances he/she has to join public education as teacher in a permanent post. However, this is what Habermas called “the representational culture”. Habermas identifies “representational” culture as corresponding to the feudal stage of development according to Marxist theory, arguing that the coming of the capitalist stage of development marked the appearance 17 An interesting study of Benincasa gives an account of the expectations of secondary school graduates as well as their parents. In this study are analysed the factors in favour or against specific fields of study. It is remarkable that among other factors ‘Leaving Home’ is an important one, leading youngsters to choose a major urban centre of Greece as the place for study. This adds another question mark in the aversion for FL studies. Having in mind that 9 out of 10 departments are either in Athens or in Thessaloniki, the place itself is quite attractive and does not provides an explanation for not choosing these departments. See: Benincasa, L. (1998) ‘University Entrance Examinations in a Greek Provincial Town: a bottom-up perspective’, Educational Studies, 24(1), p. 36-37. 406 , Foreign Languages, Interculturalism and Politics of the public sphere18. In my view, the recent developments as far as FL are concerned in Greece reveal rather a turn towards a medieval phase of production, than an academic thinking, knowledge oriented. If accepting Habermas’ views the foundations of critical theory are that of language, which serves the truth. “This truth criterion is located not at the grammatical or syntactical levels of language, but at what Habermas calls the pragmatic level, the level at which language is an act of communication”19. The situation as it is sketched above is far from being purely academic and surely it is not based upon cultural or communication means. It diminishes the value of education to a commodity in its essential ‘representational’ aspect, as Habermas named it. Giddens arguing on that issue states that Habermas’ introduced us to the notion of ‘communicative competence’ i.e. the ability to command the social settings which turn the mastery of language into the understanding of others. ‘… producing a situation of potential ordinary language communication belongs by itself to the general competence of the ideal speaker’20. In the above sketched situation the ideal speaker is a wishful thinking. I don’t think that a specific culture as it is carried through a particular language can be acquainted under the vocational prism. Going back to Gramsci’s thoughts, culture is an individual’s moral identity21, which abstands from any commodification of knowledge. REFERENCES Althusser, L. (1994) Positions (1964-1975) [greek translation: Theseis], Athens: Themelio. Barclay, L. (2007) “Equality respecting nationalism and the relevance of culture”, Nations and Nationalism, 13(3), 505-521. Benincasa, L. (1998) “University Entrance Examinations in a Greek Provincial Town: a bottom-up perspective”, Educational Studies, 24(1), pp. 33-44. Blackledge, D. & Hunt, B. (1995) Sociological Interpretations of Education [greek translation: Koinoniologia tis Ekpaidefsis], Athens: Ekfrasi. 18 Blanning T. C. W. (2002) The culture of power and the power of culture: old regime Europe, 1660-1789, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 9-10. 19 Poster, M. (1984) Foucault, Marxism, and History: Mode of Production Versus Mode of Information, Cambridge: Polity Press, p. 31. 20 Giddens, A. (1976) New Rules of Sociological Method, London: Hutchinson, pp. 65-66. 21 Buci-Glycksmann, C. (1980) Gramsci and the State, London: Lawrence and Wishart, p. 39 Themistokles Gogas 407 Blanning, T.C.W. (2002) The culture of power and the power of culture: old regime Europe, 1660-1789, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Buci-Glycksmann, C. (1980) Gramsci and the State, London: Lawrence and Wishart. Collins, R. (1979) The Credential Society: An Historical Sociology of Education and Stratification, New York: Academic Press. Dore, R.P. (1976) The Diploma Disease, London: Allen & Unwin. Fraser, N. (1990) “Rethinkng the Public Sphere: A Contribution to the Critique of the Actually Existing Democracy”, Social Text, 26(25/26), pp. 56-80. Gogas, Th. (2002) The relationship between teacher training and the social system. A case study in greek education, unpublished PhD thesis, Keele University. Giddens, A. (1976) New Rules of Sociological Method, London: Hutchinson. Giddens, A. (1991) Modernity and Self-Identity, Cambridge: Polity. Gramsci, A. (1972) The Intellectuals [greek translation: Oi Dianooumenoi], Athens: Stokhastis. Habermas, J. (1989) The structural transformation of the public sphere, Cambridge Mass: MIT Press. Habermas, J. (2006) The divided West, edited and translated by C. Cronin, Cambridge: Polity. Krasner, S. (1985) Structural Conflict: The Third World Against Global Liberalism, Berkeley: University of California Press. Kymlicka, W. (2002) Contemporary political philosophy, 2nd ed., New York: Oxford University Press. Leersen, J. (2006) “Nationalism and the cultivation of culture”, Nations and Nationalism, 12(4), 559-578. Poster, M. (1984) Foucault, Marxism, and History: Mode of Production Versus Mode of Information, Cambridge: Polity Press. Rosenfeld, S. (2002) “Citizens of Nowhere in Particular: Cosmopolitanism, Writing and Political Engagement in Eighteenth-Century Europe”, National Identities, 4(1), 25-43. Umbach, M. (2002) “The Vernaculal International Heimat. Modernism and the Global Market in Early Twentieth-Century Germany”, National Identities, 4(1), 45-68. Wasserstein, B. (2007) Barbarism & Civilization, Oxford: Oxford University Press. EXPLOITING THE POTENTIAL OF COMPUTERMEDIATED COMMUNICATION PROGRAMS TO SUPPORT COMMUNICATIVE ORAL/AURAL SKILLS DEVELOPMENT Jack Burston University of Cyprus, Cyprus 1. INTRODUCTION W ORLDWIDE, FOR OVER TWENTY YEARS NOW, the acquisition of communicative language skills has been the primary objective of foreign language teaching. Within the European Union, the goals of communicative language competence are embodied in the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) for languages. CEFR linguistic skill descriptors all focus on what learners can do with the language, with special emphasis on usage in authentic, or at least realistic, sociolinguistic contexts. Oral/aural competence – speaking and listening comprehension – in particular are generally given the highest priority. Practicing oral/aural skills in the classroom, however, is problematic for a number of reasons. 1. It takes considerable time. 2. Even when working in small groups, it is difficult to insure that all students participate equally. 3. Monitoring and correction by the instructor is especially difficult with large classes. 4. Providing authentic language-based tasks for students to perform can be a real challenge. Fortunately, web-based technologies have now reached a point where audio, video and text communication are seamlessly integrated and readily available to support oral/aural skills development anywhere there is broadband access to the Internet. In this paper, I show how three free computer-mediated communication applications – Skype, Tokbox and VoiceThread – can be effectively exploited to provide meaningful oral/aural practice to language learners at virtually any proficiency level. It needs to be stressed, however, that these applications in themselves are only Jack Burston 409 communication tools, they have no intrinsic pedagogical content or intent. Their pedagogical appropriateness and effectiveness depends entirely upon the use to which instructors put them. That being said, these applications possess three features which make them well suited to pedagogical exploitation. — Firstly, computer-mediated communication (CMC), which originated in the 1970’s as an asynchronous inter-university text messaging tool, then expanded in the following decade with synchronous lab-based text chat programs like Daedalus, is now well established in the mainstream. CMC constitutes an authentic medium of communication in its own right. Email, instant messaging, SMS, and audio-video chatting are all as normal a form of daily communication as using the phone. So, any language learning tasks done with CMC intrinsically possess sociolinguistic authenticity. — Because CMC is ubiquitously available, its use is not restricted to the classroom. All that is needed is to access it is a computer connection to the Internet. Audio and video, of course, require a microphone, speakers and webcam, but these are now commonplace on portable computers and can be purchased very inexpensively, if need be. CMC can, thus, easily provide out-ofclass speaking and listening opportunities virtually any place in the world. — Lastly, owing to its ability to operate asynchronously, CMC offers enormous flexibility not only where but also when speaking and listening activities can take place. So, too, the physical record of the communication, i.e. text log file, audio or video recording, lends itself well to the student rehearsal of activities and teacher monitoring of the results. 2. AVAILABLE CMC PROGRAMS 2.1 Skype Of the three CMC programs considered here, Skype ( http://www.skype. com ) is undoubtedly the most widely known. At any given moment of the day, some 20,000,000 people worldwide use Skype for the free computerto-computer phone service it offers. Skype can be used to make calls to landline and mobile phones as well, usually at cost of only a few cents per minute. 410 & Information & communication in foreign language teaching/learning Skype is not limited to phone calls, but supports as well both video and text messaging. Skype can be used for any combination of simultaneous audio/video/ text communication. It can support video conference calls for up to five simultaneous users. If only text chatting is enabled, up to 100 people can use it at the same time. There are many pedagogical uses to which Skype can be put, most obviously as the digital equivalent of pen pal exchanges with native speakers of the language studied. Using audio and text chat, Skype can serve as an instant messaging facility for class-to-class exchanges, wherever its members happen to be: in the classroom, a computer lab, at home, etc.. Depending on the level of instruction, Skype can be used in groups or individually to collect and compare everyday cultural information between participants, pursue discussions on current events in different countries, etc.. When the text chat facility is used, a permanent written record of sessions is kept, to which instructors and students can later refer to compile information for a project, study vocabulary, correct grammar, etc., etc.. Jack Burston 411 Because Skype provides free phone calls to toll-free landline numbers, it is possible to use it as an information gathering tool as well as for very real role playing activities. For example, many thousands of companies and service providers in North America have toll-free numbers that provide recorded information for frequently asked questions: how to register a complaint, return a defective product, make a booking, lodge an income tax return, make a change of address, pay a bill, apply for a drivers license, etc.. Skype could thus be used to find answers to any number of everyday practical questions that require listening comprehension and writing down of responses. For the more adventurous and linguistically competent, toll-free calls could also be made to real people in real time for phone-based role plays. Skype complements its CMC functionality with two features that can be usefully exploited for pedagogical purposes: file sending and screen sharing. While engaging students in online communicative activities, teachers can use Skype to distribute files of any kind to participants as a prompt for discussion: text documents, graphics images, audio files, etc.. For group-based tasked, the computer screen of any participant can be shared with anyone in the group. 412 & Information & communication in foreign language teaching/learning Screen sharing Screen sharing can be used for activities ranging from elementary “Show & Tell” sessions to advanced level discussions of whatever happens to be on screen. 2.2 Tokbox Unlike Skype, Tokbox (http://www.tokbox.com/) does not provide real world telephone connections. It’s CMC functions are restricted to computer-to-computer contacts. On the other hand, Tokbox is more flexible in that it allows much greater asynchronous communication. When calling someone on Tokbox, if the person is not available to answer, the user can easily leave an audio or video message (or send it along with text as an email attachment). It is also possible to record messages in advance to leave for someone. Besides overcoming the complications of communicating with people in different time zones, 413 Jack Burston Text message the ability to prepare messages allows language learners to rehearse their communications, which instructors can monitor and correct. Pedagogically, this can be quite advantageous since students, especially at lower competence levels, typically find asynchronous communication much less stressful. Video Message Video Chat Instant Messaging 414 & Information & communication in foreign language teaching/learning Like an email program, Tokbox keeps copies of all audio/video messages that have been sent or received. This message archive allows students and instructors alike to review past performance and can serve as well as an information databank for projects. Tokbox offers other advantages, too. Its group video chat, network bandwidth permitting, can support up to 20 simultaneous users, enough to accommodate communication between small classes. Tokbox also supports instant text messaging with links to YouTube, Facebook, and MySpace. 2.3 VoiceThread Of the three CMC programs presented here, VoiceThread (http:// voicethread.com/) is the most media-centered. It quite accurately describes itself as a tool for having conversations around media and is, in effect, a multimedia blog. It is, thus, restricted to asynchronous computer-to-computer usage. . Jack Burston 415 VoiceThread has a very intuitive interface and is particularly easy to use. A one-minute online tutorial is all it takes to get started. Even relatively young learners can master its operation in very little time. Basically, a media object (text, graphics image, video) is uploaded to a web page and participants comment on it. Scaffolding for a project, i.e., the selection of media to use and the pedagogical purpose to which it will be put, of course requires thought and planning. 416 & Information & communication in foreign language teaching/learning Participant comments can be in the form of audio, video, or text. The free version of VoiceThread allows up to thirty-five comments to be made per page, with up to 50 pages per VoiceThread project. Each registered user is allowed to create three VoiceThread projects. A maximum of twenty people per day can access any one VoiceThread project. All of which is to say that VoiceThread can easily accommodate the activities of an entire class. For projects involving multiple classes, a Higher Ed Management account (costing about €70 per year) allows an unlimited number of VoiceThread projects to be created by up to 50 users with facilities to track usage. The pedagogical uses to which VoiceThread can be used are as varied as the imagination of the instructor (and students). At elementary levels, the media prompts can be used to solicit descriptions of everyday objects, people, places, etc.. The multi-page capacity of a VoiceThread project can just as easily support the telling of quite complex stories. One student (or group of students), for example, could start off a story, with associated comments, to be continued page by page by other students (or groups). At more advanced levels, the media prompts can be used to sustain a debate, with arguments and counterarguments supported by appropriate media prompts. Although VoiceThreads can be made publicly accessible to anyone who visits the website, it is also possible to restrict access to invited participants. This simply involves sending out a URL code/address to those from whom a user wants to solicit comments. MyVoice: Personal VoiceThreads 3. CONCLUSION Providing opportunities for language learners to practice their speaking and listening skills out of class, in realistic and innovative ways, has never been easier or more accessible. Freely available CMC programs, Jack Burston 417 notably Skype, Tokbox, and Voicethread, allow students to communicate with other students – including native speakers – virtually anywhere in the world with no more than standard computers and access to the Internet. At most, only the purchase of an inexpensive headset/ microphone and web camera is required to make communication come alive with sound and video. With real-time connections, students can engage in authentic conversations to develop their communicative skills. The asynchronous facilities which these applications offer permit communication to take place as well any where and any time. Such asynchronous communication lends itself well to language rehearsal and instructor monitoring. The operation of these applications is, quite literally, child’s play. Their pedagogical validity and effectiveness, on the other hand, depend on the skill, and imagination, of the instructors who use them. Much more than mastering the technology, the real challenge facing language teachers wanting to exploit these applications is scaffolding language usage opportunities, making them interesting and motivating, and providing feedback and correction. This, of course, is exactly as it should be when pedagogy drives technology. 3.0 W Ω . Ω , , 1. WEB 1.0 WEB Ω 2.0. WORLD WIDE WEB Tim Berners-Lee1, 1989 - CERN. (file servers), , Internet , , ‘90, web, – (web site) , - . » « – . , , . 2000 - , (Software as a Service - SaaS), web, web , web (web 2.0) (O’Reilly, 2005). , , - . – – - . , , 1 Tim Berners-Lee 1989, web client Web. , Hypertext HTML server in 1990 - 419 , , profile , . , - , , , - , »( & , 2008). « - , - , , 2 3 , , 4 « », 5 6 , Ό , , « » , web 2.0 (Van Harmelen, 2007). 7 . - , 2 Social networking: online . 3 Data sharing mechanisms: « ( 4 5 6 » , , video, , ). Social bookmarking – tags:. (tags) , , . Syndication and notification technologies – RSS: , - . Collaborative editing tools: , 7 2010 , . STI International (http://www.sti2.org ), Internet 160 Exabytes . 6 , 1 Zetabyte. Internet 2 . 2006 - 420 & Information & communication in foreign language Teaching/learning 8 ( . « , ») , , - , internet . 2. WEB 15 , , - : , . , . - , , , (robots, agents, softbots . .) . , . , , , - , . , . – . , , « , - » - ’ . 8 Internet . 1,3 - 421 , Ό , , . , .‘ , web. 3. WEB 3.0 web web 3.09 2006, 10 1: Η . web 9 John Markoff Times - 2006, New York web 2.0 web (Spivack, 2009). 10 1, web, . . : Nova Spivack, Radar Networks 2007, http://www.radarnetworks.com. 422 & Information & communication in foreign language Teaching/learning , , « Intelligent Web”: Spivack, 2006), » », , ,« ) (software agents) , » (“The « - , » ( - , . web 3.0 – , - : , , (Cho, 2008, Spivack, 2006, Metz, 2009, Nations, — . 2009). — — (Open-source software platforms), (protocols), (Open APIs), (Open data formats) , (Open data: Creative Commons, Open Data License, etc.). (Cho, 2008, Spivack, 2006). “Software-as-a-service” (SaaS) web 2.0, computing, cloud computing, Amazon S3) (Spivack, 2006). 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(Hendler, 2009:88). 21 The Semantic Web Stack (Tim Berners-Lee). : http://www.w3.org/2006/ Talks/1023-sb-W3CTechSemWeb/SemWebStack-tbl-2006a.png 22 Unicode: standard , URIs, standard 426 & Information & communication in foreign language Teaching/learning SW, Extensible Markup Language (XML)23 Resource Description Framework (RDF)24, Web Ontology Language (OWL)25. HTML web , , , , . , RDF ( ) .Ό MacManus (2009), , SW. RDF, « » SPARQL. , RDF Schema (RDFS)26 Web Ontology Language (OWL) (Rule Interchange Format – RIF) (ontologies27) (Hendler, 2009:89). , (Logic and Proof) (Trust)28. , , - intelligent agents . . 23 XML: , - . 24 RDF: 25 OWL: RDFS, DAML+OIL. 26 RDF Schema: resources, . 27 Ontlology: (Strickland, 2009) 28 URIs , . RDF and OIL, DAML and RDF - (Matthews, 2005). 427 , Ω 5. SW - , , , web, - , (Bittencourt, 2008:60). , SW e-learning, . SW (Semantic Web-Based Educational Systems - SWBES), , web , 29 (online learning resources ). , SW , . Ohler (2008:8), « web, ( , » (multimedia report) , video, , links .). , web 3.0 , intelligent agents agents 29 profile . . « »30 (student, teacher personal learning agents) « , , » (learning resource) content - - , , , curriculum. » (learning objects) web ( video, 30 Franklin & Gaesser (1997: 21-36). « , .). 428 & Information & communication in foreign language Teaching/learning SW , web (Anderson, 2004). Anderson Matthews - & Whitelock (2004:3-6), Ohler (2008:8), Devedzic (2004:54) (2005:6-12), , web: — , : SWBES RDF . : semantic browsers ( Haystack31 MIT Magpie Semantic Web filter32), semantic web servers ( Joseki33), semantic search engines 34 ( Swoogle ) semantic Portals ( EducaNext35, 36 37 Ontoweaver Knowledge Web ). , , ( , emails, . .) . — : metadata38 ( PRISM, ONIX, MARC . .) ( « » , Dublin Core, , . .), - 31 http://groups.csail.mit.edu/haystack/ http://projects.kmi.open.ac.uk/magpie/main.html 33 http://joseki.sourceforge.net/ 34 http://swoogle.umbc.edu/ 35 SW portal/ learning resources Universal. learning resources ( ) 32 EducaNext, . To Portal Universal Brokerage Platform (Simon, 2002). www.educanext.org/educanext/impressum. 36 http://projects.kmi.open.ac.uk/akt/ontoweaver/ 37 http://www.k-web.org/ 38 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metadata_standards - . . http:// 429 , web, , . — web: - (VLEs) ( , , - ) . (friend of a friend) FOAF39 : profiles , (RSS, annotation tools, semantic blogging ( Annotea41) , , HP40), , (Community portals), - e-Learning: metadata learning objects42 e-learning, — « , RDF » (knowledge charts) . 43 learning objects (LOM . .) SW , - . 39 http://www.foaf-project.org/ Cayzer & Shabajee, 2003 41 http://www.annotea.org/ 42 learning object , 40 , (Young, Morrison et al, 2002) http://community.flexiblelearning.net.au/GlobalPerspectives/content/article_ 4503.htm 43 430 & Information & communication in foreign language Teaching/learning : — , RDF, (Ohler, 2008:8). Ω 6. Ω , SW , . - elearning, . - SW , . , , ) ( - . , : , , , , . , – - , - . . ( , - , .), ”44 “ 44 , TV5 .Ό , BBC - RFI, . , 431 , , - . , . . (YouTube45) video » , « - . , , ( ). / . - , . « » . , , . , « » , - . , (learning objects). , , , elearning . , . 45 http://www.youtube.com - 432 & Information & communication in foreign language Teaching/learning 7. . SW 46 . , . , SW. , (‘intelligent agents”), , - . « SW, » , - .. ω Anderson, T. & Whitelock, D.. (2004) “The Educational Semantic Web: Visioning and Practicing the Future of Education”, (Special Issue) Journal of Interactive Media in Education, 2004 (1). [wwwjime.open.ac.uk/2004/1] http://www-jime.open.ac.uk/2004/1/ editorial-2004-1.pdf Berners-Lee, T., Fischetti, M. (1999) Weaving the Web, Harper San Francisco, Ch. 12. ISBN 9780062515872. 46 Swirl, swirl.googlelabs.com/ Google. . . http://image- , 433 Berners-Lee, T., Hendler, J. and Lassila O. (2001) “The Semantic Web”. Scientific American Magazine. http://www.sciam.com/article. cfm?id=the-semantic-web&print=true. Bittencourt, I.I., Isotani, S., Costa, E., Mizoguchi, R. (2008) “Research directions on Semantic Web and education”, Scientia: Interdisciplinary Studies in Computer Science 19(1): 60-67, January/June 2008 © 2008 by Unisinos. http://www.unisinos.br/publicacoes_cientificas/ images/stories/Publicacoes/scientiavol19n1/60a67_art06_ bittencourt%5Brev_ok%5D.pdf Boutin, G. (2009) Tying Web 3.0, the Semantic Web and Linked Data Together - Part 2/3: Linked Data is a Medium. http://www. semanticsincorporated.com/2009/05/tying-web-30-the-semanticweb-and-linked-data-together-part-23-linked-data-is-a-medium.html Bratt, St. (2008) Fast forward get ready for Web 3.0. http://www.w3.org/2008/ Talks/0520-bratt-BDigital/W3C-Web-3.0p.pdf, pp. 25-27. Cayzer, St., & Shabajee, P. (2003) Semantic Blogging and Bibliography Management. http://www.hpl.hp.com/techreports/2003/HPL2003-130.pdf Cho, All. (2008) What is web 3.0? The next generation Web: Search Context for Online Information. http://internet.suite101.com/article.cfm/ what_is_web_30 Devedzic, Vl. (2004) “Education and the Semantic Web” International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education 14 (2004) 39-65 IOS Press. http://devedzic.fon.rs/publications/IJAIED2004.pdf Franklin, S. & Gaesser, A. (1997) “Is it an agent, or just a program?”, Proceedings of the 3d International Workshop on Agent Theories, Architectures, and Languages. Intelligent Agents III (LNAI vol. 1193), pp.21-36. Berlin: Springer-Verlag Hendler, J. (2009) Web 3.0 Emerging. IEEE Computer Society, 00189162/09 Ip, A., Young, A., Morrison, A. (2002) “Learning Objects - Whose are they?” Proceedings of the 15th Annual Conference of the National Advisory Committee on Computing Qualifications, pp.315-320. Kroski, E. (2006) The Hype and the Hullabaloo of Web 2.0. http:// infotangle.blogsome.com/2006/01/13/the-hype-and-thehullabaloo-of-web-20/ MacManus, R. (2009) Understanding the new web era: Web 3.0, linked data, semantic web. http://www.readwriteweb.com/archives/ understanding_the_new_web_era_web_30_linked_data_s.php 434 & Information & communication in foreign language Teaching/learning Matthews, B. (2005) Semantic Web Technologies. JISC Technology and Standards Watch. http://www.jisc.ac.uk/uploaded_documents/ jisctsw_05_02bpdf.pdf Metz, C. (2009) Web 3.0. PC Magazine, Ziff Davis Media Inc. http:// www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,2102852,00.asp Nations, D. (2009) What is web 3.0? What will web 3.0 be like? http:// webtrends.about.com/od/web20/a/what-is-web-30.htm Ohler, J. (2008) “The semantic web in education”, Educause Quarterly, no. 4, 2008. http://www.educause.edu/EDUCAUSE+Quarterly/ EDUCAUSEQuarterlyMagazineVolum/TheSemanticWebinEducat ion/163437 Pulkkinen, J. (2008) Knowledge Mangement and emerging technologies. http://www.train4dev.net/fileadmin/Resources/General_ Documents/Knowledge_Management_and_emerging_technologies.doc. Simon, B. (2002) Universal – Weaving the Semantic Web for Education http://nm.wu-wien.ac.at/research/publications/b122.pdf Spivack, N. (2006) Lifeboat foundation special report. The third generation web is coming. http://www.lifeboat.com/ex/web.3.0 Spivack, N. (2007) The Semantic Web, Collective Intelligence and Hyperdat . http://www.novaspivack.com/technology/the-semanticweb-collective-intelligence-and-hyperdata Strickland, J. (2009) How web 3.0 will work. http://computer. howstuffworks.com/web-30.htm ω , ., & , ” . (2009) “Web 2.0, elearning 2.0 “ ” , , 2010. LES OUTILS DE PARTAGE DE SIGNETS À LA RECHERCHE DE RESSOURCES EN MILIEU ÉDUCATIF ET PROFESSIONNEL: DES PRATIQUES INFORMATIONNELLES ET LANGAGIÈRES Elefthéria Dogoriti IUT d’Epire, Grèce 1. INTRODUCTION L E DÉPARTEMENT DE LANGUES ETRANGÈRES Appliquées d’Igouménitsa répond à une demande d’étudiants attirés par l’étude de deux langues étrangères en tant que première et deuxième parmi l’anglais, le français, l’allemand, l’italien, le russe et l’espagnol, et orientés vers des métiers du secteur des entreprises, des administrations, des organisations et des associations, sans pour autant exclure les métiers de l’enseignement. Il s’agit donc, d’une formation pluridisciplinaire, interdisciplinaire et polyvalente qui s’organise autour de l’enseignement: a) de deux langues étrangères (langue des affaires, des relations européennes et internationales, traduction spécialisée, compréhension et expression orales et écrites, correspondance commerciale, culture et civilisation des pays étudiés, tic et didactique des langues, communication interculturelle), b) des matières d’application/de professionnalisation (économie, gestion, marketing, commerce, droit, informatique/ technologies de l’information et de la communication, comptabilité, statistique). En outre, cet enseignement pluridisciplinaire forme aux techniques d’expression et de communication, ainsi qu’à la recherche, au maniement et à l’usage de l’information, car les étudiants apprennent à y reconnaître les courants de pensée, les savoir-faire, les mécanismes et le fonctionnement du marché du travail dans lequel ils sont appelés à travailler. Force est de constater donc, qu’on doit former les étudiants à la culture de l’information prenant en compte le web 2.0 dans une perspective plus critique que procédurale. 436 & Information & communication in foreign language Teaching/learning 2. WEB 2.0, PLATEFORMES DE PARTAGE DE SIGNETS ET MAÎTRISE DE L’INFORMATION De nos jours, le terme web 2.0 désigne à la fois des outils, des services et des usages qui sont devenus personnalisables: la tendance actuelle du web est à mettre les internautes au cœur de ces services (outils de partage de pages d’accueil personnalisées- Facebook, Myspace, Netvibes-, outils de partage de vidéos –Youtube, Dailymotion, Vimeo-, outils de partage d’images -Flickr, Photobucket-, outils de partage de signets sociaux –Delicious, Digg, Connotea, Simpy, CiteUlike, ZigTag, LibraryThing-, etc). Générée par cette nouvelle famille d’outils sociaux, la pratique du partage de signets ou de liens sociaux («social bookmarking») offre la possibilité à l’usager de référencer sur un serveur une adresse web, la décrire d’une façon personnalisée, afin qu’il puisse organiser son propre système d’information et de le partager avec d’autres (Le Deuff, 2006). La description des signets se fait à base de mots-clés, appelés tags (étiquettes), que l’usager choisit librement sans recourir à un vocabulaire structuré (thésaurus, lexique, ontologie). Cette pratique d’indexation sociale et manuelle à base de tags correspond au terme de «folksonomie» («folksonomy») dont le créateur Thomas Vander Wal (2005) a voulu désigner le phénomène d’indexation des ressources numériques par l’usager en combinant le terme «Folks» (usagers) avec le terme «taxonomy» (classification). Les internautes deviennent ainsi de vrais acteurs sur Internet, participant à la recherche, l’identification, la classification, au partage et à l’enrichissement de contenus des ressources électroniques. Ce sont eux-mêmes qui sélectionnent en fonction de leurs centres d’intérêt et décrivent les ressources en utilisant leurs propres descripteurs. Il s’agit donc, d’une structure tripartite de taggage constituée par les usagers, les ressources et les tags (Lambiotte & Ausloos 2005) qui attribue aux premiers quatre rôles selon l’outil utilisé (Voss, 2007:6-7): 1. Ressource auteur (la personne qui crée ou édite une ressource), 2. Ressource collectionneur (la personne qui ajoute une ressource à la classification), 3. Indexeur ou Taggeur (la personne qui tagge des ressources), et 4. Chercheur (la personne qui utilise des tags pour chercher des ressources). Le nombre de sites qui soutiennent l’indexation collaborative a beaucoup augmenté depuis 2004: Delicious, Digg, Simpy, Blinklist, Flickr, Connotea, CiteUlike, ZigTag, LibraryThing, StumbleUpon, BibSonomy, permettent un repérage de ressources hétérogènes publiées sur le web, telles, des photos, des vidéos, des billets de blogs, des articles, des livres, Eleftheria Dogoriti 437 des morceaux de musique. Autrement dit, ces outils de partage de liens sociaux constituent un moyen de communication et d’échange universel, permettant à un usager connecté à Internet et identifié d’ajouter un tag composé d’une URL, d’un titre, d’une description et d’une liste de tags. De cette façon, l’usager peut voir son nouveau tag sur sa page ainsi que sur la page principale de l’outil référençant les derniers tags déposés souvent visualisés par des nuages de tags (tag cloud) ou l’ensemble des tags qui ont été les plus utilisés. Ce concept peut permettre un survol de l’ensemble des centres d’intérêts d’un usager ou d’un groupe. En même temps, l’association de mots-clés à n’importe quel type de ressource demande un faible effort cognitif de la part de l’usager qui n’est pas un spécialiste de l’information- compte tenu de son ignorance de descripteurs sophistiqués appartenant à la science de la bibliothéconomie (Ertzscheid &Gallezot 2006). L’ensemble des usagers qui taggent un document permettent une sorte de feed-back rapide sur la popularité et le degré de couverture des tags utilisés, en compensant le manque d’habiletés de structuration de l’indexation (Guy & Tonkin 2006, Shirky 2005). En d’autres mots, la popularité d’un tag montre le nombre de sites les plus vus et la vitesse par laquelle se propage une information (Le Deuff 2006: 68). 2.1 Les outils de recherche d’informations, les folksonomies et les pratiques informationnelles La recherche de l’information sur Internet constitue un enjeu majeur: une masse d’outils de recherche disponibles en ligne permettent la recherche de l’information pertinente et exhaustive. Pour ce faire, des pratiques informationnelles deviennent multiples (repérage, collecte, traitement, diffusion de l’information) et exigent une combinaison indissociable d’outils et de méthodes. En fait, les moteurs de recherche ont depuis plusieurs années modifié les modalités de repérage et d’indexation des documents. Les algorithmes utilisés par les moteurs basent leurs calculs statistiques sur les liens hypertextes entre les sites web: plus le nombre de liens hypertextes vers un site est élevé, plus le site est populaire et classé en tête des réponses. Cependant, la recherche algorithmique bien qu’elle offre une indexation exhaustive de millions de pages web, elle n’arrive pas à prendre en considération le contexte dans lequel la question a été posée. Dans les systèmes documentaires traditionnels (bases de données), l’utilisation d’un langage documentaire structuré, en particulier, un thésaurus, autorise une indexation précise des documents: recherche par titre, nom d’auteur, sujet, date, etc., sur tous les champs qui ont été définis. Pourtant, sur Internet, les sites web sont caractérisés par une absence presque totale de structuration, aucun langage contrôlé de 438 & Information & communication in foreign language Teaching/learning type thésaurus n’est envisageable car il n’en existe aucun à couverture universelle, sauf les efforts d’un petit nombre de créateurs de sites qui ajoutent des «balises méta» ou «métatags» permettant le renseignement de données de catalogage et d’index (Lefèvre 2000: 199). On constate pourtant, que la majorité des internautes considèrent les résultats donnés par les moteurs de recherche pertinents et fiables. D’après Broudoux (2007), cette pratique des moteurs de recherche fait autorité par opacité ou omission d’informations. D’ailleurs, Zacklad (2007: 9-10) constate que les annuaires de ressources internet (p.ex. Dmoz, Yahoo !) ressemblent beaucoup à la philosophie des folksonomies, du moment où des communautés de bénévoles (Dmoz) ou des salariés (Yahoo !) indexent les pages web suivant les schémas de classification de la bibliothéconomie, sans pour autant suivre l’organisation disciplinaire à laquelle ils se conforment; cette pratique d’indexation relève d’une sorte de contrôle social/économique lorsque les indexeurs suivent une politique de référencement explicite imposée par les managers (Yahoo !) ou sélectionnent des sites selon la réputation des indexeurs (Dmoz). Le point convergent entre les deux pratiques consiste en le caractère social et collaboratif de la construction des schémas de classification et des listes de descripteurs afin d’indexer une masse de ressources numériques hétérogènes. De même, les folksonomies ne reposent sur aucun thésaurus, introduisant ainsi de nombreuses confusions et des polysémies troublantes. Leur succès repose sur la nouvelle méthode de navigation et de recherche d’informations qui sont considérées pertinentes car elles donnent la possibilité aux usagers de trouver, d’une façon facile et plus élaborée, des ressources qu’un moteur ignorait. On a une multitude d’activités qui caractérise ce système collaboratif de partage: a) une activité de stockage où des ressources documentaires numériques sont taggées à base de mots-clés choisis, b) une activité de partage, lorsque des groupes d’internautes qui forment la communauté des inscrits partagent les ressources et les motsclés, et c) une activité de veille, lorsque des réseaux d’usagers se créent en fonction des thématiques choisies, dont on peut surveiller les derniers signets taggés. Il est ainsi possible de créer des flux RSS à partir des derniers signets d’autres usagers mais aussi à partir des tags sélectionnés. On attribue donc les valeurs de «réciprocité» et d’ «autorité cognitive» aux usagers qui repèrent des informations grâce à d’autres taggeurs «auxquels ils accordent une confiance due à leur crédibilité et leur antériorité» (Broudoux 2007: 4) et on attribue aussi la fonction du «web sémantique du pauvre» (Le Deuff 2006: 69) au système collaboratif de partage car il propose une démarche de navigation et de recherche d’informations personnalisée dans une logique proche du web sociosémantique (Zacklad 2007: 9). Eleftheria Dogoriti 439 3. INTEGRATION PROFESSIONNELLE DE L’INDEXATION COLLABORATIVE On peut constater une véritable intégration professionnelle du social bookmarking tant dans le domaine éducatif que dans le domaine des entreprises, visant à l’amélioration de la recherche et de la production d’informations (Drechsler 2007, Vuorikari 2007, Hayman 2007, Millen et al. 2005): 1. Le tagging dans l’enseignement concerne des communautés électroniques d’enseignants qui taggent des ressources pédagogiques soit sur la base d’une plateforme d’enseignement à distance («Iconito», «Claroline») ou en complément de présentiel comme Moodle, soit d’un outil de social bookmarking. La pratique de ces communautés virtuelles d’enseignants à la production, la diffusion et le partage des ressources contribue: a) à la formation d’une base de ressources en ligne proposée aux écoles et aux universités et construite à partir des enseignants, b) à la suggestion aux élèves/ étudiants des sites jugés pertinents. 2. Le tagging en entreprise a changé l’activité quotidienne des salariés qui travaillent en réseau. Ceux-ci, utilisant une plateforme dans le cadre d’un intranet qui anime le service de partage de signets, peuvent partager des pointeurs dirigés vers des pages thématisées de type intranet, web ou applications d’entreprise. Les salariés disposent des fonctions propres au web 2.0 pour commenter les signets partagés, pour expliquer des documents administratifs, des notes de frais, de congés. Notons à titre d’exemple les services de social bookmarking appliqués aux entreprises, soit développés par les entreprises elles-mêmes, c’est le cas du «Dogear» de IBM, soit des services commercialisés tels «Cogenz», «Connectbeam», «Raytheon», «Notorious». Les effets positifs de cette pratique dans les entreprises d’envergure nationale ou internationale sont multiples: 1) elle permet la saisie des connaissances, de l’expérience, de l’évaluation et de l’expertise des salariés sur des ressources intranet et internet, 2) elle utilise des interfaces personnalisables pour répondre aux besoins spécifiques d’un groupe de travail (travaillant sur l’intelligence économique, p.ex.), 3) elle favorise la mise en relation des salariés visualisant les dernières recherches de leurs collègues sur les thèmes qui les intéressent et visualisant la localisation géographique de chaque information. 440 & Information & communication in foreign language Teaching/learning 4. L’ASPECT LINGUISTIQUE DE L’INDEXATION ET APPROCHES DIDACTIQUES Le développement de la compétence lexicale des étudiants est considéré comme la compétence linguistique centrale dans le développement de la maîtrise de la langue étrangère, et un avantage des folksonomies c’est leur aspect linguistique. Celui-ci, dans une approche didactique du lexique pourrait aider à l’apprentissage des liens paradigmatiques et syntagmatiques qui unissent différents mots d’une langue en facilitant ainsi la maîtrise de la langue et cela s’avère important dans la mesure où les folksonomies proprement dites ne forment que des relations syntagmatiques (Stock 2007: 451). La pratique du tagging permet de voir quels sont les champs lexicaux prédominants ainsi que les langues les plus employées. Lorsque les étudiants recherchent des informations dans un document numérique d’intérêt économique, par exemple, et qu’ils veulent l’indexer par tags, ils doivent d’abord être capables d’avoir une compréhension globale du sens de ce document et ensuite repérer les mots-clés et les points forts du texte. Ainsi, pourrait-on procéder au relevé soit de mots formellement proches comme les dérivés, soit de mots sémantiquement proches comme les synonymes, les hyperonymes, les hyponymes, ou à des néologismes, afin de définir ce document. C’est là que le rôle des dictionnaires de langue, des lexiques, des encyclopédies et des thésauri électroniques s’avère d’une importance pédagogique et didactique capitale: a) on apprend à rechercher un mot (un concept) qui est indexé sur support informatique: cela signifie qu’on apprend à circuler d’un lien hypertexte à l’autre, afin de chercher sa définition, son emploi dans une phrase, ses relations sémantiques et dérivationnelles, b) on apprend à utiliser le moteur de recherche et à prendre en considération les multiples critères proposés d’une recherche avancée, c) on apprend à travailler sur le vocabulaire spécialisé de toutes les disciplines enseignées essayant d’élucider le sens de mots polysémiques (économie, valeur, globalisation, développement durable, environnement, régulation, etc.) ou homonymes (homophones: cession /session, différent/ différend/ différant, emprunt/ empreint, cent/sang/ sans- homographes:son, portions, président, etc.). En outre, les étudiants maîtrisant l’outil informatique et surtout le traitement de texte s’initient au rôle du correcteur orthographique, du dictionnaire de synonymes et du thesaurus intégrés: en vue de rédiger un exposé, un compte rendu, un projet, ils apprennent à discerner le mot juste à partir d’une liste proposée et cela les rend plus attentifs, plus responsables et prêts à exercer leur activité professionnelle à venir. Eleftheria Dogoriti 441 La revue de la littérature du concept des folksonomies illustre les avantages et les inconvénients de l’indexation de l’information par l’utilisation de mots-clés libres (Vuorikari 2007, Zacklad 2007, Ertzscheid & Gallezot 2006, Le Deuff 2006, Peters & Stock 2007, Quintarelli 2005, Weiss 2005, Guy & Tonkin 2006, Kipp 2006, Golder & Huberman 2006). Parmi les avantages on peut mentionner: a) les compétences de gestion et de qualification de l’information au niveau personnel (une sorte de «knowledge management» personnel qui fait état de l’univers de référence construit par l’usager et l’état de connaissances au moment de l’indexation), b) le contrôle de qualité, de pertinence et de performance de la communauté qui met en valeur des liens sociaux (déjà les tags les plus populaires montrent que les contributions et les commentaires des usagers valorisent ces systèmes de partage puisque ceuxci donnent des possibilités d’annotations, une bonne ergonomie, des fonctions de recherche, de classement, des imports et exports possibles, une liste de tags déjà attribués par d’autres, réduisant l’effort cognitif et permettant une sorte de filtrage collaboratif), c) un usage authentique de la langue (les néologismes y inclus), d) une pratique d’indexation gratuite, instantanée, simple, rapide, et surtout la seule pratique d’indexation d’information massive dans le web, e) une couverture de toutes les ressources documentaires numériques (photos, billets de blogs, morceaux de musique, vidéos, livres, documents, podcasts, cartes géographiques, etc.), f) la possibilité d’interprétations multiples où la subjectivité est évidente par le choix de mots-clés d’auto-référence (me), d’humeurs (stupid, cool, funny, interesting), d’organisation pratique (toread, todo, howto). Parmi les inconvénients on peut mentionner: a) absence de précision («vacances», «me»), polysémie (mole: a spy who operates from within an organization/ a small congenital growth on the human skin), synonymes (tv/ television, Holland/ Netherlands/ Dutch, voiture/ voitures/ automobile), tags mal orthographiés ou tapés, tags personnels sans intérêt collectif, tags mal conçus (mots collés ensemble ou séparés sans utiliser l’underscore), des abréviations, emploi du singulier ou du pluriel pour le même mot ainsi que des minuscules et les majuscules: informatioscience/ information_science; library/libraries; IA/IT), b) utilisation de tags multilingues, des fois synonymes (Londres/ London /Londra) ou homonymes (gift: en anglais: present/ en allemand: poison), ou un mélange de langues, 442 & Information & communication in foreign language Teaching/learning c) d) emploi de spam-tags, de mots détournés pour attirer des visiteurs, niveaux de discours différents. Force est de constater que la pratique du tagging constitue une tâche langagière stimulante, attribuant à la langue un rôle instrumental et de communication dans le travail de recherche d’informations et dans les rapports de partage de ressources. Elle entre dans le contexte pédagogique de l’approche actionnelle visant au développement de compétences langagières, techniques, informationnelles, cognitives et métacognitives. Notre problématique s’attache à l’exploitation future des services de social bookmarking et à la création d’une communauté partageant des savoir-faire et ayant intérêt à partager un vocabulaire de spécialité commun. Parmi les objectifs visés citons: la maîtrise de l’information, l’entrée libre de tags et le retour sur les tags pour correction du lexique employé, la classification attentive des tags d’après des concepts qui pourraient servir à de multiples organisations. 5. EN GUISE DE CONCLUSION Notre intention a été d’examiner les enjeux de la pratique du social bookmarking dans le domaine de la maîtrise de l’information et de la langue, afin de tenter des hypothèses d’exploitation pédagogique dans un cursus pluridisciplinaire et interdisciplinaire, associant l’enseignement de langues étrangères sur objectifs spécifiques à l’enseignement de disciplines scientifiques. La revue de la littérature du concept du social bookmarking montre que cette pratique touche aussi bien le domaine éducatif que professionnel, surtout celui des entreprises, un domaine où les étudiants de notre département aspirent à travailler. De ce fait, toute approche pédagogique et didactique de cet outil s’avère prometteuse et stimulante. BIBLIOGRAPHIE Broudoux, E. (2007) Construction de l’autorité informationnelle sur le web. Disponible sur: http://archivesic.ccsd.cnrs.fr/sic_00120710_ v1/ ( 13 2009) Drechsler, M. (2007) Francophonie et éducation 2.0. Quels apports et quelles limites des outils du «socialbookmarking» pour la gestion des connaissances dans une communauté éducative? Journées scientifiques RES@TICE Rabat (Maroc). Disponible sur: http:// www.resatice.org/jour2007/communications/michele-drechsler. pdf ( 13 2009) Eleftheria Dogoriti 443 Ertzscheid, O. & Gallezot, G. (2006) “Etude exploratoire des pratiques d’indexation sociale comme une renégociation des espaces documentaires. Vers un nouveau big bang documentaire?”, G. Chartron & E. Broudoux, (eds) Document numérique et société, Fribourg: ADBS Éditions, Collection Sciences et techniques de l’information. Disponible sur: http://archivesic.ccsd.cnrs.fr/sic_ 00091679/en/ ( 13 2009) Golder, S., et Huberman, B. (2006) “Usage patterns of collaborative tagging systems”, Journal of Information Science, 32(2), 198-208. Disponible sur: http://www.hpl.hp.com/ research/idl/ papers/ tags/tags.pdf ( 13 2009) Guy, M. & Tonkin, E. (2006) “Folksonomies. Tidying up Tags?”, D-Lib Magazine January 2006, vol. 12, no. 1. Disponible sur: http://www. dlib.org/dlib/january06/guy/01guy.html ( 13 2009) Hayman, S. (2007) Folksonomies and tagging: New developments in social Bookmarking. Ark Group Conference: Developing and Improving Classification Schemes 27-29 June 2007, Rydges World Square, Sydney. Disponible sur: http://www.educationau.edu.au/ jahia/ webdav/site/ myjahiasite/ shared/papers/arkhayman.pdf ( 13 2009) Kipp, M.E.I. (2006) @toread and cool: Tagging for time, task and emotion. 17th ASIS&T SIG/CR Classification Research Workshop. Abstracts of Posters (pp. 16-17). Lambiotte, R. & Ausloos, M. (2005) Collaborative tagging as a tripartite network. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 3993 (2006), 11141117. Disponible sur: http://arxiv.org/PS_cache/cs/pdf/0512/ 0512090v2.pdf ( 13 2009) Le Deuff, O. (2006) Folksonomies. Les usagers indexent le web. Bulletin des Bibliothèques de France. Paris, t.51, no 4, p.66-70. Disponible sur: http://bbf.enssib.fr/consulter/bbf-2006-04-0066-002 ( 13 2009) Lefèvre, P. (2000) La recherche d’informations, du texte intégral au thésaurus, Paris: Hermès. Millen, D., Feinberg, J., Kerr, B. (2005) Social bookmarking in the Enterprise, Q Focus: Social Computing, New York: ACM, vol. 3, no. 9, 28-35. Disponible sur: http://delivery. acm.org/ 10.1145/ 1110000/ 1105676/p28-millen.pdf?key1=1105676& key2=5941342521&coll= GUIDE&dl=GUIDE&CFID = 50848673&CFTOKEN=13172844 ( 13 2009) 444 & Information & communication in foreign language Teaching/learning Peters, I., Stock, W. (2007) Folksonomy and information retrieval. Joining Research and Practice: Social Computing and Information Science. Proceedings of the 70th ASIST Annual Meeting. Vol. 44. Disponible sur: http://wwwalt.phil-fak.uni-duesseldorf.de/infowiss/admin/ public_dateien/files/ 1/1194344432asist_am07.pdf ( 13 2009) Quintarelli, E. (2005) Folksonomies: Power to the people, International Society for Knowledge Organization Italy-UniMIB Meeting. Disponible sur: http://www.iskoi.org/doc/folksonomies.htm ( 13 2009) Shirky, C. (2005) Ontology is overrated: Categories, Links, and Tags, Disponible sur: www.shirky.com/writings/ontology_overrated.html ( 13 2009) Stock, W.G. (2007) Information Retrieval. Suchen und Finden von Informationen [Information Retrieval. Searching and Finding Information], Oldenbourg München, Wien Vander Wal, T. (2005) Explaining and Showing Broad and Narrow Folksonomies, Disponible sur: http://vanderwal.net/random/ entrysel.php?blog=1635 ( 13 2009) Voss, J. (2007) Tagging, Folksonomy & Co – Renaissance of Manual Indexing? Common Library Network GBV, Göttingen, Germany. Disponible sur: http://arxiv.org/PS_cache/cs/pdf/0701/ 0701072v2.pdf, ( 13 2009) Vuorikari, R. (2007) Folksonomies, social bookmarking and tagging: state-of-the art, Insight, European Schoolnet, disponible sur: http:// insight.eun.org/shared/data/insight/ documents /specialreports /Specia_Report_Folksonomies.pdf ( 13 2009) Weiss, A. (2005) “The power of collective intelligence”, Networker, vol. 9, no. 3, 16-23. Zacklad, M. (2007) “Classification, thésaurus, ontologies, folksonomies: comparaisons du point de vue de la recherche ouverte d’information (ROI)”, : C. Arsenault et K. Dalkir (sous la dir. de) Partage de l’information dans un monde fragmenté: Franchir les frontières, 35e Congrès annuel de l’Association Canadienne des Sciences de l’Information, Montréal: CAIS/ACSI, 2007. Disponible sur: http:// www.cais-acsi.ca/proceedings/2007/zacklad_2007.pdf ( 13 2009). THE USE OF MOODLE AS A SUPPORTER IN A WRITING SKILL COURSE: THE METHODOLOGY SUGGESTED WITH ITS APPLICATION Şaziye Yaman*, Tülin Arslan** *University of Mersin,Turkey ** University of Yeditepe, Turkey 1. INTRODUCTION T ECHNOLOGY HAS BEEN ONE OF THE WIDELY and effectively used resources in recent years. Due to the developments in data transfer systems and communication technology, it is now possible to send greater amount of information easily in a very short time. One of the fields which mostly benefits from these developments is surely education. Today, education technology has become a term that we are all familiar with, and, in the following years, its recognition will probably go higher than ever. A delicate and growing system like education technology should undoubtedly include some elements and some smaller parts to form a big piece. When we consider that as a system, first of all, we should consider its aim and the target. It is clear that it aims to develop learning conditions of the society or the community included. Creating a group work or as education technology emphasizes, a collaborative learning environment is the priority of this technique that gets its roots from an approach based on the importance of obtaining knowledge by the self experiences of the learner. When considered from the perspective of education technology, the communities can be found in form of distance learning platforms, which take language learning into a dimension without the matter of time, place or distance. With the help of this platform, students can reach the sources they want, they can look for new knowledge via network, teachers can observe the activities of the students and if we think broad and take this to the next level, we can create a real online classroom environment where the students and the teacher act the same like in a school. The platforms that can be installed vary in terms of purpose and usability but one of the common one is called Moodle and it enables language learners to use technological facilities as effectively as they can. Created by Martin Dougiamas, a WebCT administrator at Curtin University in Australia in 1999, Moodle has almost 20,000,000 users 446 & Information & communication in foreign language Teaching/learning today. It is flexible and steady enough to use the platform in various ways like commenting under entries, uploading files, making announcements and even online chat, all of which supports the application of social constructionist approach on education. By creating online courses within a time line or in free form, the educators may follow their lessons with a wide variety of choices. Moodle has become one of the most widely used open-source learning management platforms on internet because of the opportunities it offers to the teachers and students. Another important issue is the technical knowledge that these platforms require from their users. Considering the fact that Moodle addresses to all educators and students without exception of any age group, the usage of Moodle should be at a technical level referring to all its users. When we have a deeper look into the subject from this perspective, we can easily see that anyone who can handle basic computer operations will have no problem using Moodle. There is almost no difference between registering to an ordinary forum on internet and using Moodle. 2. THE STUDY Within the scope of Common European Framework of References for Foreign Language Teaching, the objectives to be achieved by students for each language skill at the level B1 are defined. The preparatory students of German Language Translation and Interpretation Department of 2007-2008 academic year are the participants of the study. All the population enrolled the program that year are involved in the study. This study, at the preparatory program of Mersin University, is carried out through two semesters. The students of the department are divided into two groups. The program lasted 31 weeks including exam and teaching weeks. The writing class hours are supported with Moodle (see Attachment). In general, students are expected to “write personal letters, compose simple texts on the topics of their personal interests, write faxes, e-mails and personal backgrounds, and create an article on any subject for school newspaper, respond to an advertisement” (during) the current research on the basis of writing skill. Besides face-to face activities, extra writing exercises have been used over language learning platform-Moodle- with the students. As a course textbook “Schritte International” which is suitable for the level B1 on the basis of Common European Framework of References for Foreign Language Teaching is used. The chosen subjects for writing classes based on face-to-face lessonactivities’ curriculum are intensified by using suitable modules among others in Moodle to improve students’ writing skills. The students are Saziye Yaman, Tulin Arslan 447 provided with the opportunity to practice authentic and interactive exercises that are related to real life, and based on problem-solving view as constructivist approach suggests. Moodle as an aid is an open source language environment platform which is made up of modules, and appropriate for “online texts, link to a file/site, and wiki” writing exercises through the modules in 1.8 software program. The examples will be given to a foresaid modules; “link to a website” (Figure 1), “online text” 8Figure 2), and “wiki” (Figure 3). 2.1. Link to a file or web site On the tasks as “book a hotel room” and “fill in a form”, students are provided to choose a hotel room and fill in a real form regarding their own wishes on the German web page by linking them with real-life. On the one hand, students get information about “Jugendherberge”, a hostel where mostly the youth prefers; on the other hand, they choose a hostel regarding their own preferences. They send the filled-form, the features of the hostel and its location, and the reasons of their choices by writing an online text to their teacher Figure 1. Link to a file or web site 448 & Information & communication in foreign language Teaching/learning 2.2. Online Text Texts that students created in the online-text task by writing their day were sent back to students by teacher after checked and corrected. On feedback such techniques like using different colors or highlighting were used in order to attract students’ attention. Students’ original texts are always saved and students are given chance to compare those texts. Figure 2. Online Text 2.3. Wiki Students are asked to create a story by using their own imagination. The writing process is started by teacher with writing a title. Any changes made on texts and when they are made by each student can be followed by Moodle, and every student can follow the changes made by others. This kind of writing exercise increases interaction among students and a cooperative writing activity can be produced. Saziye Yaman, Tulin Arslan 449 Figure 3. Wiki 3. CONCLUSION In conclusion, the learning platform Moodle supplies an electronic version of all learning and supporting materials and activities. It is an e-learning tool that can offer simple and safe solutions to any instution no matter how large or small. It facilitates online collaborations which can be teacher to student, student to student or teacher to teacher. With Moodle, courses can be re-constructed, and each course has its own set of resources and activities called modules, and can be customised in terms of organisation and appearance. The courses can be password protected so that only enrolled students or teachers have acces. Once a course is set up, it can be filled with activities and texts including audio and video. In addition, Moodle is an open source. That means, it can be organised in a way that a teacher wants by choosing his own banners, organisations, contents and modules. Despite some of the handicaps of using Moodle, it is efficient and strong enough to support a course electronically without spending huge amount of money like you have to do while building a website. Considering that it is still under development process, Moodle will improve much more in the following years thanks to the feedback it gets from its users. Especially some of the studies that contribute to globalization and development of societies like “Second Language Learning” should try to get the most benefit from the facilities of such platforms as they give a good chance to share knowledge and help a lot to self development. 450 & Information & communication in foreign language Teaching/learning Online sources can even be used to connect to someone living on the other side of the world and exchange ideas about a field of his expertise. The only limitation in this area of combining education with technology is the humans’ mind. REFERENCES Gertsch, F. (2007) Das Moodle 1.8 Praxisbuch- Online-Lernumgebungen anbieten und verwalten, München: Addison-Wesley Verlag. Kök, A. (2008) “An Online Social Constructivist Tool: A Secondary School Experience In The Developing World” July, 2008. TOJDE 9, (3) 8798. http://tojde.anadolu.edu.tr/tojde31/pdf/article_7.pdf. Rice IV, W.H. (2006) Moodle E-Learning Course Development- A complete guide to successful using Moodle, Birmingham-UK: Packt Publishing Ltd. Vygotsky, L.S. (1990) Vygotsky and education: instructional implications and applications of sociohistorical psychology. Luis C. Moll (ed.) New York. Cambridge University Press. Moodle (2005) Moodle website. http://moodle.org. (accessed: 01.10.2009) Structure Practiced Writing Focus Moodle Supported Activities Product/s 1&2 Interrogative pronouns Personal pronouns Verb flections Prepositions “aus” Personal pronouns Verb flections Prepositions “in” *Fill in the application form. *Fill in the application form! module: Link to a file or website An original application form 3 Yes/no questions Using without articles Uncertain article Negative article 4 Certain articles Words for place Adjectives Personal pronouns Negative Verb flections Verbs that are separable Verb flections Place of verb in a sentence Prepositions am, um, von…bis *Write about a day/time you spent! module: Online text Composing a short text 5 Accusative Yes/no questions and yes, no, answer Verb flections *Writing exercise: *Reply to SMS *Write about a day/time you spent. -Write an advertisement -Writing exercise: Hi from holiday. Write a postcard. A short text Writing an e-card 451 *They wrote an advertisement about themselves by searching at www. deutschlern.net module: Online text *They composed a card from http://www.grusskarten-e-cards. de/grusskarten/urlaub.php and forwarded them. / module: Link to a file or website Saziye Yaman, Tulin Arslan ATTACHMENT Weeks 7 Word structure Past perfect Preposition “als” Prepositions for time Modal verbs have to, be able to Pronoun “man” Imperative Writing exercise: my job - Writing exercise: A postcard from Vienna - Fill in the form 8 Possessive pronouns Modal verb Writing exercise: Asking questions in written form 9 Preposition “with” Prepositions for place Prepositions for time Request form Conductive IISubjunctive Verbs with prefixes -Writing exercise. Read and reply (e-mail) And a time/day you have spent? Write. *An e-mail was sent from Australia and they are wanted to reply to this e-mail. module: Online text Replying an e-mail. *They are wanted to write about their dream work and job module: Online text *A postcard was chosen from www. berlin.de and sent as an e-mail module: Link to a file or website *Postcards were collected in a module: display a directory Composing a text. Choosing an e-card and forwarding it. *A hotel was chosen from http://www. jugendherberge.de/de/ and a text was composed, reservation form of the hotel was filled in. module: Online text *Write about a time/day you have spent! module: Online text *Share your problems with modals! module: Forum A informative text about the reservation form and the hotel A short text Give and take about a subject they have problem 452 & Information & communication in foreign language Teaching/learning 6 Modal verbs Perfect 11 Ordinal numbers Personal pronouns- Accusative Conjunction: because Verb flection 12 Conjunction “-because”: perfect flections of verbs Genitive: Preposition Preposition for directions 13 Indefinite pronouns *What do you think about fashion? module: Forum *What do you think about European Football Cup? module: Forum Give and take about their interested subject -Write an SMS or e-mail. -Write an invitation. -Writing exercise. New Year Celebration. Write a reply to a postcard. *Writing an apologize letter module: Online text *Sending birthday invitation card module: Online text *Do you like celebrations? module: Forum A short text Sending ecard Give and take ideas about the subject Read and reply (giving a negative reply, rejecting) - My Palma tour. Write a postcard. Writing exercise: read and reply (e-mail) -Write a note *Are you interested in babysitting in Germany? Click on http://www. vij-stuttgart.de and get information about babysitting! module: Online text *What do you think about Erasmus? module: Forum *What do you think about mutual life? module: Forum *What does feast mean to you? module: Workshop Get information about babysitting Give and take about Erasmus Give and take about mutual life Composing a text about the meaning of feast Saziye Yaman, Tulin Arslan 10 Demonstrative pronouns Interrogative pronoun Demonstrative pronoun Adjective grading Verb flections Personal pronouns Dative Verbs with dative 453 -Writing exercise: Mrs. Breiter called. Take a note as an e-mail. http://www.vhs-volmetal.de/ *Fill in the application form by choosing a course module: Online text *Attach the application form to the new e-mail!/ module: upload a single file 15 Modal verbs Präteritum flections Conjunctions - Apply to the course number 9 at page 63 in the course book. Fill in the form. 16 As an object, dative Place of objects in a sentence -Writing exercise. A very *Write an e-mail about wedding nice celebration. Write an celebration! e-mail. module: journal 17 Conjunctions Konjuktiv II Adjective flections Adjective grading: Comparing 18 Passive voice Adjective clause Composing word -Writing exercise. What are you doing at weekends? Write an e-mail -Writing exercise. What is your favourite thing? *A weekend in Germany.Students were given a 4-cities alternative and wanted to make a holiday plan for weekend. www.berlin.de, www. muenchen.de, www.koeln.de, www. hamburg.deThey took a picture of their favorite thing and forward, and then write about it module: Online text module: upload a single file Applying a course they wanted Writing email A search about Germany, a short text on discovery of touristic places A short text about their favorite thing 454 & Information & communication in foreign language Teaching/learning 14 Conductive II: (-had to) Conjunction Reflective verbs Verbs with prepositions interrogative pronoun and prepositions 20 Interrogative sentences with interrogative pronouns “lassen”verb -how do you fill in here? (fill in the form) - writing exercise. Does money make happy? Or? Choose a text and write your ideas in a chat room. *Does money make happy? module: Forum 21 perfect and prateritum Konjuktiv II word structure Diminutive: -chen 22 “…while” conjuction Plusquamperfekt: past perfect tense 23 “…even though” conjuction Relative clause genetive 19 Give and take about lesson subject 455 -write a reply to an email -writing exercise. Write a short reply to the e-mail of Carsten Tsara. -write a postcard Saziye Yaman, Tulin Arslan Preposion for place Conjuction “therefore” Word structure Adjective flections Preposition: Preposition for time *Make a weekend programme to Fr. Yetişkin, an assisstant friend by giving pictures of Anamur, Silifke and Taşucu, sub provinces of Mersin, and searching from website, http:// www.mersin.gov.tr/ and present the region you choose/ module: Online text *Composing a story module: wiki Recognizing touristic places and composing short texts about them. Composing a text that they have imagined on their owncollaborative study Writing email Searching German courses and composing a text 25 …to do: infinitive structure with “brauchen zu” verb Conjuctions: “damit” “statt zu”..instead of, “ohne zu”, without doing Read the application text and fill in the table! A gift from Germany (memory). Take a written information about it. *Applying By searching http://www.nikolauspflege.de/, they will apply to works they have wanted. module: Online text *A cuckoo clock from Germany Choose a cuckoo clock from http://www.kuckucksuhr.net/ / / and write its traits! module: Online text Writing a job application Learning an gift belongs to Germany and composing a text about it 26 Conjuctions: nicht nur... sondern auch zwar… aber…: in fact … but… entweder... oder...:either… or… Conjunctive II Unreal wishes: verbs with prepositions Writing exercise: Every time the same conflict with neighbours! *Writing a complain letter about a negative action among neighbours module: Online text Composing a short text Composing personal portfolio. Read portfolios and underline personal traits. *Corresponding with German students indifferent countries from www.deutschlern.net module: Online text *discussion about friendship http:// www.tulinarslan.com/Moodle/mod/ forum/view.php?id= 18 module: forum Composing personal portfolio and having friends 24 27 “…because of” preposition Conjuctions “if” conjunction Relative clause Noun adjectives Conjunctions: as… so … 456 & Information & communication in foreign language Teaching/learning Exam: Writing a letter to a friend *Reply a letter module: Online text *Take information about German courses from the following website and compose a text about it! http:// www.humboldt-institut.org/ www. goethe.de module: Online text 29 A reader Future tense: Preposition: in, out Writing a letter Now Conjunction: because…, write your own ideas. …since: A letter to Mrs. Edelhar. …till: … through…by doing… Choose a subject and without doing request a suggestion from …apart from Mrs. Edelhart with a letter. Adjective phrase, adjective grading: Participle Perfect Passive 31 There is not a new grammar subject. Which questions, wishes and requests do you want to say to Mrs. Oring? Write to a politician that you prefer. *They wrote on an original forum, they determined on what subject they would write on their own. http://www. edition-deutsch.de/ / module: Online text *Writing a story about an object module: Online text *Complain writing module: Online text Give and take on an original forum site Writing a story about an object Complain letter *Writing a reader letter to a newspaper http://www.tagesspiegel.de/meinung/ leserbriefe/ module: Online text *Read the letter and give a suggestion / module: Online text Writing a letter on a subject they prefer to a newspaper in German Suggesting, composing a text *Wishes and suggestions/ module: Online text Composing a text that is stating wishes and suggestions to a person who has political identity 457 30 Forum: Your comment2nd tour. Taking your friend’s comment. A toothbrush that is speaking- Column writing “The best side of my life” Choose a situation and write a complain letter. Saziye Yaman, Tulin Arslan 28 Conjunction “as if”: Conjunction “during, …as long as” Relative clause with “was” and “wo”: Verb adjective: Conjunctions: neither… nor: Not only… but also: Not only its servicing but also taste is perfect. CONNECT, COMMUNICATE, COLLABORATE, CREATE: THE 4 CS FRAMEWORK OF WEB 2.0 IN EDUCATION Marina Karvouni, Magdalene Siatouni Epirus Institute of Technology, Greece. 1. INTRODUCTION O VER THE LAST FEW YEARS THE RAPID growth of social computing or Web 2.0 applications and supporting technologies both in terms of number of users/subscribers and in terms of usage patterns leads to the fact that today’s students form the ‘Net generation’, having access to global, interactive and multimedia rich electronic resources. Taking for granted that technologies once imagined are now opportunities and the fact that the next generation of students will bring with them more knowledge and sophisticated skills in the use of information technologies, the challenge for educators to find a way to adapt their teaching to the technology or adapt the technology to their teaching cannot be ignored. This article will serve mainly as an idea generator, especially for teachers looking for ways either to update and enrich their courses or to explore new concepts and initiatives in learning. In particular, it will investigate and present the usefulness of 5 web-based applications, namely blogging, video-creating/sharing, microblogging, wikis & podcasting and provide at the same time an extensive but (nonexhaustive) description of how these could construct a whole new platform on which students can connect, communicate, collaborate and create. It is within this ‘4 Cs’ framework that the present study will try to evaluate the huge potentiality of the above mentioned tools. 2. WEB 2.0- LITERATURE REVIEW Web 2.0 technologies could be seen by some as the latest buzz word sweeping the Internet. There seems to be another Web 2.0 site or software application turning up every minute1, that is why these technologies 1 1 Web 2.0 tools are growing exponentially in their number and variety of applications. The impact of this change on software developers and others who are continually thinking up new ways to use the Web can be seen in a site like Go2Web20.net, which maintains a catalogue of the logos of every Web 2.0 application submitted to the site. Marina Karvouni, Magdalene Siatouni 459 are considered to be the world’s fastest growing web services. The term became popular in the aftermath of a brainstorming session conference held in 2004 between Tim O’Reilly, a prominent business leader, and MediaLive International. The core principles around the Web 2.0 concept, which were outlined as a result of the conference include the Web as a platform, lightweight programming models, software above the level of single device, and rich user experiences (O’Reilly, 2005). However, Anderson (2007) –quoted in Salehe (2008: 24) - also referred to some of the above principles looking at them in a more social perspective. These are: individual production and user generated content, architecture of participation, network effects and openness. According to McLoughlin, & Lee (2008: 10) the architecture of participation “entails sharing of digital artifacts by groups, teams, and individuals, ensuring that the Web is responsive to users. It thrives on the concept of collective intelligence, or “wisdom of the crowds” (Surowiecki, 2004), which acknowledges that when working cooperatively and sharing ideas, communities can be significantly more productive than individuals working in isolation”. O’ Reilly (2005), after releasing his first paper, attempted to describe the concepts lying behind Web 2.0, defining the term as follows: “Web 2.0 is the network as platform, spanning all connected devices; Web 2.0 applications are those that make the most of the intrinsic advantages of that platform: delivering software as a continually-updated service that gets better the more people use it, consuming and remixing data from multiple sources, including individual users, while providing their own data and services in a form that allows remixing by others, creating network effects through an ‘architecture of participation’, and going beyond the page metaphor of Web 1.0 to deliver rich user experiences”. O’ Reilly also offered a useful diagram – illustrated in Figure 1, in order to map out some of the key conditions and innovations that he and the others felt that characterized the new generation of the Web, which was fundamentally different from the one that had preceded it. Web 2.0 has also been termed as the “read/write Web”, because it has changed the way people interact with information and with others in the electronic medium. Now, they are able to write on the web without the specialized skills and also create their online content. By allowing its users to view, listen, share, interact and create online what and when they want it, Web 2.0 has “put the WE in the Web” (Baldueza & Chong, 2007: 2). According to Wits (2007: 1), Web 2.0 is software that offers the user or consumer the opportunity to become the creator or broadcaster. An even simpler definition describes Web 2.0 as “the second generation 460 & Information & communication in foreign language Teaching/learning of the World Wide Web, especially the movement away from static webpages to dynamic and shareable content” (Wiktionary, 2009). Although it is beyond the scope of this study to cover all types of Web 2.0 software available, the next sections will attempt to present some of its applications that could be constructively leveraged for educational use. Figure 1: Tim O’Reilly’s Web 2.0 ‘meme map’ (2005) 3. WHAT IS BLOGGING? According to Wikipedia, a blog (a contraction of the term ‘web log’) is a type of website, usually maintained by an individual with regular entries of commentary, descriptions of events, or other material such as graphics or video. Entries are commonly displayed in reverse-chronological order. “Blog” can also be used as a verb, meaning to maintain or add content to a blog. Many blogs provide commentary or news on a particular subject; others function as more personal online diaries. A typical blog combines text, images, and links to other blogs, web pages, and other media related to its topic. The ability for readers to leave comments in an interactive format is an important part of blogging. Marina Karvouni, Magdalene Siatouni 461 3.1 What makes blogging so popular? Utecht (2006) -quoted in Shihab (2008: 3)- explains that today’s students like to customize their own digital devices and work environments. Any device or application that is not customizable is of no use to them. Blogs perfectly address to this need, since a factor driving their popularity is the tremendous reduction in cost and complexity it represents compared to older, more capital-intensive publishing models, whether in the print world or even on the Web (Cobb, 2008: 44). A blog owner can edit or update a new entry very easily. To be more precise, unlike a standard website, weblog entries are made by typing directly into the browser and with the click of a button are instantly published on the internet. All basic document formatting requires no knowledge of HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) or FTP (File Transfer Protocol). However, with a very basic knowledge of HTML, users can extend their ability to customize the layout of their blog and even enhance its attractiveness. What is simply required for the creation of a blog is a hosting service2, i.e. a website that will give the user access to everything they need in order to create a blog. The high rates of blogging popularity have been frequently indicated by statistical data taken from various sources. For instance, according to Walker (2006), from February 2005 to February 2006 Blogger.com (a popular free hosting service) has grown by a factor of 528%. Seventy five thousand new blogs are created every day at an average of one blog per second. Technorati, a blog tracking service, logged over 57 million blogs between March 2003 and October 2006, while in December 2007 it was tracking more than 112,000,000 blogs. In February 2008, Hogan (in Shihab, 2008: 3) reported that 114 million blogs have been published at the rate of 175,000 new blogs per day. 3.2 Blogging in education and their uses Blogs are extremely popular with the youth3, so it would be hard to ignore their implications for educational settings. Although educators have been 2 Some of the most common hosting services are: • Blogger (http://www.blogger.com/) • LiveJournal (http://www.livejournal.com/) • Pathfinder (http://blogs.pathfinder.gr/) • Wordpress (http://wordpress.com) • Edublogs (http://edublogs.org/) 3 A study discloses that 40.4 percent of blog authors are under the age of 20 [Huffaker (2004), quoting Henning (2003) & Herring, et al. (2004)]. Similarly, a visit to the statistics page of Livejournal.com, one of the most popular blog– hosted web sites, discloses that the largest distribution of blog authors also falls under the age of 20. 462 & Information & communication in foreign language Teaching/learning slower at adopting blogs (for a variety of reasons, such as access, privacy, and security issues), as the blogging-phenomenon started sweeping the internet, more and more teachers and schools started to experiment with the technology as a way to communicate with students and parents, archive and publish student work and ‘manage’ the knowledge that members of the school community create (Richardson, 2004). Blogging has quickly become one of the most effective learning tools in education today, introducing students with new methods of communicating, improving their writing, and helping them to find their voice. Educators generally blog about school news, philosophies, and class activities. On the other hand, students tend to write about current events, personal beliefs, and topics related to their education. These blogs written by someone related to education are known as edublogs, while educators who blog are often called edubloggers4 (Wikipedia). At this point reference should also be made to the Edublog site, which addresses exclusively to people who are engaged in education and offers a wide range of excellent services for both teachers and students. The use of blogs, as is the case with every other teaching tool depends on the specific teaching and learning objectives and needs, so the following list is only indicative of the ways that blogs can be implemented in the classroom. The aim is to point towards their versatile nature and dynamic features, which make them a resourceful teaching and learning tool that could serve a wide range of educational purposes. 3.2.1 A tutor’s blog — post tips, advice, suggestions, announcements and readings — remind of homework assignments and upcoming discussion topics — provide written feedback (collective or individual) on students’ performance — create an online discussion space (e.g. bring up specific topics for discussion with students) — share useful material for the content of the course and provide resources of links for self-study — concentrate on the development/practice of specific skills (e.g. reading, writing, listening) with the integration of multimedia of all descriptions (online video, multimedia presentations, slideshows and more). 4 Stephen Downes, Michael Feldstein, Will Richardson, James N. Farmer are considered to be some of the pioneer educational bloggers. Communities of edubloggers occasionally gather for sessions organized using a wiki at edubloggercon.com. Marina Karvouni, Magdalene Siatouni — — 463 get feedback from students, colleagues and parents (e.g. by allowing anonymous commenting) communicate with parents 3.2.2 A learner’s blog — post or submit their assignments — record their experience in class and reflect on their learning process — comment on their readings — post additional information and course-related resources — create their e-portfolio — receive/send comments or feedback by their tutor/other learners — participate in an academic blogosphere, in which they contribute their thoughts to issues involved in their subject areas or future professions. 3.2.3 A class blog — used as a free-form bulletin board (post messages, images, and links related to course topics or thoughts on a common theme assigned for homework) — facilitate project-based learning (e.g. document different phases of a project) 4. VIDEO CREATING/SHARING It is a fact that when learners become actively involved in technology productions they develop learning skills, communication skills, and visual analysis skills, all of which are applied to real-life learning within the classroom curriculum. By participating in all stages of production, motivation is enhanced. In years past if someone wanted to create video, they had to have (often expensive) recording and editing equipment. Today, the web has made it possible for anyone to create and edit professional-looking content without having to purchase any special equipment or software. Creating videos is one way to engage learners in the process of active, creative and exploratory learning, especially when there are numerous sites which facilitate this process through the software, services and tools they provide, making the whole process of creating easier, more exciting and imaginative. Most of these applications usually cater for the sharing of these videos, which can be made available through a standard website, a blog, a social networking site or other web-based learning environments. In particular, video sharing refers to software or sites that enable a user to 464 & Information & communication in foreign language Teaching/learning publish and share their video content. They offer upload forms providing users with the ability to select video clips from their own PCs and share them. Some of these resources that could be applied to education are described in the next sections. 4.1 YouTube-Overview and Features Founded in February 2005, YouTube began as a personal video sharing service but has quickly grown into the world’s most successful leading video community on the Internet, allowing millions of people to discover, watch and share originally-created videos. It provides a forum for people to connect, inform, and inspire others across the globe and acts as a distribution platform for original content creators and advertisers large and small. People are watching hundreds of millions of videos daily on YouTube and are also uploading hundreds of thousands of videos. In fact, every minute, 20 hours of video is uploaded to YouTube, according to the statistics provided by the company itself, a fact that indicates YouTube’s great impact on Internet traffic nowadays. Online videos existed long before YouTube entered the scene. However, uploading, managing, sharing and watching videos were cumbersome due to the lack of an easy-to-use integrated platform. The new generation of video sharing sites, such as YouTube and its competitors, has overcome those problems, as their systems allow content suppliers to upload video effortlessly, and to tag uploaded videos with keywords. Users can easily share videos by mailing links to them, or embedding them in blogs, while they can also rate and comment on them, bringing new social aspects to the viewing of videos. Cobb (2008: 30) also adds the term social media because of the established “social interaction with the user-produced media”. The social network existing in YouTube further enables communities and groups, as “videos are no longer independent from each other, and neither are users” (Cheng et. al, 2008: 229). This has substantially contributed to the success of YouTube and similar sites. These new generation sites are also known as user generated content (UGC) sites, in which the users are participatory and creative. 4.1.1 YouTube in education The relatively low complexity and cost of producing and distributing on demand video (another broad term used to describe this media source) may open up opportunities to educational fields. Although YouTube does not provide an educational category (except TeacherTube or SchoolTube)5, it has proved to be a valuable source of video content 5 SchoolTube is a free media sharing website that provides students and educators a safe, world class video database. All student created materials on Marina Karvouni, Magdalene Siatouni 465 for educational purposes. National Geographic, for instance has a great presence there. It is a tremendous place for students to be able to share products with a global audience, which is very motivational to them. The list below offers a number of possible uses of YouTube in instructional settings: — Teachers and learners can create specific theme-based videos. — Find videos on current issues and events or as part of project research materials. — Interview experts. — Record and publish conference sessions. — Practise language with subtitling and caption services (e.g. Dotsub and CaptionTube). — Capture stories to bring learning objectives to life. — Record discussions (“talking heads”) either as a course resource or as part of a student’s e-portfolio. — Teachers can add quick videos as a fun introduction to a class or a project. — Teachers can record lessons for students (and parents) to access in their own time. 4.1.2 YouTube: criticisms As with many online media sources, inappropriate examples can easily be found. YouTube has regularly faced criticism over the offensive content in some of its videos, although its terms of service forbid the uploading of material likely to be considered inappropriate. In many school systems, video sharing sites are evil and especially YouTube is blocked from students in an attempt to hide non-educational material and explicit content (as there are many hilarious, pointless, painful, and explicit videos that someone could easily find). The best solution to this problem could be a teacher who will take the time to educate his/her students on ethical and responsible use of technology. “Simply avoiding it because a student might abuse it is akin to burying one’s head in the sand, hoping the bad thing will just go away” (Rodgers, 2009). A second way to control improper video content is using services (like SafeShare.TV or Quietube) that make it possible to view YouTube videos without displaying advertising, related SchoolTube must be approved by registered teachers. TeacherTube is a video sharing website, designed to allow those in the educational industry, particularly teachers, to share educational resources. The site contains a mixture of classroom teaching resources and others designed to aid teacher training. 466 & Information & communication in foreign language Teaching/learning videos, associated comments, ratings and sidebar content. Some of these services also provide the user with the practical option to select and play only part of their video. 4.2 Animoto/Masher: features Animoto and Masher are two free video-creating resources that due to their dynamic, and innovative digital outlets, manage to capture learners’ excitement for online creations, keep them engaged in course content, and make teaching and learning more fun. To be more specific, Animoto is a web tool designed to help people create custom, professional quality videos from digital pictures and music. It typically charges customers to make full-length videos (more than 30 sec), but Animoto for Education6 provides teachers with an educational account and help them gain access to full-length video creation for free. Making an Animoto video is a simple two-step process which includes uploading images, then selecting music, and beautifully orchestrated, completely unique, movie trailer-like video pieces are automatically produced. Similarly, Masher is a free tool for creating video mash-ups. Masher offers a large collection of video clips from the BBC’s Motion Gallery. There is a large music library, an effects library, and a good selection of video player skins, too. If someone does not find content that they like in Masher’s library, they can add their own images, video and music clips through its uploader. Creating with both tools is a simple matter of dragging elements from the media gallery into the timeline editor. From there users can arrange the sequence of elements using the drag and drop interface, and also insert their text. 4.2.1 Animoto/Masher: applications in education Both these tools can successfully apply to education. The following list includes some of their possible uses by both teachers and learners: — Introduce a unit of a study. — Work on a project (individually or collaboratively). 6 Animoto for Education provides an array of tools for creating videos in the classroom. It takes just minutes to create a video which can bring your lessons to life. It automatically analyzes the music, photos and video clips that you choose, and orchestrates a custom video, leaving you and your students free to focus on the content and narrative of their videos. Mixing relevant messaging, statistics and quotes among the pictures is a way to inspire students’ work. For more information visit: http://animoto.com/education/features Marina Karvouni, Magdalene Siatouni — — 467 Create subject-specific videos. Email, download and embed videos into other sites, thus promoting the collaborative and social aspect of learning. 5. WIKIS According to the well-known interactive encyclopedia Wikipedia a wiki is a website that allows the easy creation and editing of any number of interlinked webpages, using a simplified markup language within the browser (Wikipedia, 2009). The word ‘wiki’ comes from the Hawaiian word for “quick” and it was named by Ward Cunningham, who remembered a Honolulu International Airport counter employee telling him to take the “Wiki Wiki” shuttle bus that runs between the airport’s terminals. Some of the most well-known wiki examples include the abovementioned collaborative encyclopedia Wikipedia, personal wikis (e.g. family information, travel journals), company wikis (e.g. for company projects), technical wikis (e.g. from users on a product) or educational wikis by teachers or students. The benefits of using wikis in the foreign language classroom are numerous including the use of relatively simple technology for both teachers and students with limited knowledge of IT, the integration of project-based and collaborative learning for a more thorough approach to language learning, higher order thinking encouragement and the achievement of academic and technology standards. Therefore, wikis could be particularly useful as learning tools (Davis, 2006) and some of their learning applications include: — curriculum planning (e.g. lesson summaries, worksheets, lesson plans) — collaboration of notes (e.g. story/essay/report/article writing, subject revision) — concept introduction and exploratory projects (e.g. whole-class / group / individual projects) — dissemination of important course information (e.g. important dates calendar, events, activities, meetings) 468 & Information & communication in foreign language Teaching/learning 6. MICROBLOGGING Another very useful Web 2.0 tool which can be used for a variety of applications in the classroom is microblogging. According to Wikipedia (2009) microblogging can be defined as a form of blogging that lets you write brief text updates (no more than 140-200 characters depending on the platform) about your life on the go and send them to friends and interested observers via text messaging, instant messaging, email or the web. What makes microblogging platforms appealing to young users is that they are allowed to post messages using not only their PC at home but also their laptops or notebooks at Wi-Fi hotspots or their mobile phones and get instant feedback. The four most well-known microblogging platforms are Twitter, Facebook, Jaiku and Pownce, which are accessed daily by millions of users from all over the world. Integrating microblogging activities in the foreign language curriculum could enhance and motivate foreign language learning as it is a simple, easy and well-known practice maybe for the majority of students. Furthermore, with microblogging you can share media and material (e.g. articles from the web, links, photos, files), create a class community and get feedback quickly and easily (e.g. discussions, exchange of ideas) whereas microblogging platforms can be shared with a larger audience or kept private for a specific target group (e.g. only for the class). Below are some basic suggestions for using microblogging in the language learning classroom (Wheeler, 2009): — notify students of changes to course content, schedules, venues or other important information — send short messages in L1/L2 asking students asking for responses/translation — hold discussions involving all the subscribing students — ask students to read an article or chapter and then post their brief summary of the key point(s) or — to follow a famous person/event and document their progress, or — contribute to an ‘account’ or story over a period of time 7. PODCASTING Educause (2005) defines podcasting as “any software and hardware combination that permits automatic downloading of audio files (most commonly in MP3 format) for listening at the user’s convenience”. In more detail, podcasting is a free service that allows pulling audio files (typically MP3s) from a podcasting Web site to listen to on a computer Marina Karvouni, Magdalene Siatouni 469 or a personal digital audio player. Unlike Internet radio, the only thing users have to do is to download the podcast on demand or subscribe via an RSS (Really Simple Syndication) feed, which automatically downloads the audio file to their computer or audio player (Petty, 2008). Figure 2: How podcasting works (Petty, 2008) It becomes evident, therefore, that podcasting can contribute to foreign language teaching and learning (Laderas-Kilkenny, 2007; Middleton, 2008; Wheeler, 2009) by providing a variety of tools for curriculum delivery, offering students the chance to use well-known technology-based entertainment systems (e.g. i-pods, MP3s) for educational purposes. In addition, podcasting can facilitate self-paced learning for all types of learners (kinaesthetic, auditory, visual) and offer extra content for practice and language involvement to highlymotivated and advanced learners or to learners with learning difficulties in a mixed-ability classroom environment. Moreover, podcasting can facilitate distance learning, e-learning or absent students who need audio records for the last lecture or workshop held in class during their absence, familiarise audiences with authentic accents or dialects through continuous listening practice or serve note-taking skills purposes either in a tertiary education environment or as a part of a language preparation course for a foreign language certification (TOEIC, ECPE etc.). Last but not least, podcasting can be a very useful tool for a lecturer or a guest speaker willing to present once to many classes or to a larger audience (life-long learning/e-learning). Thus, while teachers can improve their teaching methods and skills with lecture recordings, 470 & Information & communication in foreign language Teaching/learning interviews or workshop reports with the aid of podcasting, students can be assigned projects involving the production, editing and delivery of a podcast as part of collaborative and social networking activities, improving, consequently, their L2 skills. 8. CONCLUSIONS Pervasive access to broadband Internet connectivity and communication services has created new forms of relationships and patterns of communicating and learning. Web 2.0 and its associated applications and tools have, in many areas, brought about and are continuing to bring about significant shifts in the way people communicate, create, and share information. The expanding lexicon of Web 2.0 resources signal changes in the learning landscape, where learners become active participants, creators of knowledge, and seekers of personal experiences. “In what has been called a culture of participation, the line separating consumers and producers of content is becoming blurred and we are witnessing a new wave of ‘prosumers’, very often learners, who are actively creating and sharing content and ideas” through participatory choice, personal voice, and ultimately, “co-production” (McLoughlin & Lee, 2008: 10). The combined features of Web 2.0 applications are providing a whole new platform on which users can Connect, Communicate, Collaborate and Create together (Jeffares, 2007: 4). Learners can Connect since social software tools make it easy for them to engage deeply with their peers, instructors, other subject-matter experts, and the community at large. They are starting to see how these tools enable them to contribute ideas and content, placing the power of media creation and distribution into the hands of “the people formerly known as the audience” (Rosen, 2006). It is this power that motivates students to Create, present, publish and share their own knowledge and content online. These creations, while fostering personal expression and publication, also allow for social constructivist forms of participation (e.g. by allowing comments and annotations by others or by sharing resources), and thus learners are offered the opportunity to Collaborate, as well. It is a fact, that for “Visions for education to be fully achieved, will require the use of digital technologies, and in particular, the exploitation of digital technologies that enable learners to learn together, to collaborate and to build knowledge” (Owen et al, 2006: 11). The educators’ responsibility to integrate new technologies into their teaching is growing and will continue to grow, because many students are already fluent in the use of social networking tools and deeply engaged in communication and content sharing online or in mobile environments on a daily basis. Marina Karvouni, Magdalene Siatouni 471 However, the next generation of students will bring with them, more knowledge, more comfort and more sophisticated skills in the use of information technologies, so educators should find a way to either adapt their teaching to the technology or adapt the technology to their teaching; what they should take into serious consideration, though, is that although many issues need to be addressed before opening their classrooms up to the world, keeping them closed would probably deprive their students of the huge learning potential that Web 2.0 offers in extending their ability to Connect, Communicate, Collaborate and Create. 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Consulté le 30 septembre 2009 (L’approche actionnelle), http://appd.anglais.free.fr/IMG/pdf/l_ approche_actionnelle.pdf, ( 30/09/2009) : INTERNET — — — — — — — — — — — platea.pntic.mec.es/~cvera/ressources/recurfr39.htm www.oddcast.com/demos/tts/tts_example.php?clients www.priceminister.com www.tv5.org/ www.bbc.co.uk/ www.cbs.com www.rfm.fr www.youtube.com www.itrmanager.com/ www.teachersnetwork.org/ blogger.com 484 & Information & communication in foreign language Teaching/learning : Ω Η 1 . 1. : □ □ 2. : □ □ □ □ □ 13-23 23-30 31-40 41-50 50 3. : □ □ □ 4. – Ά : – – – – – )……..………… ( 5. / / / / / / / / / / / / : □ □ □ □ □ 1 / / / / / – Ά : – – . /Ά /Ά /Ά /Ά /Ά /Ά 485 , . : / . □ □ □ □ □ / . □ □ □ □ □ / ; □ □ □ □ □ ; □ □ □ □ □ ; □ □ □ □ □ 486 & Information & communication in foreign language Teaching/learning ; □ □ □ □ □ . □ □ □ □ □ Ά ( )…..…….. . □ □ □ □ □ site ( . . e-bay) . □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ 487 , . □ □ □ □ □ ; □ □ □ □ □ , - ; □ □ □ □ □ sites ; □ □ □ □ □ ; □ □ □ □ □ sites □ □ □ Ό ; 488 & Information & communication in foreign language Teaching/learning site ; □ □ □ Ό Internet; □ □ □ □ □ ; □ □ □ □ □ ; □ □ □ □ □ vide□ clips internet; □ □ □ □ □ ; □ □ □ □ Ά ( )……………………….. 489 , . ) ω 1( ω ω 5( ) : . □ □ □ □ □ 1 2 3 4 5 , - . □ □ □ □ □ 1 2 3 4 5 . □ □ □ □ □ 1 2 3 4 5 . □ □ □ □ □ 1 2 3 4 5 , . □ □ □ □ □ 1 2 3 4 5 490 & Information & communication in foreign language Teaching/learning . □ □ □ □ □ 1 2 3 4 5 , □ □ □ □ □ . 1 2 3 4 5 . □ □ □ □ □ 1 2 3 4 5 . □ □ □ □ □ 1 2 3 4 5 . □ □ □ □ □ 1 2 3 4 5 491 , . □ □ □ □ □ 1 2 3 4 5 , . □ □ □ □ □ 1 2 3 4 5 , . □ □ □ □ □ 1 2 3 4 5 / . □ □ □ □ □ 1 2 3 4 5 , . □ □ □ □ □ 1 2 3 4 5 - 492 & Information & communication in foreign language Teaching/learning / , . □ □ □ □ □ 1 2 3 4 5 / , . □ □ □ □ □ 1 2 3 4 5 internet, . □ □ □ □ □ 1 2 3 4 5 . □ □ □ □ □ 1 2 3 4 5 Ό , . □ □ □ □ □ 1 2 3 4 5 - 493 , , , . □ □ □ □ □ 1 2 3 4 5 , . □ □ □ □ □ 1 2 3 4 5 , . □ □ □ □ □ 1 2 3 4 5 ! 494 & Information & communication in foreign language Teaching/learning : , 495 … Highlighting the significance and value of specific languages pervading contemporary business transactions, we fostered yet another fervent desire to explore all facets of intercultural communication – something which for us creates, incrementally, an additional precedent on the way to organizing our 4th international conference. Evidently, the unquenched fermentation in language studies in South-eastern Europe has transformed our first tentative steps into confident leaps bridging the gap between the small town hosting our campus, the beautiful port of Igoumenitsa, and the rest of the world… ISBN: 978-960-6619-68-7