LIBRARY ANNEX 2 ALBERT R. MANN tIBRARY* New York State Colleges OF Agriculture and Home Economics' "V „* , AT doRNELL University NA aoo.FM""'"""'"'''""-"'"'^ ^llilMiiiiiliiiii™?''''®'^*"''* °" "'^ compara 3 1924 014 452 225 Cornell University Library The tine original of tliis book is in Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924014452225 A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE ON THE COMPARATIVE METHOD. —" — "The spirit of antiquity, enshrined In sumptuous buildings, vocal in sweet song, In picture speaking with heroic tongue. And with devout solemnities entwined Strikes to the seat of grace within the mind Hence forms that glide with swan-like ease along, Hence motions, even amid the vulgar throng, : To an harmonious decency As confined. the streets were consecrated ground, city one vast temple, dedicate if The To mutual — respect in thought and deed. Wordsworth. ;;:. GOTHIC i, renaissance revivals THE TREE OF ARCHITECTURE, Showing the main growth or evolution of the various The Tree must indicated in a styles. for minor influences cannot diagram of this hind. be taken as suggestive only, « be o M 3 A HISTORY ARCHITECTURE OF ON THE COMPARATIVE METHOD FOR THE CRAFTSMAN, STUDENT, AMATEUR AND BY BANISTER FLETCHER, Professor F.R.I.B.A (Formerly Professor of Architecture in King's College, London) AND BANISTER F. FLETCHER, {University Extension Lecturer on Architecture King's College, London ; R.I.B.A. ' ; F.R.I.B.A., Architect Formerly Lecturer on Architecture Godwin' Bursar, 1893, ' Tite ' Prize Medallist, 1895, Essay Medallist, 1896, Architectural Association Medallist for Design, 1888, Lecturer at the Architectural Association; Hon. Corr. Member of the American Institute of Architects ; Author of " Andrea Palladia, his Life and Works," etc.) FIFTH EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED BY BANISTER F. FLETCHER WITH ABOUT TWO THOUSAND ILLUSTRATIONS B. T. NEW LONDON BATSFORD, 94, HIGH HOLBORN YOJ^K: CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS , nM^ MCMV. PREFACE TO THE FIFTH EDITION. In the Preface to the Fourth Edition I explained the many important additions which had been made since the original publication of this book in 1896, and I desire to point out that in the present Edition the nature of the revision has been on an even more extensive amounting to the rewriting of the greater While much new matter has been intro- scale, portion of the work. duced, the importance of a thorough revision of that already existing has not been overlooked, the utmost care having been taken to verify all important statements and dates, and to amplify such descriptions where this appeared desirable. These remarks as to the text, apply equally to the illustrations, which have been increased by the addition of about editions 2,000. Many of some 700, bringing their total the subjects shown havelbeen re-drawn and corrected in the up to previous in the light of the most recent discoveries. The few years book has been of service not only to the strictly professional student and those connected with design in its application to the minor arts and crafts, but also to that larger body of amateurs to whom Architectural History is year by year becoming a matter of lively interest. It is gratifying to know that it has been adopted as a text-book in Art Schools and in the leading Colleges and Technical Institutions of Great Britain, the United States of America, and Australia, for it is upon these centres we must depend for the formation of a cultivated taste, and the future growth of interest in the Arts. Many causes have combined in helping towards the proper appreciation and enthusiasm for architecture and the arts of design, among which the greatly increased facilities for travel, the conducted educational tours now so popular, and the general interest in photography are undoubtedly important factors. sale of four large editions in the space of a affords strong evidence that the The History of Architecture has, however, until recent years prefauk to the first edition. X Influences 1. iv. V. Social vi. — continued. ' Religion. and Political, Historical. 3.- Architectural Character. Examples of Buildings. 4. Comparative. 2. A. Plan, or general distribution of the building. B. Walls, their construction and treatment. C. Openings, their character and shape. D. Roofs, their treatment and development. E. Columns, their position, structure, and decoration. J F. Mouldings, their form and decoration. G. Ornament, as applied in general to any building. 5. Reference Books. i is divided into the six leading influences that may be expected to shape the architecture of any country or people; Section the first forces, three being structural, the next and the last two the civilizing containing those external historical events which may alter or vary the foregoing. Section 2 describes the character of the architecture, that is, its special quality, and the general effect produced by the buildings as a whole. Section 3 contains the examples, style, briefly . named and i.e. the chief buildings in each described, being the corpus, which the preceding influences affect and from which the subsequent comparative analysis is deduced. Section 4 comparative analysis, in which every style of regarded as the solution of certain fundamental problems, i.e. each building must have all or most of the parts A to G, and consequently there is both interest -and instruction to be gained in learning and comparing how each style has is this architecture is solved these points of the problem. Section 5 gives authorities and more especially directs the reader who wishes to pursue the study of any style in further detail. In treating of the buildings themselves under Section 3 the authors have endeavoured to avoid long descriptions, which are PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. necessarily technical 2ven by those and intolerably dry, and who have had XI difficult to follow, the technical training, and have complete drawings of it before them. They have therefore provided the largest possible number of illustrations, and have confined the text to brief, but it is hoped vivid, notes of either the building or the special qualities and characteristics of the building referred to. It is hoped that the book will appeal not only to students who require an outline of architectural history as part of their artistic and professional education, but also to the increasing number of art workers who are interested in architecture in its relation to those accessory arts in which they are engaged. Lastly it is believed that a work in which architecture is treated as a result and record of civilization, will prove attractive to that increasing public which interests itself in artistic development. ; 2g, New Bridge Street, LuDGATE Circus, E.G. New Year's Day, 1896. CONTENTS. ..... List of Illustrations Prehistoric Architecture PART . . . I.—THE General Introduction . ... Early Christian Architecture Byzantine Architecture Romanesque Architecture in Europe (General Introduction) Italian Romanesque French Romanesque German Romanesque Gothic Architecture in Europe (General Introduction) . . Anglo-Saxon Early English Gothic Decorated Gothic Perpendicular Gothic . . . Scottish Architecture . French Gothic Architecture Belgian and Dutch Gothic Italian Gothic Spanish Gothic . 17^ 192 217 228 246 258 267 278 327 328 Norman German Gothic i 4S ill Architecture Irish Architecture li 9 32 Greek Architecture Tudor — .4 . English Architecture . HISTORICAL STYLES. . Egyptian Architecture Western Asiatic Architecture Roman PAGE xv . . . . Renaissance Architecture (General Introduction) Italian Renaissance Architecture The Florentine School The Roman School The Venetian School Vicenza and Verona 335 34' 349 356 359 3^° 3^2 3^5 393 404 424 437 44^ 44^ 45^ 475 4^8 — CONTENTS. XIV Italian Renaissance Architecture Milan and Genoa The Rococo Style . . . ... . . . . , Spanish Renaissance English Renaissance Architecture 49^ • • . . . ' . . . Belgian and Dutch Renaissance 495 . . French Renaissance Architecture German Renaissance page continued. . S'? • 5^7 533 545 . ..... The Elizabethan Style The Jacobean Style The Anglo-Classic (Seventeenth Century) Style The Queen Anne (Eighteenth Century) Style The Nineteenth Century Style (i 800-1 851) 551 . 5^' 567 578 . 589 . 1851 to present time ,, „ British Colonial Architecture . II.—THE PART General Introduction 593 597 598 . Architecture in the United States . . . ... NON-HISTORICAL STYLES. . 603 Indian Architecture 1. 2. 3. 605 612 The,Buddhist Style The Jaina Style The Hindu Style (a) (b) (c) ..... 618 . . 628 . ... 634 652 653 . ... . . . Syrian Persian 623 . . . Turkish Indian 618 . Chinese and Japanese Architecture Ancient American Architecture Saracenic Architecture Egyptian Spanish 614 . Northern Hindu Chalukyan Dravidian Arabian 497 • 657 659 . . . . . . . 659 663 667 669 .671 Glossary of Architectural Terms 687 Index 697 — — Important Announcement to Professors and Lecttirers on Architecture, Ornamental Art and Decoration. LARGE LECTURE DIAGRAMS.— For the use of Professors and Lecturers, the unique series of i68 plates of line drawings of Architecture and Decorative Art contained in this work are now issued as Large Lecture Diagrams, measuring 40 ins. by 37 ins. They form the characteristic features of the various styles, and should undoubtedly form part of the necessary equipnnent of every important Institution where Architecture forms part of the curriculum. Further particulars and prices will be found in the advertisement at the end of this book. a series of vivid presentments of all CLASS ILLUSTRATIONS. — In response to a desire expressed by lecturers, loose prints of the whole of the illustrations appearing in this volume (comprising 300 separate plates printed on one side of some the paper) are They now available. are supplied in sets, or grouped together in styles as follows I. II. Classic and Early Christian, Medieval. loa Plates. III.— Renaissance and Modern. IV. They Non-Historical. go Plates. Price 4s. 4s. net. net. 75 Plates. 36 Plates. Price : Price Price4s.net. is. dd. net. be found of considerable value for distribution amongst students and others attending classes and lectures, and for special will courses of study. Lantern slides 6i all the illustrations are obtainable from George & Son, Ltd., 33, Fleet Street, E.G. Philip A 11 B. T. applications for BATSFORD, Diagrams should 94, be addressed to — HIGH HOLBORN, LONDON. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. The illustrations have been specially prepared from the authorities mentioned. No. Name. — LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. No. Name. Authorities. 8. Temple of Edfou Photo. 9. An Photo. 10. Egyptian House Egyptian Ornament. Continuous coil spiral. Quadruple spirals Feather ornament Lotus bud and flower Hathor-head capital, Philae Base of column, Karnac Egyptian roll and bead Flinders Petrie. . Palm capital Column from the great hall at Karnac. Column of Thothmes III., Karnac Ward. .... A vulture with outstretched wings A sphinx in granite Incised wall decoration WESTERN ASIATIC ARCHITECTURE. Map 12. of Babylonian Empires. and Persian Perrot and Chipiez. 1 ) Assyrian Examples. Assyrian System of Construction Ziggurat (Observatory) at Khorsabad, ...... ... ..... elevation Palace at Khorsabad, section Ziggurat, Khorsabad, plan . a B r Fergusson. c enlarged view of „ „ angle North-west palace of Nimroud, plan State entrance at Khorsabad, elevation Sargon's palace at Khorsabad, southwest gateway State entrance at Khorsabad, section . 13. d E F Perrot and Chipiez. G H Assyrian Ornament. Capital and base from the ruins of Persepolis Lion hunt from the N.W. palace of Gailhabaud. I Nimroud. ) Capital and base from the ruins of Persepolis Lion from great hall, N.W. palace, - ... ... Nimroud, view Lion from great hall, N.W. palace of Nimroud, elevation. Carved slab, N.W. palace of Nimroud Capital and base from Persepolis, . Carved slab, N.W. palace of Nimroud. C [ D 1 F ) G H buds and J Gailhabaud. From e J I Ceiling decoration of lotus flowers Perrot and Chipiez. a photo. Perrot and Chipiez. Gailhabaud. Perrot and Chipies:. — LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XVU GREEK ARCHITECTURE. Name. No. 14. 15. Authorities. Map of Greece. Pelasgic System of Construction, ... Treasury of Athens, section plan ,, ,, Portion of shaft of column Capital of a column . . . . . . a B Gailhabaud. c n . f I The Gate of Lions, Mycenae Acropolis at Tiryns, plan 16. Greek Examples — e . Gailhabaud. \ F , Perrot and Chipier. I. Greek Construction Portico of Parthenon, half elevation half transverse , , , section part plan ,, ,, S.W. angle of Parthenon as restored . A , . . Restoration of a Doric entablature S. 17. 18. W. . B C D, E, Penrose. Perrot and Chipiez. J Penrose. 1 G, H, J . K, L (Penrose and Plan of the Acropolis at Athens — F . . angle of Parthenon as at present Greek Examples Cockerell. \- . I others. II. Comparative plans of various forms of Temples. 19. — Greek Examples III. The Doric OrderTemple of Ceres at Psestum Temple of Neptune (the Great Temple) ... at ..... ...... Psestum Temple of Aphaia on .iEgina Temple of Theseus Island the (The ... of of Apollo, at Delos Stuart and -Revett, Cockerell, Athena), . . F. . F — Greek Examples IV. Temple of Aphaia (Jupiter Panhellenius) at JEgiDSi „ „ „ , ,, .. „ „ .. , „ ., — west pediment . east elevation transverse section . longitudinal tion . . . . ,, „ „ plan ,, ., „ view ,, Acroterion Acroterion ridge . „ ,, tile „ ,. , „ „ ,. A B c sec- . D E upper of . F.A. C Theseion), D Athens 20. B of Athens The Parthenon (Temple Temple A . . C. R. Cockerell.. F G View lower of Acroterion Antefixse . . H . j — . LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XVlll 21. Authorities. Name. No. Greek Examples — V. The co-called Theseion, or Hephaestos ,, ,, n east elevation Temple of — — , . LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Name. No. 26. Authorities, — — Greek Examples VIII. continued. The Propylsea, section through mutule plsn >> II Penrose. . transverse section „ I 27. — Greek Examples IX. Temple of Apollo Epicurius, at Bassae , „ north elevation A „ „ transverse section „ plan long section Interior detail of B c D „ ., „ ., „ „ plan of Order , „ detail of single Corin- ,, „ details of capital of ,, ,, „ „ Order thian E . Interior P . column . mouldings — ,, ,, ,, ,, Temple at ,, Temple H, setting out of flutes large details of Greek Examples X. The Temple of Neptune, Psestum, plan Basilica), plan C D . F plan ,, G . J i L M .... of Jupiter Olympius at Agrigen tum, Sicily, section Temple of Jupiter Olympius at Agrigentum, elevation . Cockerell. IV. Stuart and Revett's .(Vol. N ' Athens '). O — Greek Examples XI. The Ionic Order Temple on the Ilissus The Erechtheion, east portico The Archaic Temple of Diana, Ephesus A, B, c, . Temple of Minerva Polias at Priene Temple of Apollo Epicurius at Bassffi Temple at Eleusis . — Greek Examples XII. The Erechtheion, Athens, N.W. ,, ... sketch east elevation G E, F, . 30. Stuart and Revett. I K plan Temple 29. Cockerell. H . Sicily, Durand. \ E elevation section 71 II II Choragic monument of Lysicrates, Athens Plan, elevation, and section Tower of the Winds, Athens, elevation section ,, „ „ „ plan. >. .11 I, II Temple of Jupiter Olympius at Agrigen- tum, Gailbabaud. B . „ N . elevation of Apollo Epicurius at Bassse, ,, ,, J K L, M, . long, section elevation Paestum (the -Cockerell. G Corinthian column 28. XIX from H, J, L, D 1 J K Murray. M Mauch. Cockerell. N, o, P Q, Stuart and Revett. Mauch. R , L j Inwood, Middleton and others. h 2 XX No. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Name. No. 37- Authorities. Comparative Examples of Greek and Roman Doorways. ...... Doorway of the Pantheon, Rome, elevation of the Pantheon, Rome, details Doorway, Erechtheion, Athens, elevation Doorway ,, 38- details ,, ,, a . Comparative diagrams of the Greek and Roman Orders of Architecture. Greek Doric Athens Roman —Temple of Doric, by Vignola Ionic Temple on — Greek Athens Roman Theseus at the Ilissus, Ionic, by Scamozzi Greek Corinthian— Choragic Monument of Lysicrates, Athens Roman 39. 40. .... Corinthian Comparison of Mouldings Comparison of Mouldings — I. . Rome Roman and Greek . . and Greek a to x a to M N to V Roman II. ,, ,, 41. — —-Pantheon, ,, ,, Greek Ornament — I. The Ionic Volute- Volute from Cyprian tomb Capital from Egyptian wall painting Bronze armour plate from Tamassos, Cyprus Capital from Neandria Capital from the Heraion at Olympia Ionic Lycian tomb . . . . • Goldman's method of describing Ionic Volute . . . . ,, ,, half front view side view plan, looking up . Temple of Nike Apteros, sketch of angle 42. Greek Ornament — II. ornament from roof of choragic Monument of Lysicrates, Athens Scroll Sanctuary of the Bulls, Delos— enlarged triglyphs, side view front view i> ,, i> enlarged capital, side view ,, front view ,, ,, ,, key plan ,, plan of piers ,, . , , Canephora ..... elevation of piers G . Ionic Volute described by a whelk-shell Angle capital, N. portico of Erechtheion, half section . H, j, K • , xxn LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. No. 42. Greek Ornament — IL Authorities. Name. —continued. Caryatid figure from Erechtheion Typical Greek Funeral Stele 43. . , . Greek Ornament — III. Capital, Temple of Jupiter Olympius, ...... Athens Capital, Tower of the Winds, Athens Capital, choragic Monument of Lysicrates, Cockerell, ... from Tower of the Sculpture's, Athens Half elevation of Stele Greek Ornament E F . — IV. Honeysuckle ornament Lion's head, front • and Revett. Wilid.s, D, Head .Stuart \ Athens 44. Stuart and Revett. ! with [ Anthemion A . B C . side ,, „ Crowning ornament, choragic Monument . . of Lysicrates _ .... Stele head capital from Ereclitheibn Portion of frieze from Parthenon Metope from the Parthenon Anta -J. C. Watt. r E ' F . Acanthus ornament Console from Erechtheion G 1 H J Stuart and Revett. J- K, L J. M Portion of caryatid figure Antefixa ornament C. Watt, Stuart and Revett. N ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. 45. 46. Map of the Roman Empire. Roman Examples — I. — Roman System of Construction Roman walling of concrete with brick facing and methods of heating Roman vaulting and domes of concrete . . . J. 1 A to H I to M / I 47. Plan of the Roman Fora ! ' 48. The Forum Romanum 49. Roman Examples — II. Temple of Fortuna ,, , Arch „ „ Arch restored Virilis, 1 Rome, plan front fafade flank fafade , of Titus, Rome, section others. Joseph . J ,, Henry Middleton. A. Choisy. Taylor and Cresy and . Gatteschi. . ; , . elevation plan „ of Goldsmith's .or ,, Silversmith's Rome, ,, ,, ,, ,, view the south-west section plan elevation . from _Taylor and Cresy. . .. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. No 49- Name. Authorities. Roman Examples—II. —continued. Rome, plan L „ „ front fa9ade M , „ details of entablature N Temple SO. of Satum, part .... cross section „ „ „ plan „ part front elevation long, section „ ,, Temple of Diana ,, „ ,, „ „ „ ,, ,, Tomb Mylassa, at „ ,, „ „ ,, , ' Photo. Asia Minor, half elevation half section perspective view half plans of basestyle and at S. Temple Remi in the Antoninus of Dilettanti. F r South of France and Faustina, H Rome, plan ,, K ,, L ,, „ „ „ plan „ S3- I J view of remains flank fa9ade Ultor, Rome, detail of to corbel, cornice enclosing wall detail of main cornice ,, Temple of Mars Temples .... . Roman Examples —V. at Baalbec, Syria, half section „ „ „ „ Taylor and Cresy. N O P . half entrance fa9ade long, section through . Durand, "Dawkins, and Great Temple „ transverse „ „ Great Temple plan „ 54- section. „ Temple Sketches. G front fa9ade „ ,, -Society of E ... . C D . Wadi-Tagije, North Africa at Dugga, near Tunis, plan and at . A B peri- Rome of Csecilia Metella, view Tomb ; K . ment Tomb Tomb Tomb -Palladio. H . front elevation part side elevation . B C E F G cross section part long, section Maison Carree, Nimes Roman Examples — IV. A D NSmes, plan at Maison Carrie, Nlmes, plan 52. iPalladio. Roman Examples — III. Temple of Venus and Rome, Rome, 51- XXlll .... of Jupiter, section fafade „ Wood. D E F G Roman Examples—VI. The Pantheon Rome, section half-plan Bronze mouldings round the " eye „ at „ . A 1 B i ^ ' C, D Taylor and Cresy. J. H. Middleton. XXIV No. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. No. XXV XXVI No. 71. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Authorities. Name. Optical Corrections in Architecture. Correction of apparent proportions A Effect of color on proportions B The Parthenon Inclination of columns C Method of drawing entasis of column D The Parthenon : Optical corrections to prevent appearance of sagging B, F, G Optical illusions caused by convex and : Pennethorne. Viollet-le-Duc, Pennethorne. A. Ghoisy. concave curves, when drawn in xelation to parallel straight lines H, J EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE. 72. The Basilica Church of Rome 73- S Clemente, Photo. — .. . LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Name. No. 78. Authorities. — Early Christian Ornament continued. S. Giovanni, Rome, mosaic frieze ... cloister XXVII in . . . Digby Wyatt. 11 . Clemente, Rome, parapet and pilaster S. Maria Maggiore, Rome, mosaic S. Giovanni, mosaic floor . K Cattaneo. D'Agincourt. . L Digby Wyatt. S. J BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE 79- Byzantine Examples— I. Byzantine System of Construction. Dome construction to find outline of pendentive Sergius, Constantinople, interior . . . Method S. view S. . ... view . . ..... Constantinople, Sergius, 80. .... ..... — Constantinople, Sophia, Byzantine Examples S« Sophia, . . . . Lelhaby and Swainson. f G H A. Choisy. J exterior K . II. Constantinople, north-east elevation 1 F . Tomb view D E . . S. B c, exterior S. Sergius, Constantinople, plan of Galla Placidia, section Constantinople, sectional S. Sophia, view A, . . . . .... . A S. Sophia, Constantinople, longitudinal section . S. Sophia, Constantinople, 81. 82. ^83. S. Sophia, Constantinople, exterior S, Sophia, Constantinople, interior Comparative Examples of Early Domed Structures. The Minerva Medica, Rome, plan „ S. Vitale, „ ,, section Ravenna, plan section ,1 ,, Cathedral at Aix-la-Chapelle, plan section „ „ „ . Byzantine Examples S. S. — III. Mark, Venice, section Mark, plan S. Front, Perigueux, section S. Front, Perigueux, 8586. 87. « ground plan . plan Mark, Venice, exterior Mark, interior Byzantine Examples IV. S. S. Cathedral at Athens, sketch plan „ W. and „ section . . .... E., elevations Church of Theotokos, Constantinople, W. and S. elevations „ „ plan „ longitudinal section . . . XXVUl No. LIST O? ILLUSTRATIONS LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XXIX Name. XsIJo. Authorities. 99. The Abbaye-aux-Dames, Caen 100. French Romanesque Examples. Abbaye-aux-Hommes, » ,, >> Angouleme Cathedral, I) Photo. exterior transverse section interior A plan n B C section 11 plan „ section Pugin. B F . Sharpe. through dome ) loi. '102. 103. The Abbaye-aux-Hommes, Caen Photo. Porch of Photo. S. Trophlme, Aries . French Romanesque Ornament. Fleac, capital Pontorson, corbel table Vaison, frieze A Ruprich-Robert. r B . C Trophlme, capitals S. Paul-Trois-Ch&teau, archivolt S. D, E Revoil. F Abbaye-de-Montmajour, corbel G AngouISme Cathedral, H frieze 1- „ corbel „ D'Ouezy, capital K Plans of piers L 104. Church of the Apostles, Cologne 105. German Romanesque Examples. Ruprich-Robert. J . . i to P Photo. Church of the Apostles, Cologne, part „ „ Worms ,, „ ,, elevation part section „ plan „ Cathedral, part elevation part section ,, transverse section ,, Worms 107. German Romanesque Ornament. Limburg Cathedral, capitals Church of S. Pantaleon, capital S. Gereon, Cologne, capital and base . Worms Cathedral, cornice Gereon, Cologne, double capital Limburg Cathedral, towers Worms Cathedral, capital and base S. Limburg Cathedral, capitals Ilsenburg Cathedral, capital . column Laach Abbey Church, window Worms Cathedral, doorway ,, ,, - B Boisseree. C D E . F .... 106. Cathedral A King. G plan ,, . . , Photo. A, B XXX LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. No. English Gothic Examples — I. Comparative Examples, showing progress of Gothic Vaulting Waggon vault , „ plan „ stilted ,, .... .... showing diagonal and „ „ transverse groins Abbaye-aux-Hommes, sexpartite vaulting external view „ „ Peterborough, Norman vaulting plan „ „ „ Salisbury, Early English groined vaulting Westminster Abbey, groined, with inter. . . mediate ribs Bristol Cathedral, Decorated Lierne vault S. Mary, Redcliffe, Perpendicular stellar vault interior view .... Gloucester Cathedral, Perpendicular fan vaulting . US- . . . — English Gothic Examples II. Types of Medijeval Open Timber Roofs Stowe Bardolph Church, roof Trinity roof S. . trussed rafter ....... Chapel, Cirencester, Mary Magdalen, Pulham, tie-beam collar- braced roof Trunch Church, hammer-beam roof A B C D E F G H J. L K, N, M P, Q O LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Name. English Gothic Examples— II.- -continued. Types of Mediaeval Open Timber Roofscontinued. .... Middle Temple Hall, double hammer- beam 114. 115. 116. 117- roof XXXI Authorities. xxxu No. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. : LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XXXIV Authorities. Name. No. John's Chapel, Tower of I3S- S. 136. English Gothic Examples London Photo. —XIII. Comparative Examples showing progress of English Gothic Cathedral Architecture Ely Cathedral, nave, interior and exterior Peterborough ,, ,, „ Ripon, choir, interior and exterior Ely, presbytery 137. „ „ A B . . c . . D Sharpe. — XIV. -English Gothic Examples Comparative Examples showing progress of English Gothic Cathedral Architecture (continued). Lichfield Cathedral, nave, interior and exterior Ely choir, interior and exterior Winchester, nave, interior and exterior . . . . . E . F Church, Oxon Photo. 138. Iffley 139. Norman Mouldings. Lincolnshire, zigzag S. Contest, Caen, chevron . .A . ..... Winchester, billet Canterbury ,, Westminster, chevron . North Hinksey ,, Abbaye aux-Dames, . B c . . D . . . . . . . . . f . . G . . . billet . Stoneleigh, double cone S. Peters-at-Gowts, nebule Iffley, Oxon., flower . e H ... Lincoln, embattled . The Evolution L . —XV. of Gothic Spires in England Raunds, Northants. S. John, Keystone, Hunts. S. Wulfran, Grantham, Lines. Salisbury Cathedral S. Mary, Bloxham, Oxon. . . S. Peter, Kettering, Northants. S. James, Louth, Lines. . . . b c . . D . . e . . f Buttress . h . : a . E. English, Southwell Minster Decorated, S. Mary Magdalen, Oxford Perpendicular, Divinity School, Oxford Detached Flying Buttress, Chapter Ho. Lincoln Flying Buttresses, Amiens and Rheims Constructive principle of the Mediaeval . C. Wickes. g . —XVI. The Evolution of the Gothic Norman, Fountains Abbey . b . c . d . Church a . Warwickshire English Gothic Examples : . . 141. M . S. Peter, S. Michael, Coventry, man, Bloxam, and others. K . . English Gothic Examples Parker, Rick - j . North Hinksey, beaks head 140. Sharpe. G . Sketches. e f, G h — : : LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Name. No. 142. XXXV English Gothic Examples Authorities. XVII. Comparative Examples showing progress of Gothic Tracery Development ... Lynchmere, plate tracery Woodstock „ „ Dorchester, bar tracery Minster Lovel, bar tracery A B . . . . . . c . d . . Headington, plate tracery Wimborne Minster, grouped lancet lights Warmington, grouped lancet lights Long Wittenham, geometrical tracery S. Mary Magdalen, curvilinear tracery Duston, clerestory vifindows Great Milton, curvilinear tracery New College Chapel, rectilinear tracery King's College Chapel „ ,> S. Mary, Dinan, Flamboyant example . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . 143, E F G H 'Parker. j K, L M N O P English Gothic Examples— XVIII. Comparative Examples of English Gothic Doorways Clare Church, elevation ... a and base jamb moulding ,, ,, S. John, Cley, half exterior and interior capital and base ,, „ arch mould „ jamb and arch mould „ ,, capital and base ,, ,, Merton College Chapel, Oxford, elevation capital and base „ ,, jamb and arch ,, ,, ,, moulds jamb mould ,, „ capital „ ,, . . , . . . . . . ,, . . ,, . . . ,, 144. English Gothic Examples J. K. Colling. D E F Bowman and Crowther. G h j K L rPugin. M XIX. Norman Font, Coleshill, Warwickshire E. English Font, Lackford, Suffolk Decorated Font, Offley, Herts Perpendicular Font, Clymping Ch, Sussex Norman Piscina, Crowmarsh, Oxford. . . . A b c D y Parker. Braddon. E shire E. English Piscina, Cowling, Suffolk . Decorated Piscina, Gt, Bedwin, Wiltshire Perpendicular Piscina, Cobham, Kent E. English Tabernacle, Warmington, . Northants Norman B c . . . . . Mary, Leicester Decorated Tabernacle, Exeter Cathedral E. English Sedilia, Rushden, Northants Decorated Sedilia, Merton, Oxon Perpendicular Sedilia, S. Mary, Oxon Sedilia, S. . . . F G H •Parker. j K L M N o C 2 XXX VI No. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Name. — . LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Name, No. 149. Authorities. English Gothic Ornament — — IV. continued. Sanctus Bell Bloxham Church, Oxon. Early English Lincoln CatheFinials .... — dral dral Pendant Saints, Bosses : Early English . . . dral . J K . — Southwell Minster. L — Mary's S. Church, Bury St. Edmunds Early English bracket S. Alban's Abbey Poppy-heads Paston Church, Norfolk Winchester Cathedral ,, Perpendicular . : : . . 151- M N o P J Compton Wynyates, Warwickshire Examples of Scottish Architecture. Rothesay Castle, plan Nash. A . Drum Castle, plan Doune Castle, plan Castle Frazer, plan B . C D . E F Cowane's Hospital, plan Glamis Castle, plan view from the south-east ,, ,, George Heriol's Hospital, plan . . . . ,, ,, . way ,, Examples plan MacGibbon and G H Ross. entrance gate. . J K Grangepans, sketch from the S.E. 152- i-J. Westminster Abbey Decorated ,, Colling. G H . — Lincoln Cathe- ,, ,, K. F — : Evesham ,, a Photo. E Perpendicular York Minster Perpendicular, All „ Stone From 1 Winchester Cathe- Decorated „ D . — : ISO. XXXVU L . of Irish Architecture. Cormac's Chapel, Cashel, ground plan view from the ,, „ ,, . , , , , , , S.E. plan of ,, ,, ,, section through ,, ,, ,, ,, „ ,, ,, ,, nave . crofts. . . A Arthur Hill. E Fergusson. c D long, section section through E sanctuary F i- Arthur Hill. H N. porch G Tower, Devenish Kilree, Kilkenny ,, . ; Fergusson. J FRENCH GOTHIC. 153- French Gothic Examples — Beauvais Cathedral, section plan ,, „ ,, ., I. . . . plans of buttress N&tre Dame, Paris, wheel window A C . I Burges. D, E, . f, Gailhabaud. XXXVIU LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Name. No. 167. Belgian Gothic Examples. S. Gudule, Brussels, elevation. „ section „ „ interior elevation . plan . „ „ . . plan „ ... . 169. 170. German Gothic Examples — I. Hall, Bruges Hall, Ghent . . section Town Town . „ ,, „ „ „ „ section interior piers „ „ plan . . . 172. German Gothic Examples — H. . . section . „ interior . Marburg, plan „ „ „ Stephen, Vienna 173. S. 174. German Gothic Ornament . . Freibourg Cathedral, canopy capitals Woms, S. Paul, capitals Cologne, parapet corbel capital gargoyles ,, „ . doorway Gelnhausen, doorway . ,, Bruges, miserere Marburg, tomb 175. Milan Cathedral 176. Italian Gothic Exterior Examples— I. Milan Cathedral, plan . . A b . c . long, section transverse section ,, S. Maria-dei-Fiori, Florence, plan long, section ,, ,, D . . 177. Milan Cathedral. 178. The Doge's 179. Italian Gothic Palazzo della Examples Ca . E Interior Palace, Venice — . II. d'Oro, elevation Doge's Palace, Venice, facade . . . . . A B . Palazzo Pisani, Venice, fafade Siena Cathedral, plan Boisser^e. Photo. exterior section interior „ y H F A „ ,, B D, E, G, Exterior. Stephen, Vienna, plan ,, King. Photo. c . . Ratisbon Cathedral, „ S. Elizabeth, - D E F A . . . 171. ,, B c Photo. Cologne Cathedral, exterior S. A . ,, Antwerp Cathedral, 168. XXXIX . . c D , , , LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Xl No. Authorities Name. i8o. Ca d'Oro i8l. Florence Cathedral. 182. Siena Cathedral. 183. Monreale Cathedral. 184. Italian Gothic Photo. Palace, Venice Photo. Exterior Photo. Exterior The Photo. cloisters Ornament. Baptistery at Pisa, detail of capital from pulpit plan of pulpit pulpit ,, ,, Florence, candelabra ,, Santo, Pisa, window Campo Pisa Cathedral, portion of pulpit lion and base of column Naples, capital Ducal Palace, Venice, capital Venice, angle window Palazzo Scaligeri, Verona, campanile A D . , . , , . . . . Norman Shaw. c E F . ... , Fleury. I L . . , B . Rohault de I . Rohault de I Fleury. J G . H . Cicognara. j . K . E85 Burgos Cathedral. Exterior . Photo. 186. Burgos Cathedral. Interior . Photo. 187. Spanish Gothic Examples. Maria del Mar, Barcelona, plan Barcelona Cathedral, plan S. Gerona Toledo Lerida Juan de u ,, ,, ,, . E . ,, S. 189. S. Gregorio, Valladolid igo. Spanish Gothic Ornament. Photo. Photo. Burgos Cathedral, ornament from tomb Gonzalo ,, ,, balcony . . ... sculptured pier plan window of dome elbows of sedilia Miraflores, Infante's tomb base of Infante's „ pier of „ Las Huelgas, capitals . B . c . . . tomb . . A . . H L . . . . . canopy l-Street. D . Toledo 188. S. Gil, B . C ., los Reyes, A . . J 'Waring. K D G M, N . . . . . . . E F RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE. 191. — Florentine Renaissance Examples Palazzo Strozzi, main cornice „ „ section * court plan . I. . A and elevation of . r E J ^ keystone Raschdorff. C r Grandjean Famin. Raschdorff. et — LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Name. No. 191, xli Authorities. Florentine Renaissance Examples — —continued, I. ( Palazzo Riccardi, main cornice . . B \ ,, „ elevation „ plan ( D ( 192. 193- Palazzo Riccardi, Florence Florentine Renaissance Photo. Examples — II. .... ... .... S. ,, ,, . . Andrea, Mantua, plan long section ,, „ porch ,, „ . . S. Spirito, capital . . . . „ „ „ ,, long, section . A I B c D et D'Agincourt. E F ' G D'Agincourt. J . . Grandjean Famin. I H . . . plan G . Pazzi Chapel, plan elevation ,, ,, section ,, „ S. Lorenzo, plan 194. . Grandjean et Famin. Waring and Macquoid. Grandjean et Famin. K . Florentine Renaissance Ornament. Duomo of Fiesole, console from tomb Palazzo Vecchio, capital Medici Chapel, Santa Croce, corbel Palazzo Strozzi, window Gondi, „ „ . A . c B . Pandolfini, ,, window . . . . . Palazzo Guadagni, lamp bracket Palazzo Giraud, 196. Roman Rome E F j [ H . Piazzo Annunziata, bronze fountain 195- Macquoid. Grandjean Famin. et G, J pilaster ,, Mercato Nuovo, niche Banner bracket Waring and I D . ,, I . . Raschdorff. K L [Waring and Macquoid. I M Raschdor6f. Photo. . Renaissance Examples —I. Cancellaria Palace, elevation ,, Letarouilly. plan ,, T. F. Suys et L. P. Haude- Massimi Palace, elevation ,, plan ,, 197. Farnese Palace, 198. Roman Rome bourt. Renaissance Examples Farnese Palace, Photo. . — II. Rome Details of main cornice A, B c Front fa9ade . Elevation of cortile Plan Section and plan through loggia Upper plan . . D e \ F G, j H Letarouilly. xlii No. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. — LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. No, Name. Authorities. 207. Palazzo Vendramini, Venice 208. Venetian Renaissance Examples Photo. . — I. Palazzo Grimani, plinth ,, cornice, capitals elevation of half fa9adi ,, plan . ,, and 209. The Pesaro 210. Venetian Renaissance Examples S. capital II. A Mark's Library, fa9ade ,, fa9ade piers „ G, H, Venetian Renaissance Examples ,, „ „ D . E ,, long, section F ,, „ plan G ,, doorhead . 213. della Salute, .Comparative J K L . M section ,, ,, Maria Plans -Cicognara. H cornice ,, „ S. Giorgio Maggiore, ra9ade plan Venice of Cicognara. B C ,, „ y J. A section long, section plan ,, ,, Giorgio dei Greci, fa9ade ,, Macquoid. j III. Maria dei Miracoli, fa9ade ,, Waring and ) C D, E F B, . . S. K, L Photo. cornices Doge's Palace, cornices S. Cicognara. H . Palace, Venice ,, S. G J cornices ,, A, B, c D, E, F . Palazzo Vendramini, half fa9ade 212. xliii Photo. Various Cathedrals. S. Paul, London S. Peter, J. Rome Pantheon, Paris Cologne Cathedral S. Maria della Salute Boisser^e. . 214. Clayton. Durand. Cicognara. Venetian Renaissance Ornament. S. A Mark, pedestal of flagstaff B E Equestrian statue of CoUeoni, elevation Half plan, ditto . Cicognara. > Entablature and capital to ditto F . Scuola di S. Marco, doorway C /Waring and Macquoid. ( „ Window G D panel ,, and balustrade H Palazzo Zorzi, capital S. M. „ 2IS. The dei Miracoli, capital Greci, campanile Basilica at Vicenza Photo. Cicognara. and pilaster I . K (Waring and 1 . Photo. J Macquoid. Photo. , Lloi ue iJ-LUSTRATIONS. xliv 2i6. Authorities. Name. No. Renaissance Examples by Palladio. The Basilica at Vicenza, elevation A . B section „ ,, plan C „ „ Villa Capra, Vicenza, elevation section „ „ plan. „ „ Palazzo del Capitanio, elevation . D Palazzo Porto Barbarano, 217. Palladio. E F . G H „ Renaissance Examples in Genoa and Verona. 218. „ ,, „ ,, section long, section „ ,, plans D ,, A plan of cornice £ key sketch D „ Carega, angle cornice key sketch ,, ,, ,, , Old Convent, Genoa, lavabo „ E F G . ..... Doorway J. Kinross. L K, pilaster „ Typical cap Reinhardt [• C Villa Cambiaso, coffered ceiling Reinhardt. [ H Sanmicheli's house, Verona, doorway J. Kinross. J [ Waring and M J Macquoid. Ch&teau de Blois, Escalier Francois Premier French Renaissance Examples I. . .... . Photo. — .... ChUteau de Bury, plan Chambord, plan ,, ,, The Louvre, „ . D elevation „ Paris, fagade Chliteau 222. Eustache, Paris French Renaissance, Examples > Photo. . Photo. S. Les Invalides, Paris, section — II. through dome „ plan ,, The Pantheon, Paris, f section through Durand. plan >. Chateau de Maisons, elevation f ,, Luxembourg „ „ plan I Palace, Paris, part elevation ,< Gailhabaud. . dome „ Durand. E F block plan ,, De Chambord 221. A B C elevation „ ,, 223. Reinhardt. I- F E, doorway 220. Reinhardt. E C . Renaissance Ornament in Genoa and Verona, Palazzo Gambaro, angle of cornice to ,, 219. Macquoid. \ Municipio, Genoa, fajade „ Waring and f Palazzo Pompeii, Verona, facade .. Pl3" • G H Sauvageot. Sauvageot and Durand. Durand. / LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. No. xlv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xlvi Authorities.. Name. No. ass- Town ise. Spanish Renaissance Examples. Photo. Hall, Seville Toledo, the Alcazar, portion of fa9ade Avila, the Casa Polentina courtyard 237. Burgos, Courtyard of the . \ House of Photo. Miranda 238. Comparative Plans of Various Buildings. .... .... .... The King's House, Greenwich The Rotunda, Vicenza The Escurial, Spain Villa of Pope Julius, Blenheim Palace 239. Rome . A Campbell. B C D, E F Palladio. Thompson. Letarouilly. Kerr. Spanish Renaissance Ornament. Siguenza Cathedral, door from cloisters Cuenza Cathedral, iron screen Alcala De ..... Henares, window Avila, iron pulpit 240. A. N. Prentice. Map of Western Europe at the Time A B, C A. N. D Prentice. E of Elizabeth. The Hall 241. Hatfield House. 242. Knole, Kent. 243- Haddon 244. English Renaissance Examples .... Staircase Long Hall. Nash. Nash. Gallery Nash. — I. Holland House, elevation „ ground „ floor plans B, c ) J Stockton House, side of drawing-room Hall, Blickling the Norfolk, . great Richardson. Princess of Lichenstein, D Henry Shaw. staircase 245. English Renaissance Examples — II. Castle Ashby, Northamptonshire, south elevation „ ,, Hardwicke „ Hall, elevation „ plan 246. Kirby Hall, Northants 247. Little 248. The Tower 249. Hatfield plan . .... . . Moreton Hall, Cheshire of the old Schools, Oxford House P. F. Robinsou LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 250. Authorities. English Renaissance Ornament — I. Bramshill House, Hants, balustrade oriel ,1 ,, „ arcade „ ,, ,, t, >, A E Blickling Hall, Norfolk, entrance ,, tablet House ... (Barking) frieze Aston Hall, frieze Claverton, Somersetshire, head . -Henry Shaw. F H J water rain . K wall .... Yarmouth, at D . Church, . Richardson. . English Renaissance Ornament — II. Doorway in Broughton Castle Bay window, Hinchingbrooke Hall Chapel screen. Charterhouse, London Bookcase, Pembroke College, Cambridge Tomb Lord Burghley, of Richardson. C chimney piece ,, ,, M B . All Hallow's Henry Shaw. G plaster ceiling ,, Duke's House, Bradford, balustrade Hatfield House, newel 251. xlvii Name. No. [j. H. Tanner, junr. Martin, S. Stamford stalls, Convocation Room Oxford Pulpit, North Cray Church, Kent Lead cistern, Victoria and Albert . . . . J. Throne and . . . H. Tanner, English Renaissance Examples York Water-Gate, London, — III. elevation plan „ ,, „ Banqueting House, Whitehall, elevation ,, ,, [ Whitehall Palace, ground plan 253. English Renaissance Examples S. Paul, ,, London, Wren's ,, — IV. original plan section dome through ,, „ ,, ,, plan sketch of peristyle ,, ,, transverse section ,, ,, western fafade . B C D S. Paul, 255. English Renaissance Examples S. Mary Le Bow, section Clayton and Gailhabaud. Photo, elevation ,, „ plans „ „ S. Bride, elevation section ,, . . plans " '. London 254. ,, Campbell. Kent. Campbell. Kent. plan ,, junr. H. I. Triggs. H. Tanner, junr. . Tablet, Peterhouse College Chapel, Cambs. 252. A. Gotch. C. J. Richardson. . Museum A. Gotch. — V. A B 1-6 c D 7-12 Clayton. xlviii No. 256. 257. 258. 259260. 261. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Name. . LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xlix Name. No. 262. Comparative diagrams of the proportions of the Orders after Sir W. Chambers. Greek Doric Tuscan Roman ... Doric Chambers. Ionic Corinthian Composite 263. The Houses of Parliament, London Photo. . ARCHITECTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. -264. Garrick (formerly Schiller) Theatre, Chicago. INDIAN ARCHITECTURE. 265. Map 266. Indian Examples and Ornament. of India. Sanchi, gateway .... Indian roof construction Kanaruc Sanchi, ... in Orissa, rail A pagoda . D, . E -Fergusson. f . Seringham, compound pillar Bindrabund, Agra, plan c B, . G Le Bon. H . - pillar ,, . J K Greek Temple, Baillur, plan compound pillar ^ L Vellore, Stone ornaments . M, x, o, . Interior of rock-cut cave 267 Karli. 268. Ajunta. 269 Elephanta. 270. Mount Abu. 271 Palitana. 272. Gwalior. 273 Umber. Fa9ade of rock-cut cave Photo. Interior view of rock-cut cave Photo. Dilwana Temple Photo. The great Chawmukh Temple The great Sas Bahu Temple The Hindu Temple of Tagat- Photo. Interior of . 277 278 Tarputry. 279. The Emperor's 280. Shanghai. .... . 275 276, Fergusson. Owen Photo. Garwan HuUabid. The East door of the double Temple Ellora. The " rath " (Temple of Kailos) Tanjore. The Great Temple from the N.E. Mandura. The -West Gateway and Gopura 274, Cole. . Entrance to the old Temple Photo. Photo. Photo. Photo. Photo. Photo. Photo. CHINESE AND JAPANESE ARCHITECTURE. F.A A Palace. typical Pekin Photo. Chinese pagoda Photo. Jones LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 1 No. 281. Name. Chinese and Japanese Examples, Canton merchant's house Pekin, Altar of Agriculture Pekin, pavilion, summer . palace . Nankin, porcelain tower Tokyo, Temple of Miyo-Jin-Kanda Japanese middle-class house Tea-house, Japan ..... Japan, public baths . 282. A 283. Chinese and Japanese Ornament. Columned brackets Pailoo Detail of eaves Roof construction Fret ornaments . Garden temple Great Temple, Canton Triumphal arch. Canton . Temple of Confucius Sketch of Tenno-ji Pagoda Gate, Temple of Miyo-jin, altar shrine Japanese lamp . „ compound bracket ,, font shed „ gable ends . LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. No. DIAGRAM TABLE OF THE SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION FOR EACH STYLE. 1. Influences. I. Ti. III. IV. V. VI. Geographical. Geological. Climate. Religio.n. Social and Political. Historical. 2. Architectural Character. 3. Examples. 4. Comparative Table. A. Plan, or general distribution of the B. 'Walls, their construction and treatment. C. Roofs, D. Openings, e. Columns, their treatment and development. their character their building. and shape. position, structure, and decoration. F. Mouldings, their G. Ornament, as building. 5. form and decoration. applied Reference Books. in general to any — — ! A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE ON THE COMPARATIVE METHOD. PREHISTORIC ARCHITECTURE. " Study mere shelter, now for him, and him Nay, even the worst just house them Any cave Suffices throw out earth A loop hole ? Brave But here's our son excels At hurdle weaving any Scythian ; fells Oak and devises rafters dreams and shapes His dream into a door post, just escapes ; — ! ! ; . . . ; The mystery of hinges. The goodly growth ***** Of brick and stone Our building-pelt was rough, But that descendants' garb suits well enough A ! portico-contriver. The work marched Took each, nor too : by step — a workman — to one task, one time step fit No leaping o'er the petty to the When just the substituting osier fit prime, lithe brittle bulrush, sound wood for soft withe, further loam-and-rough-cast work a stage, Exacts an architect, exacts an age." Browning. For To The origins of architecture, although lost in the mists of antiquity, of man must have been connected intimately with the endeavours to provide for his physical wants. It has been truly said that protection from the inclemency of the seasons was the mother of architecture. According to Vitruvius, man in his primitive savage state began to imitate the nests of birds and the lairs of beasts, commencing with arbours of twigs covered with mud, then huts formed of branches of trees and covered with turf (No. 2 c). Other writers indicate three types of primitive dwellings the caves (No. 2 h) or rocks or those occupied in hunting or fishing. — PEEHISTOBIC AECHlTECTUi Q)'"~ T, Temts — PREHISTORIC ARCHITECTURE. 3 the hut (No. 2 a, d, e) for the agriculturist, and the tent (No. 2 ]) for those such as shepherds leading a pastoral or nomadic life. Structures of the prehistoric period, although interesting for archaeological reasons, have little or no architectural value, and will only be lightly touched upon. The remains may be classified under : Monoliths, or single upright stones, a well-known example 63 feet high, 14 i. also known feet in as menhirs, diameter, and weighing 260 tons, being at Carnac, Brittany. Another example is at Locmariaker, also in Brittany (No. 2 b). ii. Dolmens (Daul, a table, and maen, a stone), consisting of one large flat stone supported by upright stones. Examples are to be found near Maidstone and other places in England, also in Ireland, Northern France, the Channel Islands, Italy (No. 2 f) and India. iii. Cromlechs, or circles of stone, as at Stonehenge,(No. 2 g), Avebury (Wilts), and elsewhere, consisting of a series of upright stones arranged in a circle and supporting horizontal slabs. iv. Tumuli, or burial mounds, were probably prototypes of the Pyramids of Egypt (No. 4) and the beehive huts found in Wales, Cornwall, Ireland (No. 2 d, k) and elsewhere. That at New Grange (Ireland) resembles somewhat the Treasury of Atreus at Mycenae (No. 15). V. Lake Dwellings, as discovered in the lakes of Switzer- and Ireland consisted of wooden huts supported on and were so placed for protection against hostile attacks of land, Italy piles, all kinds. These foregoing primitive or prehistoric remains have little constructive sequence, and are merely mentioned here to show from what simple beginnings the noble art of architecture was evolved, although unfortunately the stages of the evolution cannot be traced, owing to the fact that the oldest existing monuments of any pretension, as in Egypt, belong to a high state of civilization. REFERENCE BOOKS. — — Garnier (C.) and Ammann (A.). " L'Habitation Humaine Prehistorique et Historique." 4to. Paris. 1892. Lineham (R.S.). " The Street of Human Habitations: An Account of Man's Dwelling-places, Customs, etc., in Prehistoric Times, and in Ancient Egypt, Assyria, Persia, India, Japan, etc." 8vo., cloth. 1894. VioUet-le-Duc (E. E.). "The Habitations of Man in all Ages." Translated from the French by B. Bucknall. 8vo. 1876. Waring (J. B.). -"Stone Monuments, TumuU, and Ornament of Remote Ages, with Remarks on the Early Architecture of Ireland and Scotland." Folio. 1870. — — — PART — I. — THE HISTORICAL STYLES. General Introduction. \ ' Deal worthily with the History of Architecture and it is worthy to take place with ^he History of Law and of Language." Freeman. ' N its introducing this Comparative treatment of Historical Archiis given of the course which the art has taken up to the present time in Europe, and also in those couritries, such as Egypt and Assyria, which have influenced that development. Architecture may be said to include every building or structure raised by human hands, and is here defined as construction with an artistic motive the more the latter is developed, the greaterbeing the value of the result. The first habitations of man were undoubtedly those that nature afforded, such as caves (No. 2 h) or grottoes, which demanded little labour on his part to convert into shelters against the fury of the elements, and attacks from his fellows or wild animals. As soon as man rose above the state of rude nature, he naturally began to build more commodious habitations for himSuch early forms are self, and some form of temple for his god. given under the heading of Prehistoric Architecture. To pass, however, at once into Historic times, there prevailed in Egypt a system of architecture which consisted of a massive construction of walls and columns, in which the latter closely spaced, short, and massive— carried lintels, which in their turn supported the flat, beamed roof. In Babylonia, the development of brick construction with the consequent evolution of the arch and vault was due to the absence of more permanent building materials. The influeitiM of Egyptian and^A^ssyrian architecture on that of Greece is apparent in many directions." T ^ tectur^, a general outline sketch : — GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORICAL STYLES. 5 considered by many to have had its or cabin formed of posts set in the earth, and covered with transverse beams and rafters, and this was the type which was developed in the early Mycenaean period into the prodomus of the Greeli house. This timber architecture, copied in marble or stone, was naturally at first very simple and rude the influence of the material, however, was soon felt, when the permanence and value of stone aided in the growth It should be noted, however, that many writers hold of the art. that Greek architecture is developed from an early stone type. As civilization and technical skill, moreover, advanced, the qualities of refinement in detail and proportion were perceived, and the different orders of architecture Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian (No. 38J came into existence. By the word " order" methods of proportioning and decorating a is meant certain column, and the part it supports, i.e., the entablature. The above " orders " are characteristic of Greek architecture, and the beauty and grace with which they were treated, and the artistic and mathematical skill with which they were constructed, illustrate the keen ar-tistic temperament of the Greeks. Greece eventually succumbed to the conquering Romans who, Grecian architecture origin in the is wooden hut ; — — however, adopted their architecture, and Greek in many artists in the erection of their buildings. cases employed While borrowing they added the use of the arch, which they had probably already learnt to construct from the Etruscans, the ancient inhabitants of Central Italy. The column and arch were used conjointly by the Romans for some time, good examples being the Colosseum at Rome (Nos. 62 and 63), and the Triumphal Arches (Nos. 65 and 66). This dualism is a very important fact to remember, because, as will be seen, it eventually ended in the exclusion of the beam altogether, and in the employment of the arch alone, throughout the entire constructive system of the building. In the numerous buildings which the Romans erected, it will be noticed that the column has, in the generality of cases, become merely a decorative feature, the actual work of support being performed by the piers of the wall behind, connected together by semicircular arches. As time went on, however, such practical people as the Romans could not but discard a feature which was no longer utilitarian, so the column as a decorative feature disappeared, and the arcuated system it had masked was exposed. Columns were, however, used constructively, as in tnany of the great basilicas, in which the semicircular arches spring directly from their capitals. As the Romans conquered the whole of the then known world, that is to say, most of what is now known as Europe (No. 45), so this feature of the semicircular arch was introduced in every part, by its use in the settlements this trabeated architecture, b COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. which they founded. Roman architecture was prevalent in Europe in a more or less debased form up to the tenth century of our era, and is the basis on which European architecture is founded. The gradual breaking up of the Roman Empire, the formation of separate European states, and other causes which we shall enumerate separately, led to many variations of this semicircular arched style, both in construction and decoration. The transition commenced in the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth centuries, when the later Romanesque, so called as being derived from the Roman style, was in vogue. Constructive necessity, . aided largely by inventive genius, led, in the latter part of the twelfth century, to the introduction of the pointed arch. The pointed arch is the keynote of what is known as the Gothic or pointed style, which prevailed throughout Europe during the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries, during which period were erected those magnificent cathedrals and churches, which form the most emphatic record of the religious feeling and character of the Middle Ages. The past styles of European architecture may be broadly Summarized as being divided into two great types, viz. (i) Classic, pr the architecture of the beam, and (2) Gothic, or the architecture /of the arch. Each of these types depends on an important constructive principle, and any style may be placed under one or other of these types. The early styles, including the Greek, belong to the former. Roman architecture is a composite transition 'Style, whose goal,if unchecked, would seem to have been the combination of the round arch and dome that are seen in the great examples of the Byzantine style. It was left to the Gothic style to formulate a complete system of arcuated construction, the working out of which was marvellously alike in all countries. It was a style, moreover, in which a decorative system was closely welded to the constructive, both uniting to reflect a more intense expression of its age than had, perhaps, hitherto been achieved in previous : architecture. The revival of the arts and letters in the fifteenth century was a fresh factor in the history of architecture. The condition of Europe at that period was one of ripeness for a great change, for the Gothic system, whether in architecture or in civilization regarded as a whole, may fairly be said to have culminated. Its works were tinged by the coming change, or showed signs of becoming stereotyped by the mechanical repetition of architectural features. The new force was the belief that the old Romans had been wiser and more experienced than the mediaevalists, and the result was the earnest study of every Roman fragment, whether of art or literature, that had been preserved or could be recovered. latest GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORICAL STYLES. 7 For some three centuries this belief held good, till by the opening up of Greece to travel and study towards the end of the eighteenth century, the tradition was modified by the admission of Grecian remains to an equal or supreme place, beside or even above those of Rome. This second phase had not, however, an equal success for divers reasons a reaction was at hand in favour of mediaeval ideals, whether in the church, art, or the State. A conscious effort was then made the most earnestly in England to modify the current that had been flowing since the year 1500, and some of the results of this attempt may be traced by the student wise enough to follow up the clues indicated in the ; — — concluding pages of the English Renaissance style. In acquainting himself with the buildings therein mentioned, he may feel that few of the diverse elements of bur complex civilization, at the beginning of the twentieth century, have failed to find some architectural expression. COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. GENERAL REFERENCE BOOKS. N.B. —Lists of Reference Books for special periods throughout the book. and styles are given " Architectural Association Sketch Book." Folio. 1867-/904. Bosc(E.). "Dictionnaireraisonndd'Architecture." 4 vols., 4to. Paris, 1877-1880. Brault (E.). " Les Architects par leurs oeuvres.'' 3 vols. Paris, i8ga- — — 1893. — "Histoirede I'Architecture." a vols.,8vo. Paris, Choisy Cummings (C.A.). —" A History of Architecture in Italy from the Time (A.). 1899. of the Renaissance." 2 — "Dawn Monuments." History of Art by of Constantine to the D'Agincourt t (S.). vols., 8vo. its 1901. Translated from the Italian by Owen Jones. Folio. 1847. Dehio (G.) and Bezold (G. v.). " Die Kirchliche Baukunst des Abendlandes." Folio. Stuttgart, 1884, etc. " Dictionary of Architecture, issued by the Architectural Publication Society." With Detached Essaysand Illustrations. 6 vols.,folio. 1848-1892. — Durand — " Parallele des Edifices de tout genre." Paris, 1800. (J.N.L.). Eulart (C.). " Manuel d'Archdologie Fran^aise depuis les temps Merovingiens jusqu'a la Renaissance." i. Architecture Religieux. 2. Architecture Civile. 2, vols., 8vo. Paris, 1902. Fergusson (J.). " History of Architecture in all Countries.'' 5 vols., 8vo. 1893, etc. Fletcher (B. F.). " The Influence of Material on Architecture.'' Imperial 8vo. 1897. Gailhabaud (J.). " L'Architecture du V. au XVII. siecle." 5 vols., folio and 4to. Paris, 1869-1872. Gailhabaud (J.). " Monuments Anciens et Modernes." 4to. Paris, 1850. Gwilt (J.). " Encyclopasdia of Architecture." Svo. 1900. " Handbuch der Architektur." Comprising anumber of volumes upon — — — — — — the History and Practice of Architecture. Darmstadt. Milizia (F.). " Lives of Celebrated Architects." 2 vols., 8vo. 1826. Parker {]•) " Glossary of Terms used in Architecture." 3 vols. 1850. Perrot (G.) and Chipiez (C). " History of Ancient Art." 12 vols., — — — Svo. 1-883- 1894. Planat. " Encyclopddie d'Arohitecture et de la Construction." 1 1 vols. " Royal Institute of British Architects' Transactions." 1853 et seq. Dictionary of Architecture and Building." 3 vols., Sturgis. " New York, 1901. 4to. Vasari (G.). " Lives of the most Eminent Painters, Sculptors and Architects." Edited by Blashfield. 4 vols., Svo. 1897. VioUet-le-Duc (E.C.). " Dictionnaire de I'Architecture." 10 vols., Svo. Paris, -1859. VipUet-le-Duc. " Entretienssur I'Architecture." 3 vols. Paris, 1863. There is an English translation by B. Bucknall, entitled " Lectures on Architecture." 2 vols., Svo. 1877-18S1. Vitruvius (Marcus PoUio). " "The Architecture of." Translated by W. Newton. Folio, 1791. An edition by J. Gwilt. 4to. 1826. — — A — — — — ' m mupi! lElL-fLYAHUM 6ua MKWffl Elfffl' immK. cmnm EDRn ™BMr EiW! EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. " Those works where man has rivalled nature most, Those Pyramids, that fear no more decay Than waves inflict upon the rockiest coast, Or winds on mountain steeps, and like endurance boast." I. i. Geographical. INFLUENCES. —The civilization of every country has been, aS- will bS"^own, largely determined by its geographical conditions, for the characteristic features of the land in which any race dwells shape their mode of life and thus influence their intellectual culture. On referringto the map (No. 3) it will be seen that Egypt consists of a sandy desert with a strip of fertile country on the banks of the Nile; Egypt was the only nation of the ancient world which at once easy access to' the N orthern, or "Mediterranean Sea, as well as to the Eastern, orTSraBian Sea for by way of the Red Sea, Egypt ilways coinmanded 'arraccess to both these highways. The consequence was that Egypt had outlets for her own productions and inlets for those of foreign jiartions. The possession of the Nile, moreover, was of immeifse advantage, not only on had ; 10 COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. account of its value as a trade route, and as a means of communication, but also because its waters were the fertilizing agents that made desert sands into fruitful fields. It was on the banks of this ancient river that from time immemorial the cities^ the Egyptians were naturally placed here, therefore, are found the chief remains of the Tombs, Temples, and Pyramids. ii. Cipn^ng^r^ Tn this section throughout the volume an endeavour will be made to trace that influence on architectural style which the materials at hand in each country had in its development. The natural products of a country such as wood, brick, or stone, determine to a large extent its style of ; — art. In Egypt there existed an abundance of li mestone in the north, of sandstone in the cen tral region, and of gra nite in the s outh. The latter is principally tound near Assuaii" (Syene), and is called Syenite.'^~<I^is hard and lasting building material largely influenced the architecture of the country, and to its durable qualities is due the fact that there are so many remains. Bricks were also employed, but were generally faced with some harder material. of a kind suitable for building wasnot available, Wood — only small forests of palm and acacia existing. iii. Climate. The climate is equable andof warm temperature, snow and frost being wholly unknown, while sE5rrn7fogf«ad even rain are rare, which accounts to -a large extent for the good Egypt has been said to have but preservation o f the temples. two seasons, spring and summer. The climate was thus of importance in developing the qualities of the architecture, admitting of simplicity in construction, for though it demanded some protection against heat there was no necessity to provide against inclement weather. A close connection between religion and archiiv. Religion. The priesthood tecture is everywhere manifest at this epoch. was powerful, possessed of almost unlimited authority, and equipped with all the learning of the age. The religious rites A tinge of were traditional, unchangeable, and mysterious. mystery is one of the great characteristics of the Egyptian archiThe Egyptians tecture as well in its tombs as in its temples. attained to a very high degree of learning in astronomy, mathematics, and philosophy the remains of their literature have been preserved to us in the papyri, or MSS. written on paper made from the pith of the papyrus. In theory the r eligion was mon oa multiplicity of theistic, but in practice it became_pol^theistic gods was r.rftaip.n ny p ersonifying natural j hennrnpna, such as the sun, moon, and stars, as well as the brute creation. The Egyptians were strong believers in a future, sta te ;- hence their care in the preservation of their dead, and the erection-^f such Herodotus mentions everlasting monuments as the Pyramids. — — ; ; — EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. II that the dwelling-house was looked upon by them as a temporary lodging, the tomb being the permanent abode. ' ' What availeth thee thy other buildings Of thy tomb alone thou On else is ? art sure. the earth thou hast nought beside Nought of thee mere ; remaining." Social and Political. -^A vagt^^opulatipn was available employment on public works, the workmen probably receiving no other pay than their food. Thus a state of cjjeap labour existed which was eminently favourable to the execution of~Targe and V. for important structures. In addition there existed a centralized which, perhaps more than any other, favoured the execution of monuroentai-warks. It is assumed by some that the spare time which occurs during the annual floods enabled the population to be employed on these state buildings. It is also possible that the transport of stone required for the despoti^___ government was effected by means of rafts floated down at During the reign of Rameses II. the_capiisies-and foreignerg, who had largely increased, were put to enforced labour upon the public works, and in the first chapter of the book of Exodus the natives are said to have viewed with alarm the growing numbers and power of these strangers. vi. Historical. Egyptian civihzation is the most ancient of any of which there is a clear knowledge its history is partly derived from Holy Scripture and from Greek and Roman authors, but more particularly from the Egyptian buildings, by which it can be traced back for more than 4,000 years b.c. The Pyramids are thought to be a thousand years older than any building which has yet been discovered in Western Asia, the subject of the next division. The Kings or Pharaohs (from the title " Peraa " = " great house ") have been arranged in thirty dynasties, extending down to B.C. 332. These have been based on the list of Manetho, an Egyptian priest who lived about b.c 300, and compiled a history of Egypt in the Greek language, and may be divided great buildings this season. — ; into the following periods 1. Prehistoric Period, B.C. 23000 (?)-j^.yyj. 2. The Ancient Empire (Dynasties I.-X.), e.g. 4777-2821. The capital being at Memphis, the tombs of this period are at Abydos, Nak&.deh, Memphis, Sakkara, Gizeh and : Abusir. 3. 4. The Middle Empire (Dynasties XI.-XVL), b.c 2821-1738; A prosperous period in which much building was carried " This period includes the dynasties of the " Hyskos out. or shepherd kings. The New Empire (Dynasties XVII.-XX.), b.c. 1738-950. This period had Thebes as the capital, and many imposing buildings were erected at Karnac, Luxor, and elsewhere. COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 12 5. XXI. -XXV.), of Foreign Domination (Dynasties 950-663. The Late Egyptian Period (Dynasties XXVI.-XXX.), B.C. 663This period includes the Persian Domination. 332. The Graco-Roman Period, B.C. 332-A.D. 640 i. Alexander the Great and Ptolemaic Period, B.C. 332-30. Period B.C. 6. 7. : The Roman Period, b.c. 30-A.D. 395. The Bysantine Period, a.d. 395-640. Mediaeval Egypt (Mahometan Period), a.d. 640-1517. ii. iii. 8. Modern Egypt (Turkish Domination), a.d. 1517 to the present time. This section of the book deals with the architecture comprised in periods 1-7. For periods 8 and 9 see pages 653, 659. The nineteenth dynasty, founded by Rameses I. (b.c. 1400-1366), may be taken as the most brilliant epoch of Egyptian art. The evidence of his greatness, and that of his grandson, Rameses II. (b.c 1333-1300), as builders, is to be seen in the Temples of Thebes and elsewhere. During the twejity-sixth dynasty the country was conquered by the Persians in B.C. 527, from whom it was wrested in B.c.332by the Grecian general, Alexander the Great. On Alexander's death and the division of his empire, Egypt passed to Ptolemy, one of Alexander's generals, who founded a dynasty that ruled from b.c 323 to B.C. 31. After the wars which ended in the death of Cleopatra, Egypt passed, as did nearlythe whole of the then known world, into the hands of the conquering Romans, and became a Roman province. On the spread of Mahometanism, in a.d. 638, Egypt was conquered by the Arabs, who left important monuments (see Saracenic Architecture, page 659)., In a.d. 1517 it became a part of the Turkish dominions. 9. 2. ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER. In the valley of the Nile, the land which is the gift of a great seat of the most ancient civilization, a primitive architecture of mud or puddled clay and bundles of reeds changed in later times to a style of stone and granite. The primitive structure was composed of bundles of reeds bound together and placed vertically in the ground at intervals, the angle bundles being of greater strength. Joining these reeds, at the top, were laid horizontally other bundles, which bound the heads of the uprights together. The origin of the characteristic cornice (No. 10 j), is held to be due to the pressure of the clay, of which the primitive roofs were constructed, on the upright reeds, which formed the framework of the walls. This formed the slightly projecting cornice, the reeds keeping the rammed clay in a projecting position and allowing the curve to be terminated by a flat fillet which gave the level of the terrace. The jambs and river, and the EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. 13 the doors and windows were made of reeds in the of palm trunks in those of more pretension. Here, then, is seen a fair and likely prototype of the construction of an Egyptian wall, the form of which is more suitable to a structure of rushes overlaid with mud or puddled clay than to one consisting of large stones. Still, an important point remains the batter or slope which is invariably given to the walls. Viollet-le-Duc's theories as to the origin of this batter do not point to the influence of material, and this feature is alleged by him to have been introduced at a later stage, having been promulgated by a royal decree. He infers the custom to have been derived from the Pyramids, which were found to remain undisturbed during earthquakes, while straight-sided houses were upset, owing to their walls being more easily overturned. It seems, however, more reasonable to attribute it to a mud origin, for nothing would be more natural, in order to strengthen such buildings, than to slightly tilt the bundles of reeds towards the interior, forming as it were an arch, a treatment which in any other material scarcely seems to be feasible. Proceeding to the internal architectural features of the style, a very distinct reminiscence of the pri mitive reeds tied tog ether at intgryals,_an d crowne d wi th the lo tus bud, is found iiithe later granite column and 'capital (No. io l, uf. During the Theban kiilgdom especially (b c. 3000-B.c. 2100), examples in stone of capitals and columns derived from timber and reed originals are frequent. At Beni-HasS.nsome pillars represent a bundle of four reeds or lotus stalks bound together near the top and bulging above the ligature, so as to form a capital, in imitation of a^lotug bud. Such a pier must evidently have been originally employed Tir~^ooden architecture only, and the roof which it supports, in this instance, represents a light wooden construction having the slight slope necessary in the dry Egyptian climate. This type of column was largely used in later Egyptian times in a more substantial lithic form (No. 10 m), and in conjunction with the hollow-formed capital of the bell type (No. 10 l), of which the earliest example appeared in the eighteenth dynasty. In fact, throughout, although materials changed, the forms of the early reed and clay construction were adhered to and the endeavour of the conservative Egyptian was to reproduce in stone and granite, superimposed in layers, the appearance assumed in the early reed and mud type. The surface decoration executed on the later granite buildings (No. 10 p), apparently came from the " sgraffito " (incised plaster) work on the earlier mud walls. The surfaces of such walls could not be modelled or carved with projections of high relief, but their flat surfaces, when plastered, provided an admirable field for decoration and for instruction through the use of hieroglyphics. The lintels of humbler dwellings and — ; EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. 15 Egyptian system of decoration consisted in not contravening the form adopted, but in clothing it with a kind of drapery more or less rich, which never presented a projecting outline, contenting itself with enveloping the geometric form as would an embroidered stuff, or a diapered covering. Remarkable then as were the arts of Egypt, it is clear that the and that spirit of criticism and logical method were wanting traditional forms, hallowed by long use, were clung to and reproduced when the method of building which suggested them had been replaced by other systems. Egyptian art proceeded on an uninterrupted line or course of tradition, and when necessity dictated a change in the methods of construction, or in the materials, the immutable form was not thereby affected, but was perpetuated in ; spite of novel cpnditions. The principal remains of ancient Egyptian architecture are the Pyramids, or royal tombs of the kings, and the temples, a contrast in this respect with Assyria, where the palaces of the kings are the chief remains. The Egyptian wall-paintings, sculptures, jewellery, bronze implements and utensils, which have been unearthed from their temples or tombs, show that the race had attained to a high degree in art. As regards the architecimpression given to the mind of the spectator is that these buildings were erected for eternity, all the remains having a character of immense solidity, and usually of grand uniformity. he Pyra mids (Nos. 4 and 5) are the most extravagant of all ancient buildings in many ways. The relative return in irripressiveness and the higher beauties of the art is small when compared with the amount of labour, expense, and material used ture, the T in their erection. The finishing remarkable, for and many such large masses of gr anite is of the blocks, perfectly squared, polished fitting of fitted, are at least 20 feet long by 6 feet wide. The method of quarrying and of transportation for long distances by land and water, and the raising of these blocks of stone into position, is even now uncertain, although M. Choisy in his latest work (see Reference Books, page 30) has produced many probable theories. The Architectural Character of the is striking and characteristic (Nos. 5, 7 and 8). The buildmgs decrease in he^ht fro front to back, presenting a disconnected collection of various sized structures, often built at different times, and thus forming a direct contrast to the harmonious whole of a Greek temple, which is all comprised within one " order " of columns, and which is distinctly, both in appearance and reality, one building. The character of the tombs consists in the planning of their mysterious chambers and corridors, which, covered with paintings and hieroglyphics, produce an effect of gloom and solemnity on the spectator. and tem^s m EGYPTIAN EXAMPLES. EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. 17 EXAMPLES. THE SPHINX 3. (No. 4), whose date is unknown, is situated near the great pyramids, in the centre of an ancient stone quarry, and is a natural rock cut to resemble a Sphinx, with rough masonry added An Egyptian Sphinx (No. 100) had the head of a king, in parts. a hawk, a ram, or more rarely a woman, on the body of a lion. The dimensions of the Great Sphinx, which represents a recumbent lion with the head of a man, are as follows it is 65 feet high by 188 feet long, the face is 13 feet 6 inches wide, and the mouth 8 feet 6 inches long. Greatly mutilated, it is still a marvel, as it has been throughout the ages. The symbol for an insoluble problem, it is, and probably ever will be, a mystery. It was excavated in 1816 by Captain Caviglia, who found a temple between the paws, and it has since been examined by Marietta and Maspero. : THE PYRAMIDS "^ of Gizeh, near Cairo, all erected during the fourth dynasty (b.c. 3gg8-B.c. 3721), form one of several groups within the necropolis of the ancient capital city of Memphis, and rank among the oldest monuments of Egyptian architecture. The other groups are those of Abu-Roash, Z4wiyet-el-Ary4n, Abusir, Sakk&ra, and Dashfir. These were built by the kings as their future tombs, the go\erning idea being to secure immortality by the preservation of the mummy, till that time should have passed, when, according to their belief, the soul would once more return to the body. Their construction has been described by many writers, including Herodotus. (Nos. 4 and 5 c, d), by Cheops (Khufu) 3733-B.c. 3700) the Second Pyramid (No. 4), by Cephron (Khafra) b.c 3666-B.c. 3633) the Third Pyramid by Mycerinos (Menkhara) (b.c. 3633-B.c. 3600), are 'the best The Great Pyramid (B.C. ; ; known examples. The Great Pyramid of Cheops is square on plan, 760 feet area being about 13 acres, i.e., twice the extent of S. Peter, Rome, or equal to the size of Lincoln's Inn Fields, London. The faces of the pyramid are equilateral triangles laid "sloping and meeting in a point. The sides face directly north, south, east and west, as in all the pyramids, and they make an angle with the ground of 51 degrees 50'minutes. The original height was 482 feet. The entrance (No. 5 c), which is on the northern side, is 47 feet 6 inches above the base, and is now reached by The passage to which it means of an earthen embankment. each way, its — l8 COMPARATIVE AltCHITECTURE. gives access first slopes downwards, and afterwards re-ascends towards the heart of the pyramid, where the King's Chamber is situated. In this chamber, which is 34 feet 6 inches by 17 feet and ig feet high, was placed the' sarcophagus of the king containing' his embalmed body.' The upper part is elaborately constructed with stones one above the other (No. 5 d), and the entrance is protected by a massive stone acting as a portcullis, fitting into a rebate or recess, and weighing from 50 to 60 tons. Two aiir channels, each about 8 inches by 6 inches, led to the outer face of the pyramid for ventilation. There were two other chambers in the Great Pyramid,one known as the Queen's Chamber, connected with a passage leading off that to the King's Chamber, and the other below the ground. The exterior of this pyramid was originally cased with a sloping face of limestone, but this has now disappeared; showing the original stepped surface in tiers of 4 feet, on which the casing was placed, and which still exists in the Pyramid of Mycerinos. TOMBS. Besides the Pyramids or royal tombs are others for private individuals. (a.) In the Ancient Empire the Mastabas, probably derived from rude heaps of stones piled up over earlier mummy holes, were rectangular structures, with sid'es sloping at an angle of 75 degrees, and having flat roofs. They were divided into three parts: The outer chamber, in which were placed the offerings to the " Ka " or " double," having its walls decorated with representations of festal and other scenes, which are valuable from an historical standpoint. ii. Inner secret chambers, known as the " serdabs," containing statues of the deceased, and members of his family, iii. well of great depth, leading to the chamber containing the sarcophagus with its mummy. The Mastaba of Thy, Sakk^ra, is well preserved and has been restored. It dates from the fifth dynasty, and was erected to Thy, who in his day held the position of royal architect and i. A manager of pyramids. It consists of a small vestibule, beyond which is a large court where offerings to the deceased took place, and from which a mummy shaft led through a passage to a tomb chamber. The masonry of this tomb is carefully jointed and covered with flat reliefs, which are generally considered the best The principal reliefs are in a second by 23 feet 9 inches and 12 feet These reliefs represent harvest operations, ship6 inches high. building scenes, scenes representing the arts and crafts of the specimens of their kind. tomb chamber, 22 feet 9 inches C 2 COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 20 period, the slaughtering of sacrificial animals, sailing and Thy himself through the marshes in a boat with a surrounding papyrus thicket. Pyramidal (6.) In the Middle Empire tombs were either of the form, as at Abydos, or were rock-cut, as in the vertical cliffs bounding the Nile valley (No. 6). The Tombs at Beni-Has&n, in Upper Egypt, form a remarkThere are 39 in all, able group of thes^Seis^eaf^eXamples. arranged in a row in the rocks as shown (No. 6). They were made during the twelfth dynasty (b.c. 2778-2565), a period which was particularly remarkable for the progress of the arts of peace. The entrance to the Tomb of Khnemhotep, known as Tomb No. 3, has two sixteen-sided columns, sometimes considered to be a prototype of the Greek Doric order. These are slightly fluted and have an entasis, and the deeply projecting cornice has stone beams carved out of the solid rock, indicating a derivation from a wooden (c.) origin. During the New Empire tombs were rock-cut and structural, many cases accompanied by sepulchral temples. Thebes, which for a time was the neccopolis of the Egyptian "and in number of tombs dating mostly from the New Empire, and forming a contrast to the pyramids which formed the graves of the earlier kings. These tombs consist of a series of chambers connected with passages hewn in the rock, and were kings, has a large intended only for the reception of the sarcophagi. Amongst the most important of these are those of Rameses III., IV., and IX., and that of Sethos I., usually known as Belzoni's tomb from its discoverer in 181 7. The structure of all is very similar, consisting of three corridors cut in the rock leading into an ante-room, beyond which is the sepulchral chamber, where the granite' sarcophagus was placed in a hollow in the floor. The walls, from the entrance to the sarcophagus chamber, were sculptured with hieroglyphics of pictures and texts necessary to the deceased in the future life, and mostly representing him sailing through the under-world accompanied by the sun gcd. The texts were mostly taken from various books relating to the ceremonies which were essential for insuring the immortality of the departed. The mortuary or sepulchral temples, such as those of DSr-elbahri, Medinet-Habou, the Ramesseum, and others, were utilized for offerings and other funereal rights for the dead. TEMPLES. The purposes for which they were used and their compoflent parts are important. They were sanctuaries where only the king and priests penetrated, and in which mysteries and processions formed a great part of the religious services. They differ, a ">> . fc H < W s CM 5 en _j. ^ u nS 1-1 c W COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 22 from the Greek temple, the Christian church, and the for they were not places for the meeting of the faithful or the recital of common prayers, and no public ritual was celebrated within them. The priests and king only were admitted beyond the hypostyle hall, and the temple, therefore, therefore, Mahometan mosque, was a kind of royal oratory reared by the king in token of his own piety and in order to purchase the favour of the gods. -'The student is referred to Lockyer's theories as to the orientatildji 'of temples with regard to the particular stars. The " mammeisi " were temples (dedicated to the mysterious accouchement of Isis) each consisting of one small chamber with statue and altar as at Elephantine, approached by a flight of steps. Ill this forni they are generally considered to be the prototypes of the Greek temples. The more usual type of temple, however, consisted of charnbers for the priests, with courts, colonnades, and halls, all surrounded by a high wall. In order that the student may understand the general distribution of the parts of an Egyptian temple, a plan is here given of the Temple of Khons, near the Great Temple of Ammon, at Karhac (No. 5), on the eastern bank of the Nile, which may be taken as a fair example of the ordinary type of plan. The entrance to the temple was between " pylons," or massive sloping towers, on each side of the central gateway (No. 7). In front of the entrance were placed obelisks, and in front of these an avenue of sphinxes, forming a splendid approach to the temple. This entrance gave access to the large outer courtyard, which was open to the sky in the centre, and therefore called "hypaethral" (from two Greek words, meaning "under the air").' This courtyard was surrounded by a double colonnade on three sides, and led up to the hypostyle hall, in which light was admitted by means of a clerestory above, formed by the different height of the columns (No. 5 b). Beyond this is the sanctuary, surrounded by a passage, and at the rear is a smaller both the last chambers must have been dark or only hall imperfectly .lighted. The whole collection of buildings forming the temple was surrounded by a great wall as high as the buildings themselves. Thebes, the site of which occupied a large area on the east and west banks of the Nile, was the capital of Egypt during the New Empire (Dynasties XVII. -XX.). The eastern bank had an important group of Temples at Karnac, including the Great Temple of Ammon, and the Temple of Khons (twentieth dynasty). At Luxor, also on the eastern bank, was another Temple of (eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties). On the western bank lay the Necropolis or Tombs of the Kings and Queens, and a large number of mortuary temples, which included those of D6r-el-bahri, the Ramesseum, and Medinet Habou. ; Ammon I o ^ o < w -^ o Oi bo o J3 o ; 24 COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. The Great Temple of Ammon, Karnac, is the grandest, extending over an area of 1,200 feet by 360 feet, and originally was connected with the Temple of Luxor by an avenue of sphinxes. It was not built on an original plan, but owes its size, disposition and magnificence to the additions of many later kings, from the first monarchs of the twelfth dynasty down to the Ptolemaic period. It has six pylons added in successive generations, a great pourt measuring 338 feet by 275 feet, the great hypostyle hall, and other halls, courts and a sanctuary. ,The HypostyU kail measures 338 feet by 170 feet, covering about the same area as Notre Dame, Paris. The roof is supported by 134 columns in sixteen rows. The central avenues are about So feet in height as compared with 140 feet at Amiens Cathedral, and have columns 69 feet high and iif feet in diameter, the capitals of- which are of the lotus blossom- type (No. 10 l) so as from the clerestory. The side avenues are about 46 feet high and have columns 42 feet 6 inches in height and 9 feet in diameter, the capitals being of the lotus bud type, on which the. clerestory light would fall. The impression produced on the- spectator by the forest of columns is most aweinspiring, and the.eyetis led from the smaller columns of the side avenues, which gradually vanish into semi-darkness, giving an idea of unlimited size, to the larger columns of the central avenues lighted by the clerestory, which is formed in the difference of height between the central and side avenues, a form of lighting more fully developed in the Gothic period. The walls of the hall, the column shafts, and the architraves are covered with to receive the light: incised inscriptions, still retaining their original colored decorations relating to the gods and personages concerned in the erection of the structure. The Temple of Sethos I., Abydos, was dedicated to Osiris and other deities of Abydos. It was built by Sethos I. 1366-1333), and completed by Rameses II. (b.c. 1333-1300). walls are of fine grained limestone, and the reliefs on them are among the finest Egyptian sculptures. In common with other temples it has py lons, a first and second fore-court and two hypostyle halls, but instead of one sanctuary it has seven arranged side by side, dedicated to six deities and a deified king hence the front of this temple was divided into seven parts, each with its separate gateway and portal. The seven sanctuaries are each roofed by means of horizontal courses, every course projecting beyond that immediately below, and the undersides afterwards rounded off in the form, of a vault by the chisel. It further differs from- others in having a wing at right angles to the main structure in consequence of a hill immediately behind the temple. (b.c. The - The Great Temple of Abu-Simbel, (b.c. 1333-1300), is built by Rameses II. one of the most stupendous creations of EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. 25 Egyptian architecture, and was entirely excavated out of the solid rock. It has a fore-court, at the back of which is the imposing fafade, iig feet wide and over loo feet high, formed as a pylon, and having four seated colossi of Ramesis II., each over 65 feet in height. The entrance leads to a vestibule, the ceiling of which is supported by eight pillars, the walls having vividly colored reliefs. Eight smaller chambers, probably used to store the temple utensils- and furniture, adjoin this vestibule, and in the rear is a small hypostyle hall, 36 feet by 25 feet, having four pillars. Behind this is a long narrow chamber out of which are three apartments, the centre and largest one being the sanctuary, with an altar and four seated, figures of the deities worshipped. The Temple of Isis, Island of Philae, is an interesting example of the Ptolemaic period, and, like earlier examples, was The fore-court, entered through the work of several generations. a massive pylon, 150 feet broad and 60 feet high, has on the west side the Birth House, a small colonnaded temple dedicated to Hathor-Isis and to the memory of the birth of her son Horus, and on the east a colonnaded building used by the priests. On the fourth side of the court is the second pylon, which is 105 feet broad and 40 feet high. Beyond is the temple proper, consisting of courts, a hypostyle hall with eight columns, two small vestibules, a sanctuary, and other adjoining chambers, all nearly in This group, including the second pylon, has its total darkness axis at an angle to that of the first pylon and courtyard. The entire structure has the walls, both inside and out, covered with inscriptions. The Temple of Hathor, Dendera (a.d. first century), is another Ptolemaic example, but was not completed till the reign of Augustus. It has no pylons, fore-court, or enclosing outer walls, but has a great vestibule with twenty-four columns, six of which form the facade, having low screen walls between them on Behind this is the hypostyle either side of the central entrance. hall, having six columns with elaborate Hathor-beaded capitals. On each side of this hall and beyond are chambers, used as lavatory, treasury, store-rooms and behind are two ante-chambers with a sanctuary beyond. Staircases on either side lead to the roof of the temple. During the Grseco-Roman period many temples were erected, of which the Temple of Edfou, commenced by Ptolemy III. A massive pylon, (B.C. 237), is the best preserved example. faced with reliefs and inscriptions, gave access to a great court, The back of this court was formed surrounded by a colonnade. by the front of the great hypostyle hall, the portal of which was the centre intercolumniation of a row of six columns, the narrower spaces between the side columns having low screen walls (No. 8). Twelve larger columns with elaborate capitals support ; EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. 27 the roof over this hall, beyond which was a smaller hypostyle hall, the roof of which was carried by twelve columns, having rich floral capitals, embellished by so-called heads of Hathor. Behind this were vestibules, smaller chambers, and the sanctuary. OBELISKS are monumental pillars, originally employed in pairs before the principal entrances of temples. They are monoliths, i.e., single upright stones, square on plan with slightly rounded faces, and tapering sides, with a pyramidal summit. The height is usually about nine to ten times as great as the diameter, and the four faces were cut with hieroglyphics. The capping was of metal, for the groove into which it was fitted is in some cases still visible. The quarrying and transport of such a mass of stone without the power of a steam-engine was an engineering feat of considerable skill. Many obelisks were removed from Egypt by. the Roman emperors, and at least twelve are in Rome itself. That in the centre of the Piazza of S. John Lateran is the largest in existence. It is of red granite from Syene, and is 104 feet high, or with the pedestal 153 feet, 9 feet square at the base, 6 feet 2 inches at the top, and altogether weighs about 600 tons. Cleopatra's Needle on the Thames Embankment, another example, brought to London from Alexandria, although originally erected at Heliopolis (b.c. 1500), is 68 feet 6 inches high, 8 feet square at the base, and weighs 180 tons. DWELLINGS. All these have disappeared, being only built of wood or of sun-dried bricks. Houses are shown on paintings and sculptures which have come down to us, from which they appear to have had one, two, or three stories. In the absence of any authentic remains, an illustration of the Egyptian House is given (No. g), conjecturally restored, and erected at the Paris Exhibition, 1889, by M. Charles Gamier. The design was founded on an ancient painting, and had a garden The house in front, laid out in a formal style, with fish-ponds. was divided by a corridor in the centre, giving access to the rooms. The staircase at the back led to a verandah, and also to a flat roof, extending over the whole length of the structure. The whole building was treated with color, the upper part of the house being painted a bright yellow, and the long external wooden columns blue. COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 28 4. COMPARATIVE. — A. Plans. The temples have already been slightly compared with Greek examples (pages 15 and 22), and as already noticed they were especially planned for internal effect. The hypostyle hall seemingly unlimited in size, crowded with pillars, and mysteriously illuminated from above, realized the grandest conExternally the massive ceptions of Egyptian planning (No. 5). pylons ornamented with incised decorations formed the chief fafade, a contrast being obtained by the slender obelisks which usually stood in front of them, while the approach was through an impressive avenue of innumerable sphinxes. The erection of these temples was in progress during many In this respect they centuries by means of continual additions. resemble the growth of English cathedrals as also in the disregard for symmetry in the planning of one part in relation to another. This may be seen in many of the later temples erected under the Ptolemys, the temple on th^sland of Phils being a notable instance. The walls, the py'loiis, and other features are placed on differeiit" axes, free frorn any pretence of regularity. The freedom and picturesqueness of grouping thus obtained is remarkable. B. Walls. These were immensely thick, and in important buildings were of granite, while in the less important they were of brick faced with granite. The faces of the temple walls slope inwards or batter towards the top, giving them a massive appearance (No. 7). Viollet-le; — Duc traces this inclination to the employment of mud for the walls of early buildings. ""GuLumns -Sjhich form the leading features of Greek external architecture arenistfound on the exterior of Egyptian buildings, which have normally a massive blank wall crowned with a characteristic cornice, consisting of a large hollow and roll moulding (No. 10 j, m). For the purposes of decoration, the walls, even when of granite, were generally covered with a fine plaster, in which were executed low reliefs, treated with bright color Simplicity, solidity, and grandeur, qualities (Nos. 7 and 10 p). obtained by broad masses .of unbroken walling, are the chief characteristics of the style. — These were all square-headed and covered with c. Openings. massive lintels, for the style being essentially trabeated, the arch appears to have been but little used. Window openings are seldom found in temples, light being admitted by the clerestories in the earlier examples at Thebes, or over the low dwarf walls between the columns of the front row, as at Luxor, Edfou (No. 8), Dendera, or Philas, a method peculiar to the Ptolemaic and Roman periods. — Roofs. These were composed of massive blocks of stone supported by the enclosing walls and the closely spaced columns D. — EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. 29 (No. 5 f). Being flat, they could be used in dwelling-houses (No. 9) as a pleasant rendezvous for the family in the evening for the enjoyment of the view and the fresh breezes which spring up at sunset, and at certain seasons may have been used for repose. They may also have been used in the daytime, if protected from the sun by temporary awnings. The flat roofs of the temples seem to have been used in the priestly processions. In the rockcut emples the ceilings are sometimes slightly arched in form, and as at the tombs at Beni-Has^n, the roofing is made to represent timber construction (No. 6). E. Columns. The papyrus, a tall, smooth reed, and the lotus, a large white water-lily of exquisite beauty, offered many suggestions. The columns, seldom over six diameters in height, were made to represent the stalks, and at intervals appear to be tied by bands (No. 10). The capitals were mostly derived from the lotus plant (No. 10 D, E, f), as follows (a ) The lotus bud, conventionalized, tied round by stalks (No. 10 m). (b.) The fully -grown lotus flower, which formed a bell-shaped capital, sculptured or ornamented with color decoration (No. 10 l). " capital, the main outline of the palms being (c.) The " palm painted or sculptured (No. 10 k). In addition, the Isis or Hathor-headed capital, as at Dendera and Philse, is formed of heads of the goddess Isis, supporting the model of a pylon (No. 10 g). These were few, viz., the hollow and bead F. Mouldings. generally used in conjunction, but the bead was also used by itself. The two combined invariably crowned the upper part of the pylons (Nos. 7 and 10 j, m), and walls. This was symbolical, and was an G. Ornament (No. lo). important element in the style, iiicluding such features as the solar disc or globe and the vulture with outspread wings (No. 10 n), as a symbol of protection, while diaper patterns, spirals (No. 10 a, b) and the feather ornament (No. 10 c) were largely used. The scarab, or sacred beetle, was considered by the Egyptians as the sign of their religion, much in the same way as the cross became the symbol of Christianity. It probably attained its sacred character as the emblem of resurrection because of its habit of allowing the sun to hatch its eggs from a pellet of refuse. It must be remembered that the decoration of the walls of a temple consisted largely in acts of adoration on the part of the monarch to his gods, to whose protection he ascribed all his warlike The Egyptians were masters in the use of color, successes. blue, red, and yellow. The chiefly using the primary ones (a) It was first wall to be decorated was prepared"*as follows chiselled smooth and covered with a thin layer of plaster or cement. — : — — — : . COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 30 which a colored wash was put over the whole, (b) The drawn on with a red line by an artist, being corrected with a black line by the chief artist (c) the after figures or hieroglyphics were then ; sculptor next incised the outline, rounding slightly the inclosed form towards its boundaries (d) the painter then executed his work in the strong hues of the primary colors. (See the Egyptian Court at the Crystal Palace.) The hieroglyphics were often, however, incised direct on the granite and then colored, as may be seen on the sculptures at the British Museum. They are instructive as well as decorative, and from them is learnt most of what is known of Egyptian history (No. lo p). The Egyptians possessed great power of conventionalizing natural objects such as the lotus plant, the symbol of fertility and abundance, produced by the overflowing Nile, the palm, the papyrus," and others, each being copied as the motif for a design, being treated by the artists in a way suitable to the material in which they were working. The distinguishing, or essential, feature of the natural object, or its class, thus passed by a process of idealizing into forms adapted for ornamentation. ; 5. REFERENCE BOOKS. — Champollion (J. F., le jeune). " Monuments de I'Egypte et de la Nubie." 6 vols., folio. Paris, 1845. Choisy(A.). " L'art debatir chez les Egyptiens." Imp. 8vo. Paris, 1904. " Description de I'figypte " (known as " Napoleon's Egypt "). 23 vols., — large folio. Erman Paris, 1809-1832. (A.).—" Life in Ancient Egypt." 8vo. 1894. Herz(M.l "Mosqueedu Sultan Hassan auCaire." Folio. Cairo, 1899. Lepsius (R.). " Denkmaeler aus Aegyptenund Aethiopien." 12 vols., large folio, and i vol. text. Berlin, 1849-1859. Maspero (G.).—" The Dawn of Civilization." 8vo. 1897. Parrot and Chipiez.—" History of Art in Ancient Egypt." 8vo. 1883. Petrie (W. N. F.).— " The Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh." 4to. 1883. Petrie. " Ten Years Digging in Egypt." 8vo. 1892. Petrie. " Egyptian Decorative Art." 8vo. 1895. Prisse d'Ayennes (E.). " Histoire de I'Art Egyptien." 2 vols., large — — — — — and text in 4to. Paris, 1 879. Rawlinson (G.). " History of Ancient Egypt." 2 vols., 8vo. 1881. Smyth (C. Piazzi).— " Life and Work at the Great Pyramid, 1865." Edinburgh, 1867. 3 vols., 8vo. Publications of the " Archaeological Survey of Egypt " and the " Egypt folio, — ^Exploration Fund." — — — " The Sacred Beetle." Ebers (G.). " An Egyptian Princess." Haggard (H. Rider). " Cleopatra.'' Ward (T.). (Historical Novel.) Demy 8vo. 1902. The Egyptian Court at the Crystal Palace and the Egyptian Rooms at the British Museum give a good idea of the Architecture and decoration of the style. The latter place contains a most complete collection of Egyptian antiquities, which will give the student a better knowledge of the style than can be gleaned merely from books. — WESTERN ASIATIC ARCHI- TECTURE. ' ' Babylon, Learned and wise, hath perished utierly, Nor leaves her speech one word to aid the sigh That would lament her." Wordsworth. I. INFLUENCES. — On referring to the map (No. ii) it will be i. Geographical. seen that the principal ancient cities of Western Asia were situated in the valley of the twin-rivers Tigris and Euphrates. The district was one of the earliest seats of civilization, being celebrated for its great fertility, and has been styled the cradle and tomb of nations and empires. The plain of ^Mesopotamia, once the seat of a high civilization, was irrigated bynumerou s" canals between the above-mentioned rivers, and was highly cultivated, supporting an immense population round Nineveh and Babylon. The earliest known buildings appear to have been erected at the mouth of the great rivers draining the country, and in this respect can be compared with Egypt (No. 3), where the WESTERN ASIATIC ARCHITECTURE. 33 Pyramids and other early structures were near the delta of the Nile. In Western Asia the march of civilization spread northwards from Babylon (the Gate of God) to Nineveh, while in Egypt it spread southwards from Memphis to Philae, but in both cases it developed from the sea inland. ii. Geological. The whole district of Chaldsea or Lov/er Mesopotamia is alluvial, being formed of the thick mud or clay deposited by the two great rivers Tigris and Euphrates. The soil, containing no stone and bearing no trees, could be made into bricks, which thus became the usual building material. The general body of the walls was constructed of the ordinary sundried bricks, while " kiln-burnt " and sometimes glazed or vitrified bricks of different colors were used as a facing. As a cementing material, bitumen or pitch, applied in a heated state, seems to have been used, being obtained from bitumen springs found in the Mortar, made of calcareous district, as at Is, on the Euphrates. earth, was used in the latest periods. In Assyria, where stone was not scarce, the walls were also faced, internally and externally, with alabaster or limestone slabs, on which were carved the bas-reliefs or inscriptions, which are so important from an historical point of view. The unhealthy exhalations from the vast swamps iii. Climate. in Chaldsea, and the swarms of aggressive and venomous insects infesting the entire region during the long summer, rendered the construction of elevated platforms for the towns and palaces not — — only desirable, but almost essential. Moreover, the floods during the rainy season, when torrents fell for weeks at a time, further demanded the need for such structures. Persia is for the most part a high tableland and has been described as a country of sunshine, gardens, and deserts, with a climate ranging from the extremes of heat and cold. The people were worshippers of the heavenly iv. Religion. bodies, such as the sun and the moon, and of the powers of nature, such as the wind and thunder. Numbers of omen tablets have survived, and bear witness to the extreme superstition which — existed. Ormuzd, the god of light and of good, as opposed to Ahriman, the god of darkness and evil, was worshipped with fire as his symbol. Temples, and even images, do not seem to have been necessary, as sacrifices and the worship of fire and sun appear to have been conducted in the open air, and thus the essential stimulus was wanting for the rise and development of religious On the other hand, the man-headed bulls, placed at the art. entrances of temples and palaces, probably had a mythical meaning, and appear to belong to the class of beneficent genii or to that of the great deities of the Chaldaean pantheon. V. Social and Political.—Judging from their history, the COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 34 Assyrians were a sturdy, warlike, but cruel people, and in their battles the conquering monarchs took thousands of prisoners, who were employed in raising the enormous mounds mentioned hereafter. It has been calculated by Rawlinson that the erection of the great platform or mound of Koyunjik upon which the buildings of Njneveh stood would require the united exertions of — 10,000 men for twelve years, after — which the palaces would have to be built. The Assyrian sculptures give in a very rriinute way the social conditions of the period, and show us the costumes of the time and the military character of the period, for the long inscriptions and series of pictures with which the palace walls were covered form an illustrated history of the battles and sieges of succeeding monarchs, the sculptor thus explaining the political events of the period in a lasting manner. The cuneiform or wedge-shaped characters which form the inscriptions consist of groups of strokes placedin different positions. These characters were impressed on clay tablets or cylinders, while still moist, with a triangular ended instrument of wood, bone, or metal. Libraries of these strange MSS, were formed on a large scale, and by the translation of these inscriptions much knowledge of the social condition has been acquired. The Persian astronomer-poet, Omar Khayyam, in his writings, indicates the national love of beauty and the influence exerted by environment and climate. vi. Historical. From the study of Assyrian history can be gleaned certain facts which considerably assist in forming the divisions of the periods. The earliest Babylonian king mentioned in the cuneiform inscriptions was Eannadu, who reigned B.C. 4500, and the empire he founded was gradually extended northwards, following the course of the great river Tigris. In B.C. 1 700 Assyria, the northern part of the early Babylonian empire, asserted her independence and became the great power of Western Asia. Of the Assyrian kings, the most celebrated was Sargon (e.g. 722 he 705), who erected the great palace at Khorsabad was the first Assyrian king who came in contact with the Egyptian army, then in alliance with the Philistines, a combination of forces which he defeated. The Assyrians conquered and occupied Egypt in B.C. 672, sacking the ancient city of Thebes in B.C. 666 but the Egyptians finally shook themselves free from the Assyrian yoke. The destruction of Nineveh took place in B.C. 609, and the great Assyrian kingdom was then divided among its conquerors, Assyria being handed over to the Medes. Babylon then took the leading place until it was finally conquered by the Persians, a hardy race from the mountainous. district north of the Persian Gulf, under Cyrus, in b.c. 539. The reigns of Darius B.C. 521-485) and Xerxes (e.g. 485-465) are irnpprtant as bping — ' — ; ; WESTERN ASIATIC ARCHITECTURE. 35 those in which some of the most interesting palaces were erected The country remained under the rule of at Susa and Persepolis. the Persians until the time of Alexander the Great, B.C. 333, when it became a possession of the Greeks. The conquest of Egypt by Cambyses, b.c. 525, and the dazzling impression left by the marvellous buildings of Memphis and Thebes, caused the development of the use of the column amongst the Persians. In the seventh century a. d., the Arabs overran the country and settled there Bagdad becoming a new capital of great magnificence. Towards the close of the tenth century, the Turks, a barbarous people pouring in from the eafet, settled in the country, which is at the present moment in a desolate state owing to Turkish misrule. — 2. ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER. The banks of the Tigris and Euphrates presented only alluvial where wood suitable for building was rare. The country, however, possessed an abundance of clay, which, being compressed in flat square moulds and dried in the sun, was the material of which were formed the huge platforms upon which temples and palaces were built. These immense platforms were at first faced with sun-dried bricks, and subplains, sequently with kiln-burnt bricks, or in the later Assyrian period with stone slabs from the mountains that separate Assyria from Media. It will be perceived how the salient characteristics of the architecture may be explained by the nature of the materials at hand, for the walls being of brick, each unit, in general, was, a repetition of its neighbour, and rarely of special The buildings thus constructed could only be decorated shape. by attached ornament, similar in principle to the mats and hangings spread over floors or walls as a covering, for the Assyrians either cased their walls with alabaster or with a skin of glazed brickwork of many colors. The arch was applied to important openings (No. 12) and also to vaults. In some cases it was not a true arch, but one formed by corbelling or projecting horizontal courses. The true arch however was also practised, being probably accidentally hit upon through the use of small units for as the Chaldaeans were unable to support walls over openings upon beams of stone or timber, owing to the lack of these materials in suitable forms, they had to devise some It is a general law, which study and other means for doing so. comparison will confirm, that the arch was earliest discovered and most invariably employed by those builders who found themselves condemned by the geological formation of their country to the employment of the sijiallest units.. Arches, therefore, in the absence of piers, rested on thick and ; COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 36 solid walls and whether used for the formation of vaulted drains under the immense platforms, or to form imposing entrances of colored and glazed brickwork in elaborate fa9ades, held a space 7of extreme importance in the style. In Chaldaea, isolated supports, such as are found in the hypostyle halls of Egypt and Persia, or in Greek temples and Latin basilicas, were not UFed, for the want of suitable stone rendered any such arrangement impossible. The Chaldseans and Assyrians scarcely ever used stone constructively except as the envelope for a brick wall but on the other hand as stone was abundant in the rocky country of Persia, the Persians used it for walls and columns at Susa and Persepolis. Assyria undoubtedly gave many of her architectural forms to Persia, who later borrowed much from Egypt and Asiatic Greece. The bracket and scroll capitals of the columns at Persepolis and Susa retain much of the form of their wooden prototypes, and demonstrate very clearly that a form which, applied to wood, is natural and inoffensive, becomes inappropriate when applied to ; ; stone (No. 13 a, c, g). Texier's description of the great mosque at Ispahan might, it is believed, be applied with general accuracy to the palaces of Nineveh and Persepolis, if the power of a Merlin could bring them back to our view " Every part of the building, without exception, is covered with enamelled bricks. Their ground is blue, upon which elegant flowers and sentences taken from the Koran are traced in white. The cupola is blue decorated with shields and arabesques. One can hardly imagine the effect produced by such a building on an European accustomed to the dull uniformity of our colorless buildings." The palaces would differ principally from the description" of this mosque owing to the rules of the Koran as to the prohibition in sculpture and decoration of the copying of natural objects (page 654). The appearance of the monuments must, however, be entirely left to the imagination, for the effect of the towering masses of the palaces, planted on the great platforms, and approached from the plains by broad stairways, can only be imagined. The portal, flanked by colossal winged bulls (Nos. 12 b, f, g, h, and : 13 D, e), led to an audience-chamber paved with carved slabs of alabaster. This apartment had a dado, 12 feet high, of sculptured slabs, with representations of battles and hunting and was surmounted by a frieze containing animals in glazed and brightly colored brickwork a beamed roof of cedar, through which small openings gave a sufficient illumination, probably covered the apartment (No. 12 b). At Khorsabad an ornamentation of semi-cylinders in juxtaposition was employed externally, a style of decoration which scenes (No. 13 figures of ; f, h), men and — WESTERN ASIATIC ARCHITECTURE. 37 a last reminiscence of the timber stockading which had originally served to keep up the tempered earth before the regular use of sun-dried bricks. In Asia Minor many of the buildings present stone forms borrowed from a timber type, and the influence of this tradition is better seen in the tombs of Lycia than in any other remains. An example of one of these at the British Museum has a double podium iff. Glossary) upon which is placed a chest or sarcophagus crowned with a roof of pointed-arch form, the mortises and framing, including the pins, being copied from a wooden form. In Lycia many rock-cut tombs present flat and sloping roofs, in which unhewn timbers were copied and the last stage shows an Ionic facade certainly developed from these carpentry ^rms (No. 41 f). The copying of timber forms in stone has also been traced in Egypt in India, where it was introduced by the Bactrian Greeks, i-between the second and third century B.C., and in Greece somewhat earlier than in Lycia, in the seventh century b.c. It may, therefore, be admitted that a material from which a style is evolved continues for a period to have its influence even when another material is substituted. It was only, however, in the infancy of stone architecture that timber forms were adhered to for as soon as habit gave familiarity with the new material, the incongruities of such forms applied to stone structures were by degrees abandoned, and features suitable to the new material were evolved. is ; ; 1 ; 3. EXAMPLES. Western Asiatic Architecture can be divided distinct periods (a.) The first into three tolerably : or Babylonian (Chaldasan) period (e.g. 4000 (?)- 1290). (b.) {c.) The second or Assyrian period (b.c. 1290-538). The third or Persian period (b.c. 538-333). THE FIRST OR BABYLONIAN PERIOD was a of temple -building epoch, the principal remains being the temple Birs-Nimroud near Babylon, and the temple at Khorsabad. Colonel Rawlinson has shown by his investigations that the Temple of Birs-Nimroud was dedicated to the seven heavenly spheres. In Chaldaea every city had its "ziggurat" (holy mountain), surmounted by a richly decorated temple chamber, which served as a shrine and observatory from which astrological studies could be made (No. 12 a, c, d). These temples were several stories in height, constructed in ASSYRIAN EXAMPLES, 12. — WESTERN ASIATIC ARCHITECTURE. 39 receding terraces, and each of different colored glazed bricks. A walled inclosure surrounded the whole structure. The angles of these temples were made to face the cardinal points, in contrast to the Egyptian pyramids, whose sides were so placed. The attempts of the Babylonians to build a tower which should " reach to heaven " (Gen. xi. 4), may be referred to here, and it is a fact worth noting that in Western Asia and Egypt, countries both remarkable for their dulness and sameness of aspect, man should have attempted his highest flights of audacity in the way of artificial elevations. THE SECOND OR ASSYRIAN PERIOD was a palace-building epoch, and terminated with the destruction of Babylon by Cyrus, B.C. 539. ^ The principal remains are the palaces at Nineveh (or Koyunjik), Nimroud, and Khorsabad. The Palace of Sargon, Khorsabad (b.c. 722-705), is the best example of the general type, and has been the most completely studied by means of systematic excavations, chiefly by Place. It was erected about nine miles north-north-east of the ancient city of Nineveh, and with its various courts, chambers, and corridors is supposed to have occupied an area of 25 acres. As in all Assyrian palaces, it was raised upon a terrace or platform of brickwork faced with stone, 46 feet above the plain, from which it was reached by means of broad stairways and sloping planes or ramps. The palace contained three distinct groups of apartments, corresponding to the divisions of any palatial residence of modern Persia, Turkey, (a.) The Seraglio, including the palace proper, the or India, viz. men's apartments, and the reception rooms for visitors, in all containing 10 courts, and no less than 60 rooms or passages; (&.) the Harem, with the private apartments of the prince and his family and (c.) the Khan or service chambers, arranged round an immense courtyard, having an area of about 2 J acres, and forming the principal court of the palace. There was also a temple The great observatory on the western side of the platform. entrance portals on the south-east fagade led into the great court already mentioned. These portals formed probably the most impressive creations of Assyrian Architecture, and were rendered imposing by no fewer than ten human-headed winged bulls, ig feet in height (No. 12 f, g, h), examples of which are now preserved in the British Museum. In the principal apartments a sculptured dado of alabaster about 10 feet high, which seems to have been sometimes treated with color, lined the lower portions of the walls, above which was a continuous frieze of colored and glazed brickwork. Conjectural restorations have been made by various authorities (No. 12 b). : ; COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 40 of the Palace of Sennacherib, Nineveh, 705-681, and the Palace of Ashur-nasir-pal, Nimroud, b.c. 885-860, have revealed a large amount of information concerning Assyrian Palaces, and many of the sculptures with which the walls were lined are now in the British Museum. The excavations B.C. The method of roofing is still much in dispute. Some authorities hold that the long and narrow rooms were roofed with beams of poplar or palm, resting upon the summits of the walls, and that the large halls would have a central portion open to the sky, with porticos around, similar to that of a Roman atrium. Other authorities hold that the arch, which was used largely in the drains and water channels of the great platforms and in the city gates (No. 12 f), also played an important part in the construction of the palaces themselves, specially in view of the thickness of the walls, which would indicate that the architect had to provide solid abutments for arched vaults which supported a heavy roof. From a bas-relief found by Layard, it would appear that domed roofs both spherical and elliptical were also employed. THE THIRD OR PERSIAN PERIOD, to that of Alexander the Great, has palaces, tombs and temples, at Susa, from the time of Cyrus important remains of and Passagardae. Persians having no architecture of their own, proceeded to adapt that of the conquered Assyrians, as later the Romans assimilated that of the Greeks. In the neighbourhood of their new cities, Susa and Persepolis, good stone was to be found, and, as a consequence, many architectural features, which are wanting in the earlier periods, are still extant. Persepolis, one of the important capitals of Persia, has inteThese resting remains of no less than eight different buildings. were erected on a great platform, 1,500 feet long by 1,000 feet wide, of four different levels, partly cut out of the solid rock and It was from 20 to 50 feet above the plain and partly built up. was reached by a wide stairway on the western side. The most important buildings erected by Darius are his Palace and the Hall of the Hundred Columns, while his son Xerxes built the Propylaea, the Hypostyle Hall and a famous palace. The Hall of the Hundred Columns, 225 feet square, was probably used as an audience and throne-hall. It was surrounded by a brick wall, 10 feet 8 inches thick, in which were forty-four stone doorways and windows. The bas-reliefs are on a magnificent scale, representing the king surrounded by the arms of subject states, receiving ambassadors, rows of warriors and other subjects. The columns, of which only one is still in situ, had capitals of curious vertical Persepolis, The WESTERN ASIATIC ARCHITECTURE. 4I Ionic-like scrolls (No. 13 g), or of the double-bull or double-horse types (No. 13 The Hypostyle Hall of Xerxes a, c). (b.c. 485), probably used as a throne room, and having no enclosing walls, occupied an area larger than the Hypostyle Hall at Karnac, or any Gothic cathedral except Milan. It originally had seventy-two black marble columns, 67 feet in height, arranged in a somewhat novel manner supporting a flat roof. Of these only seventeen now exist, and have capitals either of brackets and volutes, or formed of a pair of unicorns or bulls the bases are bell-shaped (No. 13 A, c, g) and the shafts are fluted with fifty- two flutes. Susa has important remains in the palaces of Xerxes and Artaxerxes, from which splendid examples of colored and glazed brickwork have been excavated, especially the frieze of lions and the frieze of archers in which the figures, about 5 feet high, are now in the Louvre, Paris, and give a good idea of the glazed and ; colored The work of the Persians. Tomb of Darius, Naksh-i-Rustam, near Persepolis, has a rock cut fagade, reproducing the Palace of Darius, and forming one of four rock-hewn sepulchres of the Akhaemenian kings. In this facade the columns are of the double-bull type with cornice over, above which are two rows of figures supporting a prayer platform, upon which stood a statue of the king, about 7 feet high, with his arm uplifted towards an image of the god Ormuzd. Jewish Architecture. The Hebrews apparently borrowed their architectural forms from Egyptian, Assyrian, Greek and Roman sources. Remains are unimportant, consisting principally of tombs in the valleys near Jerusalem. The only great attempt at a monumental structure was the Temple at Jerusalem. This was commenced by Solomon (b.c. 1012), and the biblical description (i Kings vi., vii., 2 Chronicles iii., iv.) is interesting, portraying entrance pylons, courts, cedar woodwork, metal work, and the isolated brazen columns Jachin and Boaz. The Temple was afterwards added to by Herod (b.c 18), and the site is now occupied by the Mosque of Omar. — (Page 659.) 4. A. early, COMPARATIVE. — Plan. A special character was given to the temples of the and the palaces of the later period, by raising them on terraces or platforms some 30 feet to 50 feet in height (No. 12 g), and by grouping the buildings round quadrangles. Whereas the sides of the Egyptian pyramids face the cardinal points of the compass, the angles of the Assyrian ziggurats were so placed. Egyptian temples were designed mainly for internal effect, while Assyrian palaces were designed so as to be effective internally and externally, being raised on the platforms mentioned above. WITH BTTE»KMp^ra0nN.W.ra[SCE 5iT MIWD, KlM61NH15CMieT mw^nmm, ^rapimwR. (ElLIMSMci'- 13- WESTERN ASIATIC ARCHITECTURE. 43 — B. Walls. The Assyrians in the early period used stone only as a facing to their brick walls, forming a contrast with the solid marble work of the Greeks, and with the constructive use of stone and granite by the Egyptians. In Assyria, the massive walls, which were of cased brickwork, only remain, the columns being of wood having perished. In Persia, however, the walls which were thin have disappeared, leaving the massive stone or marble blocks forming the door and window openings, immense columns, and broad stairways which alone have survived the ravages of time. The slabs of alabaster with which the walls of the palaces were faced reveal much of the social history of the people, and many of the slabs are now in the British Museum (No. 13). c. Openings. The lighting to the temples is conjectural, but it appears to have been effected by means of a " clerestory " (No. 12 b), somewhat similar to that in use in the Egyptian temples. It is believed that the Assyrian architects counted chiefly on the doorways, which were of great size, to give their buildings a — supply of light and air, and openings may also have been formed in the upper parts of the walls. The use of the arch, both circular and pointed, was practised by the Assyrians, as is proved by the discoveries of Sir Henry Layardat Nimroud, and of M. Place at Khorsabad (No. i2f, g, h), where semi-circular arches spring from the backs of winged bulls with human heads. D. Roofs. -The roofing appears to have been effected by means of timber beams reaching from one column to the next, and resting on the backs of the " double-bull " capitals (No. 12 b). Some authorities consider that the halls of the palaces were covered with brick tunnel vaults, but in many cases the roof of considerable thickness was flat, formed of very tough but plastic clay and debris, and kept in condition by being occasionally rolled, as in modern eastern houses. Perrot and Chipiez, however, are of opinion that Assyrian builders made use of domes in addition to barrel vaults, because of the discovery of a bas-relief at Koyunjik in which groups of buildings roofed with spherical or elliptical domes are shown. Strabo (xvi. i. 5) also mentions expressly that all the houses of Babylon were vaulted. E. Columns. —These were primarily of wood, but in the later period at Persepolis, the Persians, on their return from Egypt, built them of the natural stone which had been wanting in Chaldsea. They were not so massive as in Egypt, where stone roofs had to be supported. The capitals were characteristic, being of the " double-bull," sufficient — " double-unicorn," " double-horse " or " double-griffen " type (No. 13 A, c), and the Ionic scroll occurs in some examples. F. Mouldings. As in the case of Egypt, in Western Asia — COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 44 the use of mouldings does not appear to have advanced to any great extent. In the Assyrian palaces the sculptured slabs and colored surfaces took their place. At Persepolis the bead, hollow and ogee mouldings may be noticed in the bases, while the volutes of the capital were treated with plain sinkings. G. Ornament. The Assyrian sculptures in alabaster exhibit considerable technical skill and refinement, while the repousse pattern work on bronze bowls, shields, and gate fittings is also notable. From the decorative treatment of Assyrian architecture can be traced much of the peculiar and characteristic detail used by the Greeks, and on the sculptured slabs (No. 13 b, f. h), already mentioned at Nimroud and Nineveh, are represented buildings with columns and capitals of Ionic and Corinthian form in — embryo. Further, it may be said, that Greece took from Assyria the idea of the sculptured friezes, the colored decorations, and the honeysuckle (No. 12 j) and guilloche ornaments, the latter being seen in a pavement slab from the palace at Nineveh (Koyunjik), now in the British Museum. will be seen that Greece adopted much from the preceding styles of Egypt and Western Asia, which are thus of extreme interest in enabling the evolution of architectural forms from the earlier periods to be traced. In the next chapter of her decorative 5. it art REFERENCE BOOKS. — " L'Art Antique de la Perse." 5 Paris, — Flandin (E.) Coste " Voyage en Perse." 5 Paris, 1844-1854. Layard(A. H.). — " Monuments of Nineveh." 2 1853. Layard. — " Nineveh and Palaces." 3 8vo. 1849. Perrot and Chipjez. — " History of Art in Chaldsea and Assyria, Persia, Phrygia, and Judeea." 5 8vo. 1884-1892. Place (Victor). — " Ninive et L'Assyrie." 3 large Paris, 1867-1870. — "Chaldea." 8vo. 1888. (A most interesting account Ragozin {Z. of the people and their history.) — Texier Perse, et la Mesopotamie," 2 " L'Arnifeie, large Paris, 1842-1852. — Whyte-Melville. " Sarchedon" (Historical Novel). Dieulafoy (M.). vols., folio. 1884-1889. et (P.). vols., folio. vols., folio. its vols., vols., vols., folio. A.). (C.). la vols., folio. A visit to the Assyrian galleries and basement of the British Museum will afford much interest and information to the student and will impress him with the dignity and importance of the style. — — ; Ii^^i£ll!Bi@[iS!lliS) • EfZflriTiuF] mmm (LIC(lRnH3JU3 "if^wC^^f^flgjj^ RHODES SE(3 14. GREEK ARCHITECTURE. " Fair Greece sad relic of departed worth Immortal, though no more though fallen, great " ! ! ; ! Byron. " And downward thence to latest days The heritage of beauty fell And Grecian forms and Grecian lays Prolonged their humanising spell, when new worlds for man to win The Atlantic riven waves disclose, The wildernesses there begin Till To blossom I. with the Grecian rose." Lord Houghton. INFLUENCES. — Geographical. A reference to the map of Greece (No. 14) shows a country surroundetJ-OH-tbree. sides by the sea, possessed of many natural hairbours^ and convenient tor the development of trade. By means of these havens the Phoenician merchants in early times carried on commerce with the country. The influence i. of the sea in fostering national activity should not be forgotten — an influence to which Great Britain owes her present position. Again, the mountainous character of the country, with scarcely a - road until Roman times, was calculated to isolate the inhabitants into small groups, and together with the tempting proximity of a whole multitude of islands, was instrumental in producing a hardy and adventurous people, make good who might be expected to colonists. — ii. Geological. In Greece the principal mineral product was marblg, the most monumental building material in existence, and -one which favour s pur ity of line and refineme nt in detail. This material is found in greal abundance iirvariou§~J)arts of Greece, e.g., in the mountains of Hymettus and Pentelicus, a few miles — 46 j COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. _ from Athens, and In the in the islands of Paros and Naxos. refinement of line and smoothness of surface where crude bricks were used, they were in many cases coated with a fine cement formed of marble dust and lime where stone was employed, as at Paestum and elsewhere, it appears also to have been coated with this marble cement, while marble itself was often treated in the same way, the cement being susceptible, of a higher polish than the uncemented surface. The country was also rich in silver, copper, and iron. iii. Climate. The climate of Greece is remarkable for the hot sun and the heavy rains, factors probably answerable for the porticos which were important features of the temples. Greece enjoyed a position intermediate between the rigorous surroundings of the Northern nations and the relaxing conditions of Eastern life. Hence the Greek character combined the activity of the North with the passivity of the East in a way that conduced to the growth of a unique civilization. iv. Religion. The Greek religion was in the main a worship of natu£ai4ihenaaiena(nature-worship, major and minor), of which the g ods were personific ations. There are, however, numerous traces of ancestor- worship, fetishism, and other primitive forms of religion. Itlhould be bome in mind that Greek cults were always local, each town or district having its own divinities, ceremonies, and traditions. The priests had to perform their appointed rites, but were not an exclusive class, and often served only for a period, retiring afterwards into private life. Both men and women officiated, and a small bright " cella " took the place of the mysterious halls of the priest-ridden Egyptians (page 20). The principal deities of the Greeks with their Roman names effort to obtain ; — — are as follows ; Roman. Greek. Zeus Hera Apollo Chief of the gods and supreme ruler Jupiter (Jove). Wife of Zeus and goddess of marriage Juno. The son of Zeus ' and father of ] [ ^sculapius. The god who punj < ishes, heals and helps. Also the > Apollo. god of song and music, of the sun, j and founder cities. of [ ) I Hestia Heracles Athena Hearth (sacred fire) Strength, power | Poseidon Dionysos P^^^^' ^""^ P"^"^"! ^f^?^'"' Sea Wine, Demeter Artemis Hermes P""^""' Vesta. Hercules. I \ feasting, revelry Earth, agriculture Hunting (goddess of the chase) ^"^^^ ""^ messenger of the gods therefore eloquence with wmged feet Minerva. Neptune. Bacchus. Ceres, Diana. 1 y^^ '>-"-" J' ] Aphrodite Beauty Venus. Nike Victory Victoria. GREEK ARCHITECTURE. 47 — The early inhabitants were known V. Social and Political. Their civilization to the ancients under the name of Pelasgi. belonged to the bronze age, as is evident from the remains of it found at different points round the ^Egean sea, viz., in Crete, at Hissarlik in the Troad, at Mycenae, Tiryns, and elsewhere. It before the iron weapons and greater courage of invaders from the North, viz., the Achasans or Homeric Greeks. The war against Troy affords proof of an early connection of the inhabitants of Greece with Asia. The Achseans in their turn succumbed to a fresh influx of invaders from the North, hardy mountaineers called Dorians, who established themselves at Sparta and elsewhere in the Peloponnese. In classical times the land wds peopled by lonians {i.e., the old Pelasgic population), jfEolians (i.e., descendants of the Achaeans), and Dorians. Dorian Sparta and Ionian (Pelasgian) Athens are the two principal factors in the drama of Greece. It was not till some 500 years after the fall of Troy that the new Hellenic civilization was evinced in the construction of the Temple of Corinth (b.c. 650), one of the earliest Doric temples known. As regards the people themselves, it is clear that the national games and religious festivals united them in reverence for their religion, and gave them that love for music, the drama, and the fine arts, and that emulation in manly sports and contests for which they were distinguished. It should be remembered that the people led an open-air life, for the public ceremonies and in many cases the administration of justice were carried on in the fell open air. The Greeks, as already indicated, were great colonists, and the coast of Asia Minor and the Mediterranean, was a government measure dating from about B.C. 700, undertaken not only to establish trade, but also to reduce the superfluous population, and to provide an outlet for party strife. It thus came about that the colonies were often peopled with citizens of a more energetic and go-ahead character than and it will therefore be found that those of the mother country many of the important buildings of Greek architecture, especially in the Ionic style, are in their colonies of Asia Minor, and that this connection with the East had some influence upon emigration, especially to ; their architecture. vi. Historical. bard who sang for —The poems of Homer, apparently a Pelasgic Achaean masters, give a picture of Greek about the twelfth century b.c Whether or no the war with Troy be an actual fact, the incidents related have a substratum of truth, and the tale probably arose out of the early conflicts of the Greeks in north-west Asia. The Hesiodic poems, circ. b.c 750, life depict the gloomy prospects and sordid life of the Boeotian when art was almost in abeyance. For the peasantry at a time ;; COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 48 fourth and fifth centuries b.c. there are the more or less critical The histories of Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon, and others. cities of Greece had by this time settled down in their several forms of government tyrannic, aristocratic, or democratic and The Persians under most of their colonies had been founded. Cyrus, having captured Sardis, overthrew the kingdom of Lydia whereupon the Greeks of Asia Minor became subject to Persia. It was the revolt of these lonians in B.C. 499-493 which led to the Persian wars. The first great Persian invasion resulted in the victory of the Greeks at the battle of Marathon, B.C. 490 ; and the second invasion by Xerxes terminated in the naval victory of Salamis (b.c 480). National exaltation caused by the defeats of the Persians is largely responsible for the fact that all the important temples now found in Greece were built in the " fifty — — years " which succeeded the battles of Salamis and Plataea. The wonderfully rapid growth of Athens excited the jealousy of the slower Spartans, and the Peloponnesian war, which followed, lasted from b.c 431 to 404. The rule of Pericles (b.c 444-429) marks the climax of Athenian prosperity. The Peloponnesian war left Sparta the chief power in Greece but her arbitrary and high-handed conduct roused other states against her, and the supremacy passed successively to Thebes and Macedonia. The latter had hitherto been considered a half- barbarian state but thanks to the ability of Philip King of Macedonia and of his son Alexander the Great, it rose to a leading position in Greece. In b.c 334 Alexander set out on his great expedition, and in six years he subdued the Persian Empire, having besieged and taken Tyre en route and received the submission of Egypt, where he founded and gave his name to the famous city of Alexandria. His conquests extended to Northern India, and the effect of these was most important, for Hellenic civilization was thus introduced far and wide throughout Asia., On his death at Babylon in b.c 323, the empire he had created was split up among his Generals, Egypt falling to the share of Ptolemy, who founded a dynasty (page 12). In Greece itself the formation of leagues, as the Achaean and .(Etolian, between cities was attempted but the Roman interference had commenced, and gradually increased until in B.C. 146 Greece became a Roman province. The isolation and mutual animosity of the Greek communities afforded all too good an opportunity for the intrusion of the better-centralized and more united power of Rome. En revanche, where arts not arms were concerned, ; ; " Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit et artes Intulit agresti Latio." — GREEK ARCHITECTURE. 2. Much 49 ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER. Greek culture owed to the preceding Oriental the change effected by the Greeks has so profoundly influenced the development of European progress that Greece must be regarded as the veritable source of literary and artistic inspiration. As a recent writer puts it, " Whate'er we hold of beauty, half is hers." Greek architecture stands alone in being accepted as beyond criticism, and as being an obligatory as civilizations, still study for students of otherwise very different principles. The character of the early or Mycenaean period, also known as the Pelasgic, Cyclopean or Primitive period, is very different from the later or Hellenic period, and, as mentioned on page 53, consists of rough walling of large blocks of stone, often unworked. In this period the Greeks often had recourse to the corbel system, to inclined blocks over openings, and even to the true arch. The Hellenic Period which followed the Mycenaean is dealt with specially here because it is notable for the development of the trabeated style which the Greeks approved and developed, and which is recognised as the special Grecian type. The following diagram emphasizes the main facts : Greeks. Greek, ' Trabeated. Etruscans. Roman. >}. \ Trabeated and Arcuated. Gothic. Arcuated. = This style was essentially columnar and trabeated (trabs a beam),, and the character was largely influenced by the use of finely-dressed marble. J Stability was achieved solely by the judicious observance of the laws of gravity the weights acting only vertically, and consequently needing but vertical resistances. Stone or marble lintels being difficult to obtain of any great length, the columns or supporting members had to be placed comparatively close together, a method of design which called for a certain simplicity of treatment characteristic of the style. Mortar was unnecessary because it would have been of no use for distributing the pressure between the stone or marble blocks of ; which the walls and columns were constructed, as the beds of these were rubbed to a very fine surface and united with iron cramps. Further, careful study of the materials at hand was made, for Choisy found in the temples at ^Egina and Peestum (Nos. 20, 28), that the stones were laid on their natural bed or otherwise, according to the pressures they had to bear thus the architraves, which had to support a cross pressure, were placed with the planes of their beds vertically, as they were then better able to withstand a cross-strain, and a wider intercolumniation could also be obtained. ; ^Y^TEM OP COM^T^PCTION, iHEFBiHaML (nmm mim or weizona / fflcH m mm mm ob to mt IS mmm mm.m ihe msstsm FSM mt wmt, Mi mi ^ / T@ fmim THE roM w^i mbocei -*Tffi BY THE WSBLE WHS laiCTM m Mi\ii. im mmmni WFiLE or ^ ^ ^ <s mi imm »racE ^_ fmsm n XlSWlOM TWOOM .^ mmm Sww the miict- ireciD ®FF«i9yc BIMCIML efflMilB. WWE.TOEIEFT Lbt,«u Biy ap^>< I 5IIE SHOWS TO? ^(ff)n IffiESalS F0« umArnt a miSME BPTHI EaBTH.TME^UK "0a OF THE « eAP.oFcoLuw M. mmmmf (MB WITH « «» mm ^emmi mt tiryni. mnm sr toe 4* ®F CYCLOIFIE^KI nBSOMBT COMTOIi) 'GF BlOCKf QF STONE fi TD 10 ItlT j^Q § 3 FEgT WIGS 15- 1 GREEK ARCHITECTURE. 5 The general architectural character of the early works of the Hellenic period is heavy and severe, the influence of the Mycenaean period being apparent but a gradual change towards refinement and beauty took place, and in the later periods the proportions of the columns were more slender, and the mouldings more refined. Unity of effect in the larger temples was obtained by the colonnade surrounding the shrine-cell, forming a contrast with the number of courts, halls, and chambers, decreasing in size from the entrance pylons, comprised in a typical Egyptian temple. Greek Tmildings have the qualities of harmonyf^raplicity and unity, because of the excellence of their proportions, their truthful and apparent construction, and the employment of one constructive ; principle. Many refinements in design were practised in the best period of Greek art, in order to correct optical illusions, as has been discovered by the late Mr. Penrose in many temples, and especially in the Parthenon. The long lines of the architrave, stylobate, pediments and other features, which, if built straight in reality, would appear to sag or drop in the middle of their length, were formed with slight convex lines. For instance, in the Parthenon the stylobate has an upward curvature towards its centre of 2 'Si inches on the east and west fronts, and of 4-39 inches on the flanks. The vertical features were made to incline inwards in order to correct the tendency which such features have of appearing to fall outwards at the top. Thus, in the Parthenon the axes of the outer columns lean inwards 2'65 inches, and would meet if produced at a distance of a mile above ground. The faces of the architrave (No. 71, c) were also given an inward inclination. The shafts usually have an entasis which, in the case of the Parthenon column, amounts to about three-quarters of an inch in a height of 34 feet, and is shown on No. 71 d. The close spacing of the angle columns has been already referred to, and these were increased in thickness as it was found that seen against the sky owing to irradiation (No. 71, b) they would appear thinner than those seen against the darker background formed by the cella wall. According to Pennethorne a further correction is pointed out in an inscription from the Temple of Priene (No. 71, a), where according to Vitruvius, Bk. vi., chap. 2, the letters at the top of the inscription were increased in size, and the letters at the lower part decreased so that they might all appear of one size when seen from the point of sight. Sculpture and carving of the highest class completed the effectiveness of their most important buildings, and these were influenced very largely by the hard, fine-grained marble employed, which rendered possible the delicate adjustment and refined treatment characteristic of this period. E 2 GREEK EXAMPLES. I. C©NJ)TPCTI©M. ItlWW |iiiii[fii[)iii|i5)- pBllillllD)) MM mitt iim)oii iracr mmmoii mmmM \im\sm if, MK£-f„BlTfilEi^* fJiLf Tl^fJjftOg JECTrt eF fWfc*!* MMiLE ff f^miWi i6. J^) Ti: . prdent- — — ; GREEK ARCHITECTURE. 53 Color and gilding were applied very largely by the Greeks both to their buildings and sculpture, and some of the remains which have been lately excavated at Athens, Delphi, and elsewhere still exhibit traces of their original coloring. The Greeks developed the so-called " Orders of Architecture," the Doric, Ionic and Corinthian being used by them. To these, in later times, the Romans added the Tuscan and Composite, " thus completing the " five orders of architecture." An " order in Greek and Roman architecture consists of the column or support, including base and capital, and the entablature, ^or part supported. The latter is divided into the architrave or lowest portion the frieze, or middle member, and the cornice or uppermost part. The proportions of these parts vary in the different orders, as do the mouldings and decorations applied (No. 38). The origin and evolution of the different parts of the three Greek orders are dealt with later under their respective headings, but the characteristics are well expressed in the following lines ; : " First, unadorn'd, And nobly plain, the manly Doric rose Th' Ionic, then, with decent matron grace. Her airy pillar heaved luxuriant last, The rich Corinthian spread her wanton wreath. The whole so measured, so lessen'd oflf By fine proportion, that the marble piles, Forra'd to repel the still or stormy waste Of rolling ages, light as fabrics look ; That from the wand aerial rise." The late J. Addington Symonds commonly evolved through three Thomson. well observed that Art is stages (i) The ardent and inspired embodiment of a great idea this gives strength and grandeur (2) the original inspiration tempered by increasing knowledge and a clearer appreciation of limits the result being symmetry (3) ebbing inspiration, details being elaborated, and novelties introduced to make up for its loss this occasions a brilliant but somewhat disproportioned style. This progress can be traced in all departments of Greek life. In architecture, there is the solid strength of the Doric capital, the clear-cut beauty of the Ionic, and the florid detail of the Corinthian, in poetry the rugged grandeur of jEschylus, the exquisite symmetry of Sophocles, and the brilliant innovations of Euripides, and in sculpture, an Ageladas, a Pheidias, and a Praxiteles. — ; : — — ; 3. EXAMPLES. The Mycenaean Period has already been defined as extending to shortly after the war with Troy, though in the Islands (e.g., Cyprus, Crete, and Delos), it lasted on till the eighth century b.c. but remains of a pre-Mycenaean period called Minoan, dating ; — COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 54 back to about b.c. 3000, have been discovered by Dr. Arthur Evans, of which the Min6an Palace at Knossos in Crete is an example. The architectural remains of these periods include town-walls, palaces, and tombs. The walls are of three kinds of masonry (i) " Cyclopean," i.e., masses of rock roughly quarried and piled on each other, without cramp-irons, but with clay mortar, the interstices between the larger being filled with smaller blocks. Examples at Argos, Tiryns, Mycenae, Knossos in Crete, : 'and Athens. (2) Rectangular, i.e.^ carefully hewn rectangular blocks arranged in regular courses, but the joints between stones Examples at in the same course are not always vertical. Mycenae in the entrances and towers, and the entrance passage in " tholos " or beehive-tombs. (3) Polygonal, i.e., many sided blocks accurately worked so as to fit together. Examples at Mycenae, wall of Acropolis at Athens, and Cnidus. Thus all three styles occur in structures of " Mycenaean " age, although 'in out-of-theway places, as in Caria, they survived for centuries. The first is seemingly the parent of the other two but the common assumption that polygonal is later than rectangular masonry cannot be proved with regard to the Pelasgic period. In addition various characteristic features were used Corbels. Sometimes horizontal courses were employed projecting one beyond the other till the apex was reached, producing either a triangular opening as is found above the doorways of the tholos-tombs (No. 15 a, e), or an apparent arch as at CEniades in Acarnania, Assos, and the gallery at Tiryns, or a dome-shaped roof as in the Treasury of Atreus at Mycenae (No. 15 a, b). Inclined Blocks. Sometimes inclined blocks forming triangular headed openings were employed as in the early, perhaps prehistoric, sanctuary on Mount Ocha in Euboea, and the ancient shrine of Apollo on Mount Cynthus (Delos). Arches. A few examples of Greek arcuated work are extant, viz., a Cyclopean arch at Cnidus, an arch with a key-stone : : — — — and an arched gateway at water-channel or drain at Athens, which crosses the town from east to west, is partly arcuated and partly roofed with advancing corbels. The barrel-vault ("kamara") occurs in subterranean funeral chambers in Macedonia, and also in the vaulted passages at the theatre of Sicyon, the tunnel leading to the Stadium at Olympia and other places. The "tholos" or beehive-tombs at Mycenae, Orchomenos, and Amyclae were originally modelled on underground huts for the living (Vitruv. ii., i), the precise shape being found by Prof. Adler in Phrygia. At Mycenae the tholoi are confined to the lower city as opposed to the shaft-graves of the upper city. The largest and It best preserved is the so-called " Treasury of Atreus " (No. 15). consists of a long entrance passage or " dromos," 20 feet broad by (partially dropped) in Acarnania, OSniades. A GREEK ARCHITECTURE. 55 115 feet long, a large vaulted chamber, about 50 feet broad by 50 feet high, and a small square tomb-chamber adjoining. similar tomb at Orchomenos in Boeotia has a magnificently ornamented ceiling in its sepulchral chamber, while another at Menidi in Attica has no less than five superposed lintels to support the mass of earth above it {c.f. section of Great Pyramid, No. 5 d). These tombs belong to the second stage in the evolution of the dwelling-house, the complete series being (o) natural cave (No. 2 h) ; (6) artificial A cave below ground [c) artificial cave above ground, i.e., hut (No. 2 e). The famous Gate of Lions on the Acropolis at Mycenae also belongs to this period (No. 15 k). The Hellenic Period contains all the principal temples and monuments v.'hich were erected between the years B.C. 700 and the Roman occupation B.C. 146. The masterpieces of Greek architecture, however, were all erected in the short spate of about 150 years, viz., between the defeat of the Persians, e.g. 480, and the death of Alexander, B.C. 323. Many of the Greek cities were upon or in the immediate vicinity of a hill which was known as the Acropolis (Greek = an upper city), and formed a citadel upon which ^^^ Drincipal temples or treasure-houses were erected for safety, ^a. the Acropolis at Athens in the British Museum will give a .^ general idea of the disposition of the important buildings placea thereon, as also the plan No. 17. Other great centres of architectural activity were Olympia, Delphi, Psestum in South Italy, Sicily, and Asia Minor. ; <• " ^ _JM ' 56 COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. The Temples formed the most important class of buildings erected during this period, and a general description applicable to all is therefore given. Their points of difference with Egyptian examples have been already referred to. (Pages 15, 21, 28). They were built with special regard to external effect, and were ornamented with sculpture of the highest class in order to form fitting shrines They were for the deities in whose honour they were erected. generally placed in a " temenos " or sacred enclosure, and consisted of a." naos " or cell, usually oblong in plan, in which was placed the statue of the god or goddess a treasury or chamber beyond and a front and rear portico, with flanking colonnades, the whole generally raised on a stylobate of three steps. In the larger temples were internal colonnades of columns placed over each other to support the roof (Nos. 18 h, 20, 23, 25, 28 a, b, and 31). On the two end facades above the columns a triangularshaped pediment, usually but not always filled v^ith sculpture, terminated the simple span roof (Nos. 16 a, 20, 21, 23, 26, 27, 28, These roofs were constructed of timber and covered 30, and 31 a). with marble slabs the ends of the overlapped joints being provided with ante-fixse. at the eaves (Nos. 16 d, 20 h, j, and 44 n). The door was almost always placed in the centre of the end wall, behind the portico of columns, and frequently planned so that the sun might enter and light up the statue opposite. The general absence of windows in the temples, that, at Agrigentum being the only exception (No. 28 o), has given rise to many theories as to how light was admitted. The method of lighting by a clerestory concealed in the roof which is favoured by Mr. Fergusson (No. 25 a), can be seen practically in Sir Arthur Blomfield's restoration of S. Peter, Eaton Square, London. Another theory by Herr Botticher is also shown (No. 25 b). The temple was occasionally " hypsethral," that is to say, there was an opening in the roof which admitted air- and light to the central portion of the naos or cell. The use of an hypaethr-al opening has been often refuted, but it appears to have been used in the larger temples as in that of Jupiter Olympius at Athens (No. 18 j) (see Vitruvius), and in the Ionic Temple of ApolloDidymseus, near Miletus, as mentioned in Strabo (lib. xiv.). The temple was the house of the loc9,l god, being merely a glorified dwelling-house, and some hold that the opening in the centre of an ordinary house must have had some counterpart in that of the divinity. Both alike were developed out of the smokehole of the primitive hut the whole development being ably traced in an article on " domus " in Daremberg et Saglio, " Diet, des Antiquit^s." An extant hypsethral opening is that of the Pantheon, Rome (Nos. 54, 55). Many authorities hold that light was obtained solely through ; ; ; GREEK EXAMPLES. ® I II. • • Temple Rhamnus > Dl STYLE IN l' « * * TpMPLE AnTIS ' ! OH Txe [LI5SUS(lOmC} (OORC) Temple or Vesta AT TivoLi Circular Perip teral Cdork) IPHI-PROSTYLE MPH ETRASTYLE. fTE- COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 58 the doorways, others that the transparent Parian marble roofing slabs would admit sufficient light. Artificial illumination by means of lamps may also have been employed. The different kinds of temples are classified, by the disposition of their columns, and a sheet of plans (No. i8) is given in order to indicate the general distribution of parts, and also to show the evolution from the simple shrine-cell of the smaller examples. The different methods of spacing the columns one from the other is shown in No. 39, R, s, t, u, v. _ i. Di-style in antis at one end (the simplest form, having two columns between antae). Ex.Templeof Rhamnus(No. i8a). ii. Di-style in antis at both ends. Ex. Doric Temple at Eleusis (No. 18 b). iii. Prostyle tetrastyle (a front portico of four columns). Ex. Doric Temple at Selinus, Sicily (No. 18 d). iv. Amphi-prostyle tetrastyle (front and rear porticos of four columns). Ex. Ionic Temple on the Ilissus (No. 18 e), and Temple of Nik^-Apteros (No. 18 n). V. Peripteral circular (a ring of columns surrounding a circular cjsU)t^-JEx. Philipeion at Olympia, The Tholos at Epidauros "" (No. 18 k). vi. Peripteral hexastyle (a temple surrounded by columns, the Ex. The Theseion porticos at each end having six). Athens (Nos. 18 f and 21 d). Temple of Neptune, Psestum (No. 28 A, B, c), Temple of Apollo at Bassse (No 27 c). vii. Peripteral octastyle (as last, but with eight columns to each portico). Ex. the Parthenon Athens (Nos. 18 h, 23 h). Pseudo-peripteral (having columns attached to cella walls, viii. a favourite form afterwards adopted by the Romans. See page 12). Greek ex. Temple of Jupiter at Agrigentum (No. 28 m). Dipteral octastyle (double rows of columns surrounding temple, having ranges of eight at each end). Exs. Temple of Jupiter Olympius, Athens (No. 18 j), and Temple of Diana at Ephesus (No. 31 b). X. Pseudo-dipteral octastyle (as last, with the inner range left out). Ex. Great Doric Temple of Selinus, Sicily (No. 18 l). xi. Dipteral decastyle (as ix., but with ten columns at ends). Ex. Temple of Apollo Didymaeus, near Miletus. Roman example is the Great Temple at Baalbec (No. 53 e). xii. Octagonal. Ex. Tower of the Winds Athens (No. 28 k, l). Ex. Erechtheion, Athens (Nos. 18 m, xiii. Irregular planning, 30 f), The Propyloea, Athens (No. 18 n), Teleskrion at Eleusis. In order to keep the descriptions of classic temples together, mention is made here that the Romans employed the circular ix. A — — GREEK ARCHITECTURE. form as in the Pantheon (Nos. circular temples as follows 54, 57 e), and 59 also planned smaller ' : (a.) Peripteral. Temple Temple of Vesta, of Vesta, Tivoli (No. 18 c), Rome (No. and 47). Monopteml (in which the roof was supported by columns only, without walls). (c.) Pseudo-peripteral (the cella wall having attached (b.) columns). The varieties of temples described were erected in either the Doric, Ionic, or Corinthian style, which will be referred to now in detail with their principal examples. THE DORIC ORDER. The Doric order, the oldest, plainest, and most sturdy, is traced by many to an Egyptian prototype as exemplified at Beni- Hasan (No. 6) but as the origin of this, the earliest of the Greek orders, is of special interest, the theories put forward by several authorities, ; are here stated. Perrot and Chipiez, in their monumental work on " Art in Primitive Greece," discuss the question of the wooden origin of the Greek Doric column and its entablature, and endeavour to show its derivation from the wooden-built prodomus or porch of the Mycenaean palace (No. 16). They themselves, suggest no origin of the Capital, and decline to consider the derivation from the examples at Beni-Hasan in Egypt. They make various interesting suggestions, e.g., the derivation of the " guttae " from constructive wooden pegs, and the restoration they give of the timber architecture of Mycenaean palaces, and the explanation of the wooden types used decoratively in the later stone architecture, form a consistent and attractive theory a theory, moreover, which is yearly gaining ground and is to many minds convincing. Illustrations showing these reconstructions are given in No. 16. Viollet-le-Duc, however, held a decided opinion that the orders of Greek architecture involved an original stone treatment. He was unable to conceive how the Greek Doric capital could have been derived from a timber form, and he considered the triglyphs which in the frieze, not as the petrified ends of wooden beams could not be seen on four sides of a building, and which would be very difficult to flute across the grain of the wood but as original stone uprights, fluted to express their function of vertical support, and therefore treated ip .this respe'qfj-in, the same manner as the . — — columns, which were certairily fluffed when in position. He likewise observed that '•" the form giypn to the entablature of the Doric order can be adapted with some unimportant variations to a structure in stone as well as of wobd, in neither Case involving GREEK EXAMPLES. III. THE DORIC QBDER. GREEK ARCHITECTURE. 6l the necessity of falsifying the form or the structure." He was not prepared to admit, then, that a wooden original suggested a stone structure in the composition of the Doric order indeed, he would rather suppose the converse. Garbett goes so far as to call the wooden theory an " insolent libel," and asserts that in the case of the inclination of the soffit of the cornice this barbarous theory is at once disproved by two facts, the inclination being observed on the fronts equally with the sides of the building, and its angle being wholly independent of that of the roof. later writer, Mr. H. H. Statham, in a recent work on architecture, rejects the wooden theory as far as the Doric column and capital are concerned, and adds that its adherents have to explain these facts (i.) That the greater the age of the known and approximately dated examples, the thicker the columns are, while the reverse would probably have been the case had the original forms been wooden and (ii.) That the characteristic moulding under the abacus of the Doric column is an essentially" stone form, and one which it would not be at all easy to work in wood. These opponents of the wooden theory might, however, have modified their views, had they been familiar with the recentlydiscovered examples of Pelasgic or " Mycenaean " construction. The similarities between these proto-historic buildings and the later Greek styles of architecture are too numerous to be accidental, and Pelasgic or "Mycenaean" palaces undoubtedly had columns and entablatures of wood. The column, which has no base, but stands directly on a stylobate usually of three steps is, including the cap, from 4 to 6|times the diameter at the base in height. The circular shaft diminishing at the top from f to f of this diameter is divided as a rule in 20 shallow flutes or channels separated by sharp arrises. Occasionally the flutes number 12 (Assos), 16 (Sunium), 18 (Greek Temple at Pompeii), or 24 (Passtum, No. ig b). The division into twenty flutes seems to have been selected in order that a projection or arris might come under each of the angles of the square abacus above', and at the same time a flute in the centre of the column as seen from the front, back or sides. It will be found that no other number of flutes between twelve and twenty-eight will enable this to be done, thus following out one of the Greek constructive principles of placing projections over projections. The shaft has normally an outward curvature of profile called the "entasis" (No. 17 a), to counteract the hollow appearance of straight sided columns. In early works this is often too obtfu^ sive (e.g.. Basilica at Paestum) where it is omitted altogether (e.g., Corinth) the effect is lifeless but the happy mean may be seen in the Parthenon (page 67). The column is surmounted by a distinctiv'?eaDital formed of abacus, echinus and annulets. The ; A : ; ; ; GREEK EXAMPLES. IKIE This Temple is TEMFLI f MMM., [JPFIIEE FAHHELLEffll! NtxASTYii pejipteml. some coLOMNS.noNOUTtts^THEis ASOFT YELLOW LWtSTONt OWNAILY CMTED Wlffl WAS PAINTED. CYMATION/ORNICE IILK SCULPTO E f THE flOT Of-fTONAOS HAS S(KMt HOLES fC£ FIXING METAL BUILT IN DHOIIS. MATERIAL SsroS™ENTABLATOl[ Of PARANMAIilLE. kS TKCTOTICUH OTmiA ME ffiMAJWLE S Se FiGnrTmra S ANEAJUE8 EXPEDITION AGAINST TPOY, 20. »Y W^i .ANTEflX/tOI! ™LE| 'eaves TILL. TMI TLIt OBLOCIG JLOCKS THE WESIERN Ir »ES1 fRCSEMD PEDIMEKT lEPIESof HE GKEEKs t tkuans ovei; the iS-COBIOlBLY DIVIDED IV. Wy patms WMIIUrGILIlCJX - ACKOTERION ^-j^. — GREEK ARCHITECTURE. 63 is a square slab under which is a large convex moulding the echinus, which is somewhat similar in outline to a human hand supporting a book. The profile of the echinus varies according to the date of erection, the earlier examples, such as the Temples at Paestum (No. ig a, b), being fuller in outline (approximately parabolic section), whereas in the later examples such as the Theseion (No. ig d), and the Parthenon (No. ig e) the curve approaches a straight line (approximately hyperbolic section). Annulets or horizontal fillets varying from three to five in number are placed beneath the echinus of the capital in order to form a stop or contrast to the long lines of the arrises between the flutes. Immediately below is the trachelion or necking, having beneath it the hypotrachelion formed of three groves in the older or archaic examples and one in the later. The entablature, usually about one quarter of the height of order, is supported by columns, and has three main divisions ' (a.) The architrave is derived from its prototype, the wooden beam. It has considerable depth, and only one vertical face, whereas in the Ionic and Corinthian orders the usual number is three. Separating this from the freize is a flat moulding called the tenia, and underneath this at intervals corresponding to the triglyphs is a narrow band called the regula, having six guttae. (b.) The frieze has triglyphs, ornamented with three channels, and metopes or square spaces between them, sometimes filled with sculpture of the highest quality (page 72). Beneath the triglyphs The triglyphs are placed at are guttse or small conical drops. equal distances apart, and come immediately over the centre of each column and intercolumniation. At the angles, however, this is not so, because the two triglyphs meet with a bevelled edge, and in consequence the. intercolumniation of the two outer columns in each front is less by about half a triglyph in width than that of the others. (c.) The cornice consists of an upper or crowning part consisting of cymatium and birdsbeak mouldings beneath which is a The soffit is inclined upwards vertical face known as the corona. and parallel with the slope of the roof, and its underside has flat projecting blocks called mutules, which recall the feet of sloping rafters, one over each triglyph and metope, their soffits being ornamented with eighteen guttae in three rows of six each. The principal examples are found in Greece, Sicily, and South abacus S^Sl : Italy. Doric Examples in Greece. Date. B.C. 700 'T\\eHemion,OlympiaQio.'iic,T>,-pdige66) B.C. 650 -The Temple of Athena, Corinth B.C. 6th cent. •l^ie. Temple of Foseidon, Island of Pans B.C. 472-469 The Temple of Zeus, Olympia (page 67) Architect. . . . Libon. GREEK EXAMPLES. The Y. so-called Theseion or Temple, of Hephaestos FtDIMtNTAL SCOIPTORE MtTOPES IHE FRONT ummttmrn.' ! l,H.lillEnEA« THE UBOUB (?) B.C. 465. Of HERACLE5.- " UOW: E.H.M0Utt)SK5mv- ll«;hVMA;3,H4 \«!,cmmmL 5,t\MW MASEOf l»!IHEIIE;6,H.MI« CEIilEI!US;?H.M 8.H.SIAWK« Ei)iiyra;aHi5 ATTACKED nUI- nEGtRYO(l;IC/,l RECEiVINtAmt Fm BESFEOKS. (g) East I (^HALF ® Elevatwm SWTIHI ELEVATWM ' Tiansveuse Secti@m p HALF LOMS.SECTWM iAMBMATOEY (E)FLAIM I Settingout section? METOPFS OH %m - mi tFiNCTHwm DESTWING THE MINOT«; 2. THESEUS MWMTHON; 3&4.T00 MOCH WINED 10 r/mnF-TUFSFii.'i columnkaseh THIiOMElOPL TOLL OF SUMEflS j1CTOre5 0H-ll.5IDE; NS5.THE5E0S KILLS CRtON KING OE KIL13 ANIAEUS; Z'TNESEOS OVtKiOtllllG 5KII!0)I;5,THESE(15 KILUNGTNE CROmYOBIANSlM. WITH THE IISCOVEI! toBTPebEIS TheThESEION fSOCALk ED) ISTlif BEST PRESERV- ED IS ANatNT TEMPLE. IT BUILT OP PENTELICdS. MAEBLE AND STANDS ON* ANASTIPICIALrOUNDATMN OFLAIGEUMESTONE* A SMAIi PORTION OF COFFERED CEIUNG IS NOW IN THE BRItiSHta BLOCKS. f RIEZE Of WEST CELLA WALL. JiEPKESENTS CONTESTS Of GREEKS* 21. CENIAOffi. MUSEUM- EXISTIWG Lacbmmia in Z w X H < o H M COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 66 Doric Examples in Greece (continued). Date. Architect. The Thtseion (so called) or Temple of B.C. 465 (?) Hephaestos^ Athens (No. 19 D, 21, 22, 38 a) (page 67). The Temple of Aphaia lenius) (Jupiter on the Island of yS^ina. Panhel- B.c.470-450 (Nos. 19 C, 20) (page 67). BC.4.54-438 Ictinus and Callicrates. fXhe Parthenon, Athens (No. c, 40 16 A, B, D, E, F, 17, 18 H, 19 E, 23, 24, 25, A, D, K, 44 G, H) (page 67). The Temple of Poseidon, Sunium The Propylcea (Entrance Gateway), Athens . 440 437-432 B.C. . Mnesicles. (Nos. 17, 18 N, 26) (page 93). Temple of Apollo Epicurius (" The B.C. 430 Ictinus. Ally"), BasscE, near Phigaleiain Arcadia (No. 27 A, B, C, D, L, M, N, 28 F, G, H) (page 72). The Temple of Demeter (Ceres), or the Hall B.C. 435-310 Ictinus and Philon. of tlie Mysteries, Eleusis. The Tholos,' Epi^dauros (No. 18 k) BC. 4th cent. Polycleitos the younger. The Temples of Themis and Nemesis (No. 18 a), Rhamiius. The Temple of Apollo, Island of Delos (No. B. c. 300 19 F). B.C. The . Doric Examples . in Sicily and South Italy. Date. The Great Temple, Selimis, (No. Sicily B.C. Architect. 610-509 18 L). as the " Basilica," B.C. 550 Pcestum (No. 28 D, E). The Temple of Ceres, PcEstum (No. 19 A). B.C. 550 The Temple of Concord, Agrig-entum B.C. 550 The Temple ofJuno, Agrigenlum B c. 550 The Temple of Poseidon (Neptune), Pcishtm, B.C. 500 S. Italy (No. 19 B). The Temple of Athena, Syracuse, Sicily B.C. 6th cent. The Temple of Egesta, Sicily B.C. 5th cent. Temples (several) at Selinits, Sicily B C. 628-410 The Temple of Zeus (Jupiter) Olympius, B c. 480 Agrigentum (Girgenti), Sicily (No. 28 M, N, o) (page 75)- The Temple known . . . . . . . . . Theron. of Hera), Olympia (b.c. 700) believed to be the most ancient of all Greek Temples hitherto discovered. It stands on a stylobate of two steps, measurin|f i58 feet by 64 feet 6 inches. The cella is very long in proportion to its width, and has on either side a range of eight columns, the alternate ones being connected to the cella wall by means of short transverse walls. The peristyle columns, which with the capitals measured 17 feet in height, varied much in diameter and are both monolithic and built in drums. It is generally held that the original columns were of wood replaced by stone columns as they decayed (see page 59, on the The (Nos. 31 Heraion c, D, 41 (Temple e), is GREEK ARCHITECTURE. 67 origin of the Doric Order). Pausanias mentions that in the 2nd century a.d. two of the columns in the opisthodomos were of oak. The Temple of Zeus, Olympia (b.c. 472 469) is peripteral hexastyle on plan. The columns, of which there are thirteen to the sides, equal those of the Parthenon in height, but are much greater in diameter. The building was especially famous for its — sculptured pediments by Pseonias and Alcamenes. The so-called Theseion (? b.c. 485) (Nos. 18 f, 19 d, 21, 22, 38 a), is now generally believed to be the Temple of Hephaestos, and, although the best preserved Doric example in Greece, both date and name are a rriatter of doubt. It is peripteral hexastyle on plan with thirteen columns on each flank. The existing lacunaria, especially at the eastern end, still retain some of their original colourmg. The metopes and portions of the frieze are shown on No. 21, but although both pediments were ornamented with sculpture none of this now remains. The Temple of Aphaia (Jupiter Panhellenius), (b.c 470— 450), (No. 19 c),on the Island of iEgina is an interesting and wellpreserved example of an early peripteral hexastyle temple. On the interior are two rows of five columns which help to support the roof. A general description is given on No. 20. The Parthenon (b.c 454 438) (Nos. 16, 17, 23, 24) was erected in the time of Pericles, being dedicated to Athena Parihenos (the virgin Athena). Ictinus and Calhcrates were the architects and Phidias was the superintending sculptor. The temple is peripteral octastyle on plan, with seventeen columns on the flanks. It is placed on a stylobate of three steps, the dimensions on the top step being 102 feet by 228 feet, i.e., a relation of breadth to length of about 4 to g. Each of the steps measures about I foot 8 inches high and 2 feet 4 inches wide, and being too steep to ascend with comfort, intermediate steps were provided at the centre of the east and west ends (No. 23 f). On the east, the principal doorway led into the cella, which, measuring 100 Attic — feet in length, was called the " Hecalompedon." The cella, 62 feet 6 inches wide, was divided into a nave and aisles by two rows of ten Doric columns, 3 feet 8 inches in diameter, and having sixteen flutes, as may be seen by the marks of their basis on the marble paving. Three columns were placed at the western end, so making the aisle continuous round three sides of the cella. Near the western end of the cella was the famous statue of Athena, mentioned hereafter. To the west of the cella was the Parthenon proper(i.«., virgin's chamber), from which the temple took its name. This chamber is a peculiarity differentiating the temple from most others, and it appears to have been used as the Hieratic treasury. It was entered from the opisthodomos by a large doorway corresponding to the eastern one, and its roof was supported by four Ionic columns (No. 23 a, c). The cella and the Parthenon were GREEK EXAMPLES. ^ VtCWjNamHllKTMGtE 16Hs6B:116l(3M HEniounw J J VI. GREEK ARCHITECTURE. 6g enclosed by walls about four feet thick, having on the outside, encircling the building, an ambulatory 9 feet wide on the sides and 1 1 feet in the front and rear. Both the pronaos and opisthodomos (measuring about 60 feet by 12 feet) were planned in a somewhat unusual manner, having six columns about 5J feet in diameter feet high, forming a prostyle portico on an upper stylobate of two steps. They were both used as treasure stores, and in order to render them secure, lofty metal grilles extending from the floor to the roof were fixed between the columns, the central intercolumniation having gates for means of access. The internal columns supported an upper row of smaller Doric columns carrying the roof timbers and forming the side aisles in two heights (an arrangement still to be seen in the Temple of Poseidon (Neptune) at Paestum). Near the western end of the cella stood the famous statue of Athena Parthenos, being one of the most marvellous works of Phidias, representing Athena fully armed with spear, helmet, segis and shield, supporting a winged " victory in her right hand (No. 23 k). It was a " chryselephantine (gold and ivory) statue, about 40 feet in height, including the pedestal, and was constructed on a wooden core. The gold plates of which it was partly composed were detachable and could- be and 33 removed in case of national dangers. The face, hands, and feet were of ivory, but the drapery, armour, and accessories were of solid gold, and precious stones were inserted for the eyes. The manner of lighting the interiors of Greek temples has already been referred to (page 56), and the theories there set forth apply especially to the Parthenon. The most prominent external features are the fluted marble columns, 34 feet 3 inches high, forming the peristyle and resting on the stylobate. Only thirtytwo are still standing they are 6 feet 3 inches in diameter at the base and 4 feet 7 inches under the echinus, and support an ; entablature 11 feet high with the usual divisions of architrave, The former frieze, and cornice, as already described (page 59). is three slabs in thickness, and was ornamented on its eastern and western fronts with bronze shields, probably selected from those presented by Alexander the Great in b.c. 334, with dedicatory The flanks of the building inscriptions between in bronze letters. were enriched by the antefixag placed at the bottom of the rows of marble tiles which covered the roof. The pediments or low gables which terminated the roof at each end had at their lower angles an The apex (59 feet above the acroterion and a carved lion's head. stylobate) was also ornamented by a large sculptured acroterion The peristyle ceiling was of the anthemion ornament (No. 16 a). richly ornamented with " lacunaria " and marble beams, some of which at the western end are still in situ. The triangular enclosed portions (tympana) were filled with sculpture of the most perfect The eastern pediment represents the birth of Athena and type. GREEK ARCHITECTURE. 24. The Parthenon, Athens. View of Angle. GREEK EXAMPLES. VII. K siffBiii: FERGUSSON. METHOD, OF LIGHTING BY CLERESTORY SCALE OF FEET BOTTICHER METHOD OF LIOHTINC BY SKYLIGHT 25- The Parthenon, Athens. COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTXJRE. 72 the western the contest of Athena and Poseidon for the possession of Athens. The celebrated Panathenaic frieze was carved along the top of the outside of the cella wall, being taken across the east and west ends above the six columns to pronaos and opisthodomos. It is 3 feet 4 inches high, in very slight relief (i| inches), and is carefully sculptured so as to be effective by reflected light (No. 23 f). It represents the Panathenaic procession every " fourth year to the Acropolis in order to present the " peplos or robe to the goddess Athena, and shows the preparations of the Athenian knights, procession of Athenian cavalry, chariots, men with olive branches, musicians, youths, sacri-, ficial animals, maidens with sacrificial vessels, magistrates and gods, terminating with a great central group at the eastern end over the principal entrance to the temple. Out of a total length of 525 feet only 335 feet are in existence. The western frieze, excepting the three central figures, is in its original position the greater portion of that belonging to the northern, southern, and eastern sides is in the British Museum, the remainder, with the exception of eight fragments of the eastern frieze in the Louvre, being in the Athens museum. The sculptured metopes, about 4 feet 4 inches square, numbering fourteen on each front and thirty-two on each side, are in high relief. Those on the eastern fa9ade represent contests between the gods and giants, on the western, between Greeks and Amazons, on the southern, between centaurs (man-headed horses) and Lapithae, and on the northern, scenes from the siege of Troy. In the 6th century the Parthenon was converted into a Christian church, dedicated to the " Divine Wisdom," when ; — an apse was formed at its eastern end. From 1206 1458 it was, under the Prankish Dukes of Athens, a Latin church. From 1458 it was again an orthodox Greek church until 1460, when it was converted into a mosque. In 1687, during the capture of Athens by the Venetians, it was much damaged by a shell which fell into a portion of the building used as a powder magazine. In 1688, Athens was restored to the Turks and the building suffered considerable injury at their hands, until in iBoi, through the instrumentality of Lord Elgin, sculptures were removed to the British '• many of the principal Museum. Earth proudly wears the Parthenon the best gem upon her zone." As Emerson. The Temple of Apollo Epicurius (The Ally or Helper), Bassse, near Phigaleia in Arcadia (b.c. 430) (Nos. 27, 28 f, g, h, 29 N, o, p), of which Ictinus was architect, was an exceptional design in which all the three Grecian orders of architecture — It is a peripteral Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian were employed. — GREEK EXAMPLES. 5<_ itHOBUH.OR 1 1 EKTHNCLCHnwi; PEBIOCaSfWARCNh KT «NEaat3)8a' ftC«7-438 iiisajiTirPEmii jrHtllESTtNDirit uxmitMiemas of*riionrji!B« POfinroACEKTHAL iwrniimnmc emBtwmm HCVERnHBHEBian" IMJlDIWCENniCKHQfllOHntEIEHCNIB emctmwm Tcminmmtm. 26. VIII. GREEK EXAMPLES. IX. %LElAii -(infiM "v FRONT 27. (^fwawiHAiL w^ammmmmam.hmmnMammmibmmm. GREEK ARCHITECTURE. 75 hexastyle temple with fifteen columns on each flank, all built up drums. The principal fagade faces north, an unusual arrangement, and apparently due to its erection on the site of an earlier temple. The statue of Apollo was placed to one side at the southern end of the cella forming the sanctuary of the earlier building, which was orientated, light being admitted by an opening in the eastern wall. Owing to the narrowness of the cella, internal rows of columns were avoided, but instead of these a range of five fluted Ionic half-columns on each side forming the ends of short cross walls connected to the cella walls. The two columns furthest from the entrance on each side are joined to walls placed diagonally with those of the cella. The single column at the southern end was of the Corinthian order, and is generally referred to as the earliest example known (No. 27 g, h, j). The lighting of the interior is conjectural, but the cella north of the more ancient sanctuary was probably hypaethral or had openings in order to admit top-light to the celebrated frieze above the internal half-columns (No. 27 b, d, e). These have a new and original treatment of the capital, with angle volutes, and have boldly moulded bases (No. 29 n, o, p). The sculptured frieze, about 2 feet in height and 100 feet in length, represents the battles of the Centaurs and Lapithse, and the Athenians and Amazons. The building is constructed of a hard grey limestone, which being covered with a beautiful pink lichen of the district has a very picturesque appearance. The roof was covered with Parian marble slabs, measuring The 3 feet 6 inches by 2 feet, and less than 2 inches in thickness. ceiling of the peristyle was very richly treated in marble panels or lacunaria, and those to the pronaos and opisthodomos had in . marble beams in addition. The Temple of Zeus Olympius, Agrigentum (b.c. 480) (No. 28 M, N, o), of which Theron was the architect, is of exceptional design, and ranks as second in size among Grecian examples. It is pseudo-peripteral septastyle in plan, having seven half-columns These half-columns are on the front and fourteen on each side. of great size, being 13 feet in diameter, and are represented internally by flat pilasters. The triple cella is of immense size and is believed to have been lighted by windows high in the wall. The building was never completed, the illustrations being from Owing to its immense size, restorations by Professor Cockerell. structural truth (usually so important in Greek buildings) had to be sacrificed, the order being built up of small pieces, which in features like the echinus, abacus, and architrave is a departure from Greek principles, as is also the use of attached half-columns. The architrave is supported not only by the half-columns, but by the intervening screen wall to which they are attached. GREEK EXAMPLES. X. The TEMPLE w iEPTyiE,P^ISTyiMKS§iD^i!l?»Kffi" PECUllflR IN HWINt DORIC @FOfllCMlSM Cly COLONNADE, IONIC Vl ^mEMgM335.in.HfmM~^ COLUMNS ffTENDS OFJHOm" DWIJIONflLW/lLU 4iTHE»C0NmtNG OF WATER CLOCK SUItDMLAND , mmtmu] EACH SIDE HAVING fl- ^UJTOED lEFOPlUE (g^EtEW^TlMl "tK)' TEPP>LE®FJWB1Ii ©LYMWy; ^T ^€asEiTyM,siaDrEC48o RANKS A5 SECOND IN MACNITUDE AMONSST CREEK TEMPLES AND IS PECULIAR IN HAVING (ITTflCHED HALf COLUMNS TO FACADES AND SPOARE DIVISIONALW/llLSPMIERIOR.WBDOffi IN PIERS TO (Mt. WLLM IN WING AN OBB NUMBER OF C0LUMN5 TO END FACADES PROBABLE rosiw' OFDaBliS ATEBD M SCALE FOR PI/1N3 SO ISO m 10 I I I I I 1 I I I I . 1 . JOOFITT 10 SCALE FOR ELEVATIONS iO 30 AO M ^ TtMPLE ip ^ OfTn GREEK ARCHITECTURE. 77 THE IONIC ORDER. The Ionic order (No. 38 c) is especially remarkable for its scroll or volute capital. This, like so many other decorative motifs, seems to have been derived from the lotus bud of the Egyptians (No. 41 b), undergoing sundry modifications on its way from Egypt by way of Assyria to Asia Minor, but to what influence these modifications should be attributed is not at present clear. The spiral is also found in early Mycenaean jewellery and domestic articles as early as B.C. 800, and these origins might be sufficient to account for its adoption in a later period. The earliest extant Ionic capitals at Lesbos, Neandra, and Cyprus exhibit volutes of a distinctly vegetable type with a palmette interposed, and early Ionic capitals at Delos and Athens form a link between these and later types. The columns have shafts usually about nine times the lower diameter in height, including the capital and base, having twenty-four flutes separated by fillets, and not sharp edges as in the Doric order. The earlier examples, however, have shallow flutes separated by arrises, and the flutes number forty in the shafts in the Archaic Temple at Ephesus (No. 29 k) and at Naukratis, and forty-four at Naxos. There is a moulded base (No. 40 h) usually consisting of a torus and scotia, but no square plinth. In the later examples a lower torus was added, making is known as the Attic base. The capital consists of a pair of volutes or spirals, about two-thirds the diameter in height, on the front and back of the column, connected at their sides by what is known as the cushion, sometimes plain and sometimes ornamented, and on the front and back an echinus moulding carved what with the egg and dart, and a bead moulding under. The volutes were either formed by hand or by various geometrical processes easily acquired, one of which is shown on No. 41 G, where it will be seen it can also be formed by twisting a A further string round an inverted cone or common whelk shell. development was to make the angle capital with volutes facing the two fa9ades by joining the two adjacent volutes at an angle The Temple at Bassae (Nos. 27, approximating 45° (No. 41 p). 29 N, o, p), is an instance of all the volutes being thus placed. The entablature varies in height, but is usually about one-fifth It consists of (a) an architrave usually formed of the whole order. as a triple fascia, probably representing superimposed beams (&) a frieze, sometimes plain, but often ornamented by a band of (c) a cornice, with no continuous sculpture (Nos. 27, 29 c) mutules, but usually with dentil ornament reminiscent of squared tiWbers, and having above it the corona and cyma-recta moulding. The principal examples of the Ionic order are found in Greece and Asia Minor. The Doric order provided a setting for sculptors' work. The ; ; GREEK EXAMPLES, THE IONIC orori^ ^ THElEMfLE lif mMILI330S_ ESEfflim®! ll KErrL«(.(NOW DtSTROYEb) "-,?«": XI. ^ EA3T Portico reV^n. lMMfEflilE303(g), TES?LE fit EiLbOSO , COLUMM roUMB on 5ITL. ffci^TiKiE Temple I :tH THETEMIFLE?! j^roLLo EncoUS at! ii i KEY PLAN. 29. 3cftHw« Comma. M I " KEY PLAN. Scale. n.ClLTAILS. "'i |iiii|jjinnm¥ GREEK ARCHITECTURE. 79 Ionic incorporated it with the order itself, usually in the form of carved enrichments on its main lines. Ionic Examples. Date. The Archaic Temfle of Artemis {Diana), Ephesus (No. 29 H, J, k) (page 84) The Temple on the Ilissus, Athens (Nos. 18 B, 29 A, B, c, D, 38 c) (see below). The Temple of NikS-Apteros ("Wingless Victory "), Athens (Nos. 18 N, 26 B, F, 41 p) (see below). The Propyleca^ Athens (six internal columns) (page 93) (No. 17, 18 N. 26, 40 F). The Temple of Apollo Epicurius, Bassee (The Internal order only) (No. 27, 28 F, 29 N, o, p) (page 72). The Erechtheion, Athens (No. 17, 18 M, 29 E, F, G. 30) (page 81). The Mausoleum, Halkarnassos (No. 35) (page 94). The Temple of Dionysus, Teos . The Temple of Hera, Samos The Philipeion, Olympic (External colon- nade). The Temple of Artemis (Diana), Ephesus (No. 31 A, B), (page 84). The Temple of Apotlo-Didymceus near Miletus or Branchida (fage 84). The Tefnple of Minerva Folias (Diana) at Priene, near Miletus (No. 29 1., m). ' The Temple on the Ilissus, Athens (b.c. 484) (Nos. 18 e, 29 A, p, c, D, and 38 c), was amphi-prostyle tetrastyle, placed on a platform or stylobate of 3 steps. The cella was only 15 feet The columns, including base and capital, were 4 inches square. 14 feet 8 inch'es high, and supported an entablature 4 feet deep. The Temple was entirely destroyed by the Turks in 1780. The Temple of Nike Apteros (Athena Nike), Athens (B.C. 438) (Nos. 17, 18 N, 26 B, F, 41 p), Calhcrates being the architect, is perched picturesquely on the south-western spur of the Acropolis Rock, and is a beautiful example of a smaller Ionic Temple. In front of the Temple at the eastern end stood the sacrificial altar of the goddess, and the platform of rock on which the edifice stands was surrounded on three sides by a is amphi-prostyle tetrastyle marble balustrade. It in plan, and is raised on a stylobate of 3 steps, the cella being only 13 feet The Ionic columns to the east and 9 inches by 12 feet 5 inches. west porticos resemble the internal columns of the Propylsea. They have a systyle intercolumniation, are i foot g inches in diameter, and 13 feet 6 inches high, and support an entablature 4 feet 3 inches in height. The total height to the apex of the GREEK EXAMPLES. XII. 1lElClimiQM,A1IlEM5B.c.42o^0- 8niEorE|0IIWI|SEiIlOK . 10 30- 8 SOLEofPLAN JO 40 r, (J_^ GREEK ARCHITECTURE. 01 is only 23 feet. The sculptured frieze, 18 inches high, originally consisting of fourteen slabs (four are in the British pediment Museum), is in high relief. The marble balustrade mentioned above was 3 feet 2 inches high, enriched with very fine sculpture dating from B.C. 425-400. The Temple was removed by the Turks in 1684 and built into a battery on the Acropolis. In 1836, on the destruction of the battery, the materials were recovered and reconstructed by the architects Ross, Schaubert, and Hansen. The Erechtheion, Athens (b.c. 420-393) (Nos. 17, 18 m, 29 e, F, G, and 30), of which Mnesicles was the architect, is situated on the Acropolis, north of the Parthenon, and was erected on the site of an older temple burnt by the Persians in b.c. 480. The temple was regarded with special veneration by the Athenians, as it contained the memorials of the religion of the State, viz. the sacred olive tree that Athena called forth in her contest with Poseidon, the salt well produced by the trident of Poseidon, the : — tomb of Cecrops, the olive wood Xoanon (primitive statue) of Athena Polias, the golden lamp of Callimachus, and other curiosities and spoils from the Persians. It is an interesting example of unusual and irregular planning, due to its sloping site and the fact that it consisted of three distinct shrines. The distribution of the interior, which measures 61 feet 3 inches by 31 feet 6 inches, is still a matter of conjecture. It has no side colonnades, hence it is called " apteral." The eastern portion was appropriated to the shrine of Athena Polias (guardian of the city), the western portion to those of Erechtheus and Poseidon, the Pandroseion being probably included within the precincts to the west of the temple proper. There are three porticos of different designs an eastern Ionic hexastyle portico, a northern Ionic tetrastyle portico, and a southern Caryatid portico. The eastern portico probably formed The columns are two diameters apart the principal entrance. The (systyle), the northern one being now in the British Museum. northern portico gave access to the western cella it is on a level 10 feet lower than the eastern one, from which it is approached by It projects westward of the a wide flight of steps on the north. main building, and its columns, three diameters apart (diastyle), are arranged in a manner unknown in other Greek buildings. They are 2 feet 9 inches in diameter and 25 feet high. The doorway in this portico is of the finest workmanship (No. 37) with carved consoles and architrave enrichments. The southern or Caryatid portico (as it is called) was probably not an entrance, but a raised " tribune," as it had only a small entrance on its eastern side, whence the lower level of the western cella was : ; reached by means of steps (No. 30 d, f). It has six sculptured draped female figures, 7 feet 9 inches high (Nos. 30 g and 42 g), similarly spaced to the columns of the northern portico, but resting on a solid marble wall about 8 feet above the level of the " COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 82 and supporting an unusual entablature on which rests the marble coffered roof. All the figures face southwards, the three western leaning on their right (outer) legs, and the three eastern on their left, thus correcting the same optical illusion as in the Parthenon and other temple fa9ades. (The second Caryatid from the west is in the British Museum, being replaced in the building by a terra-cotta copy.) The exterior, constructed in marble from terrace Mount Pentellicus, owes much of its character to the sloping site and unusual and irregular dispositipn of the three porticos, unlike The north portico is an in character, height, and treatment. example of a very rich treatrnent of the Ionic order. The capital has a plaited torus moulding between the volutes once inlaid with colored stones or glass, and bronze embellishments were formerly affixed to other parts of the capital. appears to have been finished by hand The and spiral of the volute enriched with interwhile the cushions (sides) have hollows and projections carved with the bead and reel ornament (No. 41 l, m, n, o). The abacus is enriched with the egg and tongue ornament. The neckings of the columns are carved with the " anthemion (palmette) ornament, which is also applied to theantse (No. 44 f), and carried round the entire building under the architrave. The shafts of the columns have an entasis, and the upper torus of the bases have plaited enrichments. The order of the eastern portico is very similar although less rich. The angle columns in each portico have the volutes arranged The main building is crowned with so as to show on both faces. an entablature 5 feet high, with the usual triple division of architrave, frieze, and cornice, with water-leaf and egg-and-tongue enrichments. The skyline was enriched by the acroterion ornaments of the pediments and the antefixae of the marble roofing slabs. The frieze to the porticos and main building was formed of black Eleusinian marble, to which the sculptured figures of, white marble were attached by metal cramps, a method of showing up the sculptured figures which in other temples was frequently gained by the use of color. The pediments appear to have been devoid of sculpture. The west wall was provided in Roman times with four Ionic half-columns, angle antae and three windows. The Erechtheion has passed through various vicissitudes. It was transformed into a church in the time of Justinian, and after the Turkish annexation it was converted into a harem. In 1827, during the Greek revolution, the north portico and coffered ceiling and portions of the rest of the building were destroyed, only three of the Caryatides remaining in position. In 1838 the walls were partially rebuilt in their present state, and in 1845 the Caryatid In 1852 a storm damaged the building, portico was re-erected. overthrowing the upper half of the western wall and engaged Roman columns. mediate is fillets, , GREEK EXAMPLES. 4^;* XIII. •••••••••••••••• • • • • • wtz* > « # • • • 34S' S'- B)PD&N OFDIANAat" ^ EPHE503. (AflD!. AS MURRAY) llll81tMPlt(KNc«NA30NE; oriitaEvtmttittiBor KWLDW8 BUILT Bf DIN0CWTOAI!airB.C330 ONTHtaitOfANaDER tMPLt.irBRWJRMBir MIBSCCxIHinbKmBMlBsPEOESTALa ^ TffiHEPDN«rODfMPIA6c?Do»rtt(MOH) a> Joy <» mj_^/fm «._^....9 y _ «_!9 dWLC lOB PtW© Tje...? . 31- . . . r: — COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 84 The Temple of Artemis (Diana), Ephesus (b.c. 330) (No. 31 A, b), occupied the site of two previous temples. The oldest archaic temple (No. 29 h, j, k), erected from the designs of Ctesiphon (e.g. 550), was burnt in B.C. 400. It was either restored or rebuilt by the architects Paeonius and Demetrius, of Ephesus, but was again burnt in e.g. 356, on the night of Alexander's birth. The later temple, regarded as one of the seven wonders of the world, was erected in e.g. 330, in the time of Alexander the Great. The site of the temple was discovered by the architect Wood in 1869 74, and many of the remains both of the archaic and later temples are now in the British Museum. The building rested on a lower stylobate of four steps, having at. each end an additional flight of steps, placed between the first and second rows of columns, Conjecturally restored by in order to reac;h the upper platform. the late Dr. Murray, by the aid of Pliny's description, the plan is dipteral octastyle, having double ranges of twenty columns on each flank. In addition to the cella, there were a pronaos, posticum, treasury, opisthodomos, and staircases leading to the Pliny mentioned that the temple had one hundred columns, roof thirty-six of which were sculptured on the lower drum, but he does not mention the sixteen front and rear columns with square sculptured pedestals, which are shown on a lower level, so that their top surface is level with the upper platform. Behind these at each end are eight of the columns with sculptured drums, two being placed in antis to the pronaos and posticum, thus making the thirty-six columns with sculptured drums mentioned by Pliny. — The cella is believed to have had superimposed columns to carry the roof. The building externally must have been one of the most impressive among Greek temples, owing to its size, and the sculpture on the above-mentioned square sub-pedestals and thirty-six circular drums, which were probably suggested by the archaic temple, are distinctive of this building. The Temple of Apollo Didymaeus, near Miletus 320), was by the architects Peeonius of (e.g. 335 Ephesus and Daphne of There was an archaic temple having seated figures on either side and a lion and sphinx, which were dedicatory (Ten of these seated figures and the lion and offerings to Apollo. sphinx are in the archaic room of the British Museum.) This archaic temple was destroyed by the Persians under Darius, on Miletus. The new temple the suppression of the Ionic revolt in B.C. 496. is referred to by Strabo, who says, " In after times, the inhabitants of Miletus built a temple which is the largest of all, but which on account of its vastness remains without a roof, and there now exists inside and outside precious groves of laurel bushes." The building is dipteral decastyle on plan, the cella being hypsethral. It has a very deep pronaos, having beyond it an GREEK ARCHITECTURE. 85 ante-chamber with stone staircases on either side. The cella walls were ornamented with Ionic pilasters, six feet wide and three feet deep, resting on a continuous podium, ranging with the peristyle level. These pilasters were crowned with capitals of varied design, having between them a sculptured band of griffins and lyres. At the eastern (entrance) end on either side of the doorway were half-columns having Corinthian capitals, the acanthus leaves being unusually placed and the central volutes undeveloped. At the western end of the cella Messrs. Rayet and Thomas discovered the foundations of a shrine. The peristyle columns of the Ionic order are fluted, and the bases are of very varied design, being octagonal with carved panels on each face. THE CORINTHIAN ORDER. The Corinthian Order 38 e, 43 a, b, c), which is used by the Greeks. The colurrin, the: base and shaft of which resemble those of the Ionic, is generally about ten times the diameter in height, including the capital, and is placed on a stylobate in the same manner as the other orders. The distinctive capital is much deeper than the Ionic, being about one to one-and-oiie-sixth diamestill more ornate than the (Nos. 33 Ionic, was f, little The origin of the capital is still unknown. It may have been derived from the Ionic, such as the Erechtheion example, where bands of sculpture occur berieath the scrolls, or it may have been borrowed from the bell-shaped capitals of the Egyptians, ters in height. ^ with the addition of the Assyrian spiral. Callimachus of Corinth, a worker in Corinthian bronze, is sometimes referred to as the reputed author of the capital, and as the earlier examples appear to have been of this metal, the name may have been derived from the fact, for Pliny (xxxiv. cha:p. iii.) refers to a portico which was called Corinthian, from the bronze It consists normally of a deep bell on capitals of the pillars. which were carved two tiers of eight acanthus leaves, and between those of the upper row eight caulicoli (caulis = a stalk) surmounted by a curled leaf or calyx, from which spring the volutes (also known as caulicoli and helices by different authorities) supporting the angles of the abacus, and the small central volutes supporting a foliated ornament. The abacus is moulded and curved on plan on each face, the mouldings at the angles either being brought to a point as in the Temple of Apollo Didymaeus, at Miletus, Temple of Jupiter Olympius, at Athens (No. 43 a), and the Stca or Portico, Athens (No. 33 F, g), or having their edges chamfered off as in the 'Monument of Lysicrates (No. 38 e). ' COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 32. Choragic Monument of Lysicrates, Athens. GREEK ARCHITECTURE. 87 Another type of capital has one row of acanthus leaves with palm leaves over, and a moulded abacus square on plan, as in the Tpwer of the Winds, Athens (No. 43 b). The entablature, which is usually about one-fifth of the height of the entire order, bears a general resemblance to the Ionic, having the usual triple division of architrave, frieze, and cornice, the mouldings of the latter having additional enrichments. Date. B.C. 430 ; 00 COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. ii feet 7 inches high, projecting rather more than half These rest on a secondary base encircling the their diameter. whole building, and are complete in themselves, as shown on No. 38 E. Between the columns are panels, the upper part of each originally being sculptured in bas-relief. The flutings of the columns are peculiar in that they terminate The capitals, i foot 7 inches at the top in the form of leaves. high, bear some resemblance to those of the half-columns of about the same date in the cella of the Temple of Apollo Didymaeus at columns Miletus. On the inside, where, they could not be seen they were The foliage is different from the later type in unfinished. having a lower row of sixteen small lotus leaves, then a single row of very beautiful acanthus leaves, having between them an The channel eight petalled flower resembling an Egyptian lotus. just above the foliated flutings of the shaft probably had a bronze collar, although the Greeks were accustomed to these sinkings under their Doric capitals. The architrave and frieze are in one block of marble, the former bearing an inscription, and the latter being sculptured to represent the myth of Dionysos and the Tyrrhenian pirates. The cornice is crowned with a peculiar honeysuckle scroll, forming a sort of frilling, used instead of a cyma-recta moulding, and probably an imitation of ante-fixse terminating the joint tiles, as in Greek temples. The outside of the cupola is beautifully sculptured to imitate a covering of laurel leaves, and from the upper part branch out three scrolls (Nos. 42 a, 44 d), the upper ends of which are generally supposed to have supported dolphins. The central portion is carried up as a foliated and moulded stalk or helix in conjunction with acanthus leaves branching in three directions, having on their upper surfaces cavities in which the original tripod feet were placed. Tl}e Tower of the "SA^inds, Athens (b.c. 10Q.-35) (Nos. 28 k, L, 43 B, D, e), also known as the Horologium of Andronikos Cyrrhestes, was erected by him for measuring time by means of (a) a clepsydra or water-clock internally (b) a sun-dial externally and it also acted as a weathercock. The building rests on a stylobate of three steps, and is octagonal, each of its eight sides facing the more important points of the compass. It measures 22 feet 4 inches internally, and on the north-east and north-west sides are porticos having Corinthian columns. From the south side projects a circular chamber, probably used as a reservoir for the water-clock. The interior has a height of 40 feet 9 inches, and the upper part is provided with small fluted Doric columns resting on a circular band of stone. The Corinthian columns, 13 feet 6 inches high, to the external porticos are fluted. They have no base and the capitals are of a plain unusual type, without volutes, the upper row of leaves resembling those of the palm, The wall of the octagonal structure is quite plain for a left ; 33- go COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. height of 29 feet, with the exception of the incised lines forming the sun-dial, above which on each face are sculptured figures, boldly executed to represent the eight principal winds (Nos. 43 D, e). The roof is formed of twenty-four equal sized blocks of marble, and was suirmounted by a bronze Triton (see Vitruvius, I., chapter vi.). The Olympieion (Temple of Jupiter Olympius), Athens (No. 18 j), stands on the site of an earlier Doric temple commenced by Pisistratus, in B.C. 530. It was commenced by Antiochus Epiphanes of Syria in b.c. 174, Cossutius, a Roman architect, being employed hence it is often designated Roman architecture. It remained incompleted, and in b.c 80 Sulla transported some of the columns to Rome for the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, as related by Pliny. The building was completed by Hadrian in A.D. 117, but only fifteen columns of the original one hundred and four forming the peristyle are standing. It was dipteral octastyle on plan, having twenty columns on the flanks, and occupied an area of 354 feet by 154 feet (equalling the Hypostyle Hall at Karnac), and was placed in the centre of a magnificent peribolus or enclosure, measuring 680 feet by 424 feet, part of the retaining wall of which still remains at the south-east comer. It is described by Vitruvius as hypsethral, but it ;was unfinished in his time. The peristyle columns were 6 feet 4 inches in diameter, and had a height of 56 feet a proportion of about one to nine. ; — The capitals (No. 43 a) are very fine specimens of the Corinthian order, and appear to date from both periods mentioned above. GREEK THEATRES. The Greek theatre was generally hollowed out of the slope of a hill near the city, and was unroofed, the performances taking In plan (No. 34) it was usually rather place in the daytime. more than a semicircle, being about two-thirds of a complete The auditorium consisted of tiers of marble seats, rising circle. Those one above the other, often cut out of the solid rock. spectators who sat at the extremities of the two wings thus faced The Greek towards the orchestra, but away from the stage. theatre, which was constructed more for choral than dramatic performances, had a circular " orchestra " or dancing place (corresponding to the stalls and pit of a modern theatre) in which the chorus chanted and danced. The orchestra was the " germ " of the Greek theatre. The stage was known as the logeion or " speaking place," its back- wall being the skene (= booth or tent for changing in), the The latter name being preserved in the modern word " scene." actors being few, the stage consisted of a long and narrow platform, To what height above the level of with permanent background. . ' WJm mmimn. M% C6HJ11SKTIW OP^^ , fflWBI MMwm fmm im THE mUfS^lSh W%?> Mfe IN3TE?6 9F ffiJWKTffi BEIfiS® TOE; XT WSrJEL mSETO ia«K,€»iESIPOMBIMS Tf TOE SftES // \ T E "SBfiXT » \ FT. ISHfi BY II61?T.H!«; COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 92 the orchestra this platform was raised is a question that has been much debated in recent years. The most probable view seems to be the following: (i.) In pre-^schylean drama, before regular theatreg were made, an actor mounted on a table, probably the table-altar of the god Dionysos, and held a dialogue with the dancers or chorus. The rude table stage illustrated on some vases from South Italy may represent a local retention of this primitive custom. (2 ) In the fifth century B.C. no direct evidence is available but a low wooden stage is practically certain, connected by means of a ladder with the orchestra. (3.) The fourth century is the earliest period in which there is monumental evidence. At Megalopolis a platform of wood from 3 feet 3 inches to 4 feet 6 inches high appears probable, with a stone colonnade behind it. At Epidauros there was a wooden floor supported by a wall 12 feet high. (4.) In Hellenistic and Roman times, Vitruvius tells us, the Greek stage was 10 to 12 feet high, and this statement is borne out by many extant examples. The Theatre of Dionysos, Athens, (No'. 17), completed b.c. 34^3, in which thirty thousand spectators could be accommodated, is the prototype of all Greek theatres, and was the one in which the plays of the great Athenian dramatists were produced. The Theatre, Epidauros, was constructed by the architect Polycleitos, and is the most beautiful as well as the best preserved example extant. The circle of the orchestra is complete, and is about 66 feet across, the entire theatre being 378 feet in diameter. Thirty-two rows of seats forming the lower division are separated by a broad passage (diazoma) from twenty rows above. Twenty-four flights of steps diverge as radii from bottom to top. — ; THE PALACES AND DOMESTIC BUILDINGS. The excavations lately carried out by Dr. Arthur Evans at in Crete (page 54), and those by the Italians at Phaestos, in the same island, have revealed palaces more remote' in date than the Mycenaean period, to which is given the name " Mih6an." The excavations of the Palace of King Minos, Knos$os, show the remains of a remarkable structure laid out on a plan afterwards used in the Roman palaces and camps. This building is believed Underneath to date from about b.c 2000, and was unfortified. the upper palace were found the remains of an earlier one, which About five acres of this is believed to date from about b.c 3000. remarkable structure have been uncovered. The apartments, round a central oblong courtyard (about 180 feet by 90 feet), are constructed in several stories, which are reached by staircases. Some remarkable wall frescoes and coloured plaster ceilings, an olive press with huge oil jars, and the remains of a system of drainage, with terra-cotta drain pipes, were discovered. Knossos GREEK ARCHITECTURE. 93 At Tiryns, situated by the sea coast to the south-west of Athens, and at Mycenae, remains have been discovered of recent years by Drs. Schliemann and Dorpfeld which are of the greatest interest in showing the general arrangement of other palaces (No. 15 f). At Mycenae, flights of steps lead to an outer courtyard, from which, by traversing a portico and vestibule, the megaron, or principal men's apartment, is reached. From this megaron, surrounded by a roof and open to the sky in the centre, were reached other chambers, whose uses are not defined. The women's chambers are considered by some authorities to be planned so as to afford the greatest seclusion, while others, notably Prof. Ernest Gardner, hold that little or no attempt was made at seclusion, and bring strong evidence to bear from literary authorities, principally from Homer. The plans of domestic buildings appear to have resembled, on a smaller scale, the general arrangement of the palaces as is seen in the remains at Athens, Delos, and Priene, dating from the Hellenic period. They appear to have been of one story only, and grouped around an internal courtyard or peristyle. Vitruvius (Book VI., chapter x.) refers to thei~r general arrangement, when he says there was no atrium, but a peristylium with a portico on three sides, and chambers grouped around. It is generally held that the Grseco- Roman houses of Pompeii may be taken as typical examples (No. 65 a, b), and these may be referred to on page 162. PROPYL^A. Propylaea were erected as entrance gateways to many of the principal cities of Greece, and those at Athens, Epidauros, Sunium, Eleusis, and Priene are the best known. The Propylaea, Athens (No. 26), were erected under Pericles by the architect Mnesicles in b.c. 437. It is at the west end of the Acropolis (No. 17), being reached by a long flight of steps from the plain beneath. It has front and rear hexastyle Doric porticos at different levels, giving access to a great covered hall, having a wide central passage bounded by two rows of Ionic columns, and having at its eastern end a wall in which are five doorways of different heights. On either side of the western entrance portico are projecting wings having three smaller Doric columns, that to the north being used as a picture gallery, while that to the south was never completed. The general external appearance is well shown in the restored view (No. i). TOMBS. The most important from an architectural point of view are in Asia Minor. The Harpy Tomb, Xanthos, in Lycia found 94 COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. an early or archaic example, with sculptured reliefs, from which the tomb is named, and is now in the British Museum. (B.C. 550), is The Nereid Monument is (b.c. fifth century), Xanthos, generally considered to have been erected as a trophy monument. Important fragments discovered by Sir Charles Fellows, and the model in the British Museum, indicate a building consisting of a central chamber or cella surrounded by a colonnade of fourteen Ionic columns, the whole elevated on a basement standing on two steps. The sculptured figures of nereids or marine nymphs, from which the building takes its name, originally stood between the columns and had under them marine attributes. This monument and pediments. The Mausoleum, Halicarnassos (No. 35), was the most famous tomb. It was erected to the King Mausolos (b.c 353) by his widow Artemisia, and consisted of a square plinth supporting a tomb-chamber, which was surrounded by Ionic columns and surmounted by a pyramidal roof with a marble quadriga and group of statuary at its apex (see p. 108). The architects were Satyros and Pythios, and Scopas was the has important sculptured friezes, acroteria Portions of the frieze, the statue of .superintendent sculptor. Mausolos and Artemisia, with the horses and chariots of the quadriga, and other fragments are in the British Museum. The Lion Tomb, Cnidus (No. 36), also consists of a square basement surrounded by a Doric colonnade of engaged columns surmounted by a stepped roof, and crowned with a lion, now in the British Museum. The interior was circular and roofed with a dome in projecting horizontal courses. The Sarcophagus from a Tomb at Cnidus (No. 36 e, g) is an interesting and beautiful example of a smaller type, as is also the Tomb of the Weepers (b.c fourth century) (No. 36 h), found at Sidon (now in the Museum at Constantinople), which is executed in the form of a miniature Ionic temple, having sculptured female figures between the columns. The so-called Alexander Sarcophagus (b.c fourth century), found near Sidon, and now in the Constantinople Museum, is the most beautiful and best preserved of all. It is so called because its sides, which are of marble, represent battle and hunting scenes in which Alexander was engaged, and is especially remarkable for the colored work which is still preserved on the sculpture. There are also important examples of rock-cut tombs at Cyrene (North Africa) and Asia Minor (No. 41 f), and reference has also been made to the Lycian Tombs (page 37), of which the two brought to London by Sir Charles Fellows in 1842 are now in the British Museum. The Stele was a class of tombstone in the design of which the Greeks excelled. It consisted of a flat stone placed upright in the ground like a modern tombstone and crowned with the GREEK EXAMPLES. XIV. HILT KTOAIiailta? 6ATf«05 trrmoi miT Kdsimof smiEUfffiiiiiEmiiiRmsrfr atvuN TO UMiKtD MJNDERa OF THE WOULD. MA1ISI103 SJCCEEDEIl HI5 BBElll mms m SATRAP ^TTM mtlL -m KING arKfik 4KD"reAM5FERRED THE SaTOFSJIERNMEHTFKMTilt INrWIDTlWNoFMTaSATO HAUrARNA330S. ONWDEATK OFHAUSOIOSHIiWIFEAJltmSIA 5IICCEEI)E05«ElCBO«[r'£«l5 5HEt!LEBRATB)HI3M£K«Bf IHEToRlnLsmWliC CoNTESIb BUT OIIEFLT m THE emiKToN OFTHSBMB. ITISRECORDED THSrTHERElWNarlMElonillSH rTDURIICHERREICNtACtllRDIHS TBPUNYlllIASIMPLEIEDBfTMC ARI15r5«ABB0UROF|SVE. ITIS EJATUn Br Kb LySIER BffAH TINE AUTHORS THAT HA1IS0I25 HAO lllM3ELFflEBIKT«tTi«B. MAHY CEIlHRBTUEIom If HAWED UIMT. «AJ1I«£ THE fol KMJm Of 8 JOHH TM KMSm IT rr AND lECD IHE (UnSASAOUW MIWEIIALililHUTttOSTUF JKItR. ftlW fi THE CHIEF AOIHORnY a Kid lESTORATIOIB HIKE BEEN BASEO. HE 5«18 THAT THE NA»S0UI111 BAD AmrBASfflEMTofSREDI 1U£-5T0HE OHIrfH^H 511DDAK DiMsRiwsHmomiiEDly < AWP1INADECPIEI0K)of36 ' UUJMKSaPPOmlNGASEfP-r jljl^L 5TtVEN50MIS96 THE 5Cllim«E3 WERE B- EnnEBnilHRIANNARBlEl KKSnOFFBf RtDAND CUJE Colour. 9.9. «». 35- AnmTliESBTOMTlOMwHlWTOK^PinMM GREEK EXAMPLES. XV. GREEK ARCHITECTURE. Anthemion 97 design, the lower portion having panels in bas-relief F, and 44 e). Many of these can be seen in the (Nos. 42 H, 43 British Museum. AGORA. The agora, or open meeting -places for the transaction of public business, were large open spaces surrounded by stose or open colonnades, giving access to the public buildings, such, as temples, basilicas, stadion (racecourse), and the palaestrae or gymnasia. PUBLIC BUILDINGS. Stoae or Colonnades were formed for the protection of pilgrims between public monuments, or as shelters adjoining open spaces, and were an important class of structure. The most important of these were the Stoa Pacile, or Echo Colonnade, about 300 feet by 30 feet, at Olympia two at Epidauros one two stories in height acting as shelters for the patients who came to be healed at the shrine of .(Esculapius three examples at Delphi and the remarkable example near the " Propylaea at Delos, known as the " Sanctuary of the Bulls (No. 42). The Stadion was the foot racecourse found in cities where games were celebrated, and it came eventually to be used for It was usually straight at one end, other athletic performances. the starting-place, and semicircular at the other, and was always 600 Greek feet in length, although the foot varied, and was sometimes planned with the semicircular end on the side of a hill, so that the seats could be cut out of the sloping sides, as at Olympia, Thebes, and Epidauros, or else constructed on the flat, as at Delphi, Athens, and Ephesus. The Stadion at Athens, now completely restored, was commenced in B.C. 331, and finished by Herodes Atticus, and accommodates between 40,000 and 50,000 people. The Hippodrome was. a similar type of building used for to the various shrines, as connections — — ; ; ; horse racing. The Palaestra or gymnasia, as at Olympia and Ephesus, were the prototypes of the Roman thermae, and comprised exercise courts, tanks for bathers, exedrae or recesses for lectures, with seats for spectators. 4. COMPARATIVE. — These were simple, well A. Plans (Nos. i8, 20 e, and 27 c). judged, nicely balanced, and symmetrical, exceptions to the latter being the Erechtheion (No. 18 m), and the Propylaea (No. 18 _n), Plans involving at Athens, and probably the private houses. CiHiHTIYtHMffiStaHMilflM lilMt __. XK m mrm. n n ml f 1 ? lit¥MMTilllliiliffllBfl,ffl|ffi 37- } ^ l^ _ «8Sill- THSVEmsCSiMICIfc. (1!5WV-.9.I,^ - -+ llll-:mTOB-9-.8,8l ->! H 2 COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 100 the use of the orders were rarely extensive or complicated, being generally very regular; yet certain departures were made from the general rules, either for the purposes of effect or from necessity, as when columns were placed nearer together at the angles of Doric temples (No. i6 a), and as in the ceiitral intercolumniation at the Propylsea, Athens (No. 26), which was wider than the others, probably for the passage of chariots. Greek temples might be described as Egyptian turned inside out, the courtyard, porticos, and columned halls being replaced by a small cella, usually colonnaded on every face. The relations and proportions of these columns constitute the charm of Greek exteriors. Circular planning was also adopted, as in the Tholes at Epidauros (No. 18 k), the theatres (Nos. 17 and 34 a), and choragic monuments (No. 28 j), and octagonal planning, as in the Tower of the Winds at Athens (No. 28 k, l). B. Walls. The construction of walls was solid and exact. No mortar was used, the joints being extremely fine, and the finished surface of the walls was obtained by a final rubbing down of the surface by slaves. The use of marble was accountable for the fine smooth face and exact jointing displayed. — Hollow wall construction in the entablature was practised at the Parthenon, to lessen the weight upon the architraves, and perhaps for economy of material (No. 16). In temples the cella walls were mostly masked behind columns (No. 18). The base of a temple was always well marked and defined by steps, giving a real and apparent solidity to the structuire (Nos. 16 A and 24). The top of the walls was always finished by a cornice, the use of intermediate cornices being almost unknown. __ No towers were used in Greek architecture except in the case of fortified walls, the lofty mausoleum at Halicarnassos (No. 35) and the Lion Tomb at Cnidus (No. 36), both in Asia Minor, and of pyramidal shape, being the nearest approach to tower form (page 94). c. Openings. Greek architecture was essentially a trabe'ated style, all openings being spanned by a lintel, and being therefore square-headed. The trabeated construction necessitated great severity in treatment the supports were of necessity close together, because stone lintels could not be obtained beyond a certain length. The sides of openings sometimes incline inwards, as in the doorway to the Erechtheion (No. 37 d). Relief to the fagades of temples was obtained by the shadow of the openings between the columns (No. 22). D. Roofs. These coincided with the outline of the pediment. In temples they were sometimes carried by internal columns or by the walls of the cella, and were framed in timber and covered with marble slabs (Nos. 16 d, 20 h). Internal ceilings were — ; — COMPARISON OF GREEK AND ROMAN MOULDINGS. I. MmK 3 niLET.I (E OUlLLOCUr ^i Dim A /Rn liMILllSISTlBTiSilSTLlll DI?15TYLEr INClgEB OSWflMEMT Of WHITE ,?& #(y)MMMim^ ® INTEBOTLUnWlfiTIOM. PSIMTB6 TEBSSCOTffl COgWICI 39- — COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 102 probably also framed into deep coffers, as were the marble lacunaria of the peristyles (No. 21 b, c, e). E. Columns. As the temples were usually one story high, the columns with their entablature comprise the entire height of the building, except in some interiors, as the Parthenon (Nos. 23, 25), the Temple of Neptune, Passtum (No. 28 b), and elsewhere, where a second range of columns was introduced into the cella to support the roof. The orders having been fully dealt with on pages 59, 77, 85, are merely summarized as follows The Doric (No. 19) is the oldest and plainest of the orders, the finest examples being the Parthenon and the Theseion (page 67). The Ionic (No. 29) was more ornate, and is best seen at the Erechtheion (page 81), and the Temple on the Uissus (page 79). The Corinthian was little used by the Greeks, the best known examples being the monument of Lysicrates at Athens (Nos. 32, 38 a), and the Temple of Jupiter Olympius (No. 43 a), upon which the Romans founded their own special type. Caryatides (No. 42 g) and Canephora (No. 42 f), or carved female figures which were sometimes used in the place of columns, as at the Erechtheion, Athens (No. 30), and are of Asiatic origin. — : — F. Mouldings. Refer to illustrations of Greek mouldings compared with Roman given on Nos. 39 and 40. Mouldings are the means by which an architect draws lines upon his building, and a true knowledge of the effect of contour is best obtained from actual work rather than from drawings, the examples at the Museum being available for this purpose. principal characteristic of Greek mouldings was refinement and delicacy of contour due to the influence of an almost continuous sunshine, a clear atmosphere, and the hard marble British The in which they were formed. These mouldings had their sections probably drawn by hand, but approach very closely to various conic sections, such as parabolas, hyperbolas, and ellipses. As a general rule the lines of the enrichment or carving on any Greek moulding correspond to the profile of that moulding. This is a rule which was rarely departed from, and therefore, is worthy of notice, for the profile of the moulding is thus emphasized by the expression in an enriched form of its own curvature. The examples given from full-size sections taken at the Parthenon, the Erechtheion, and elsewhere, may be studied on No. 40. The following classified list gives the most important mouldings :— When (a.) The cyma-recta (Hogarth's "line of beauty"). enriched it is carved with the honeysuckle ornament, whose outline corresponds with the section (No. 39 j). COMPARISON OF GREEK AND ROMAN MOULDINGS. II. 40. GREEK ORNAMENT. I. ROMANS METHOD^BESCMlNeTHEMC^folOTl, 3IIMCII0H UmflHWG.IUiANG mmfCHnaED kxiukkuti: REVIEW X.X. 2.5i nes^iEsaiiNSmioNic llM?MEH6?A<aCKlE 5HHL.HiiraKnm icanuLiricaiiLiwwtKii'an. wrutinrttusiBtk au isiicii mmM mcfiH die ponoN nuiiEmLewiniKiMn' K- snnsiwiEieniiHiiiiin ItOIOH. ;0«> -FROM NORTH PORTICO 41. Of fflEERECHraaON Smm TRCSmENTorANCLE CAP S ANTA i WrrcHED n»MAPHOTO(jRAPHjail«S«SS . GREEK ORNAMENT. 42. II. — — COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. I06 (b.) The cyma water-lily (c.) The reversa. When enriched and tongue (No. 39 ovolo (egg-like). it is carved with the l). When enriched is it carved with the egg and dart, or egg and tongue ornament (No. 39 n). {d.) The fillet, a small plain face to separate other mouldings (No. 39 a). This is usually without enrichment. («.) The bead serves much the same purpose as the fillet, and approaches a circle in section. When enriched it is carved with the bead and reel or with beads, which in fact gave the name to the moulding (No. 39 c). (/.) {g.) The The cavetto is a simple hollow (No. 39 scotia is the deep hollow occurring in bases, and e). is generally not enriched (No. 39 g). The torus is really a magnified bead moulding. When enriched it is carved with the guilloche or " plat " ornament, or with bundles of leaves tied with bands (No. 39 p). (»'.) The bird's-heak moulding occurs frequently, especially in the Doric order, and giving a deep shadow is very suitable for the English climate (No. 40 g). (7.) The corona (No. 17 a), the deep vertical face of the upper portion of the cornice. It was frequently painted with a Greek " fret " ornament. G. Ornament (Nos. 41, 42, 43, and 44). The acanthus leaf (Nos. 33 H, 44 j) and scroll play an important part in Greek ornamentation. The leaf from which these were derived grows wild in the south of Europe, in two varieties, viz. (i.) That with pointed and narrow lobes, V-shaped in section, giving a sharp crisp shadow, and known as the " acanthus spinosis " (No. 33 h) (ii.) That with broad blunt tips, flat in section, known as the " acanthus mollis " (No. 33 b). The Greeks usually preferred the former with deeply-drilled eyes, and the Romans the latter of these varieties. The leaf was used principally in the Corinthian capital (^Nos. 33 F, G, H, 43 A, B, c), and is also found in the crowning finial of the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates (No. 44 d). The scroll which accompanies the leaf and acts as a stalk is usually V-shaped in section with sharp edges. The anthemion, palmette or honeysuckle ornament, was a favourite decoration of the Greeks, and was largely used as an ornamentation on Anta Caps (No. 44 a, f), cyma-recta mouldings (No. 39 j), and round the necks of columns, as in the Erechtheion (No. 41 n). It is also frequently employed as an ornamentation to the tops of stele-heads and ante-fixse (Nos. 42 h, 43 f, and 44 f., n). The sculpture employed was of the highest order, and has never {a.) Sculpture appertaining been excelled. It may be divided into to buildings, including friezes (as at the Parthenon, the Temple (A.) — : ; : GREEK ORNAMENT. III. Innnhnnnnnrifif (A) CPS raPMTHE TEMEE OF Vyy BME9ENTlHSlHEEBrWIMD.ttmD0l(iYDro™) HAtF ELSfimON OF^TEttHM WITH loraiE KOKEWCKLE OBKffllHT BHNfiA BEABTirai IM^TMCE ff THI5 50MEWIAT RARI TWJTMENT. 43- COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. I08 ^gina, the Heraion, Olympia, and the Temple of Apollo Epicurius, Bassse), the tympana of the pediments, the acroteria at the base and summit, the sculptured metopes in the Doric frieze, and the Caryatides, as at the Erechtheion (Nos. 30 0,42 g, 44 m) mention might also be made of the series of magnificent figure sculptures to the Altar of Zeus at Pergamon in Asia Minor, of which the great frieze or " Gigantomachia " is now in the Berlin Museum, (b.) Sculptured reliefs as seen on stele-heads (No. 42 h). (c.) Free-standing statuary, consisting of groups, single figures, bigas (two-horse chariots), or quadrigas (four-horse chariots) (page 94). Color was largely used on buildings, and many traces are left, as already mentioned (page 53). In many instances the stonework, as in the Temples at Paestum and in Sicily, brickwork, and in some instances marble, were covered with carefully-prepared cement to receive wall paintings or color decoration, which appears to have been almost universal, especially in buildings of the Doric order. This cement casing was also capable of a high polish, and Vitnivius mentions that well-polished stucco would reflect like a mirror. of ; REFERENCE BOOKS, Anderson (W.J.) and Spiers (R.Phen^). — " The Architecture of Greece 5. A Sketch of its Historic Development." 8vo. igoa. Unedited Antiquities of Attica" (Dilettanti Society). Folio. and Rome. "The 1817. Boetticher(C.). Berlin, 1874. " DieTektonikder Hellenen." Folio. Boetticher. " Die Akropolis von Athen." 8vo. Berlin, 1888. Chipiez (C). " Histoire critique des Ordres Grecs." 8vo. Paris, 1876. Clarke (J. T.) and others. " Investigations at Assos (1881-83)." Folio. Boston, 1902. Cockerell(C. R.). " The Temples at ^gina and Bassa." Folio, i860. D'Espouy (H.). " Fragments de I'Architecture Antique." Paris, 1899. Defrasse (A.) and Lechat (H.). " Epidaure restauration et description des principaux monuments du Sanctuaire d'Ascl^pios." Folio. Paris, 1895. Dorpfeld (W.). " Das Griechische Theater." Sur folio. Athens, 1896. Durm (J.). " Die Baukunst der Griechen." 4to. Darmstadt, 1892. Fergusson (J.). " The Parthenon." 8vo. 1883. Frazer (J. G.). Pausanias's Description of Greece. 5 vols., 8vo. 1898. Gardner (E. A.). " Handbook of Greek Sculpture." 8vo. 1896. Inwood (H. W.). " The Erechtheion at Athens." Folio. 1831. " The Antiquities of Ionia " (Dilettanti Society). 1769-1881. 4 vols. Laloux (v.). " L'Architecture Grecque." 8vo. Paris. — — — — — — — — ; — — — — — — Laloux(V.) et Monceaux (P.). — " La restauration d' Olympic, I'histoire, monuments, le culte et les fetes." Folio. Paris, 1889. Mauch (J. M. von). " Die Architectonischen Ordnungen der Griechen und Roemer." Folio. Berlin, 1875. Michaelis (A.). " Der Parthenon." Folio. Leipzig, 1870-1871. les — — — . . GREEK ORNAMENT. — MetyKKlS. ORNSWEMT fRpn Ttic CHJECTHHOr*.. . IV. THE (3W<ICE OF SREBC TEH^lg, i FORftlMG MR j8H< W«TE^ fBO/ngOOF OUTLET? reOMTHE OPtrT aTriENj. BYAIOi*} THE 4 TrtEIOJ>l STH ._ ,' STHM5. smut c«p,bisicKed wird «0NEii5ocKi,Ke jTPWe oCUBf ?8SBT mi BE« B WjWIWBlT vz^^TELE HEBS. Tam.imsm ?^^n. rgmTHEMUjEuwaTSTriEHj > AETOPE POIITIOM 9F FBIEZE FEOW THE PSiTHENO(*J FBOK Titt PSBTMENON FBflft THI (G CONJOLt FBOM ^CSNTHUJ ORWfcHTneR BOOBWfif HT THE TEOPLE OF mewBo^ 44- . EEECTHCION, joiHTOFTiinJiuDHiMeiormp no COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. REFERENCE BOOKS— continued. Middleton (J. H.).— " Plans and Drawings of Athenian Buildings." igo2. Murray (A. S.).—" History of Greek Sculpture." a vols., 8 vo. 1890. Murray (A. S.). " The Sculptures of the Parthenon." 8vo. 1903. Newton (C. T.) and PuUan (R. P.).-^"A History of Discoveries at 1862-1863. Halicarnassus, Cnidus, and Branchidas." 3 vols., foho. Pennethorne (Sir J.). " The Geometry and Optics of Ancient Architecture." Folio. 1878. Penrose (F. C). " An Investigation of (he Principles of Athenian Architecture" (Hellenic Society). Folio. 1888. Pontremoli (E.) et Haussouillier (B.). " Didymes: Fouilles de 1895 Paris, 1903. Folio. et 1896." 8vo. — — — — —" restauration et Pergame Pontremoli (E.) et CoUignon (M.).. Paris, 1900. description des monuments de FAcropole." Folio. Perrot (G.) and Chipiez (C). "The History of Art in Primitive Greece." 2, vols., 8vo. 1894. " Restaurations des Monuments Antiques, piibliees par TAcadfemiede : — France a Rome." Paris, 1877-1890. Ross (L.), Schaubert (E.), and Hansen (C.). "Die Akropolis von Athen Tempel der Nike Apteros." Foho. Berlin, 1836. Smith (Sir William). " Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities.'' la — — ; 3 vols., 8vo. Spiers (R. P.) Stuart 1832. Verrall Athens." — " The Orders of Architecture." Folio, igoi. 1762(N.). — " Antiquities of Athens." 5 vols. — and Harrison. " Mythology and Monuments of Ancient (J.) and Revett 8vo. i8go. Waldstein (C.). —"The Argive Herasum." 2 vols., 4to. Boston, 1902. Watt (J. C). " Greek and Pompeian Decorative Work." Folio. 1897. Wilkins (W.). " Antiquities of Magna Grsecia." Large folio. 1807. Church (A. J.).—" The Fall of Athens " (Historical Novel). 8vo. — — The student should visit the Greek Court at the Crystal Palace for the splendid model of the Parthenon fa9ade, and also the British Museum for actual fragments of the sculptures from the Temples. THE empire mnm ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. ' Immortal glories in my mind revive Rome's exalted beauties I descry When Magnificent in piles of ruin lie. amphitheatre's amazing height Here fills my eye with terror and delight, An its public shows unpeopled Rome, held uncrowded nations in its womb Here pillars rough with sculpture pierce the skies And here the proud triumphal arches rise, Where the old Romans deathless acts displayed." That on And ; I. ; INFLUENCES. — i. Geographical. The map (No. 45) will show that the sea coast of Italy, although the peninsula is long and narrow, is not nearly so much broken up into bays, or natural harbours, as the shore line of Greece, neither are there so many islands studded along its coasts. Again, although many parts of Italy are mountainous the great chain of the Apennines running from one end of the peninsula to the other yet the whole land is not divided up into little valleys in the same way as the greater part of — — Greece. The Greek and Italian nations may therefore with fair accuracy — — COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 112 be compared as follows {a.) The Romans never became a seafaring people like the Greeks, nor did they send out colonists of the same description to all parts of the then known world. {b.) There were few rival cities in Italy at this period (a condition which was altered in after times, pages 230, 234, 405, 476), and the small towns, being less jealous of their separate independence, the Roman power could be built up by a gradual absorption of small states, a process that was never completed by Athens or Sparta. The position of Italy enabled her to act as the intermediary in spreading over the continent of Europe the arts of civilization. ii. Geological. The geological formation of Italy differs from that of Greece, where the chief and almost the only building material is marble. In Italy marble, terra-cotta, stone, and brick were largely used even for the more important buildings. In Rome the following materials were at hand Travertine, a hard limestone from Tivoli Tufa, a volcanic substance of which the hills of Rome are mainly composed and Peperim, a stone of volcanic origin from Mount Albano. Besides these. Lava and Pozzolana, derived from volcanic eruptions, and excellent sand and gravel were plentiful. The existence of Pozzolana (a clean sandy earth) found in thick strata in the district, gave the Romans a material which contributed largely to the durability of their architecture, for it has extraordinary properties of hardness, strength and durability, when mixed into concrete with lime. The walls were generally formed of concrete and were faced in a decorative way with brick, stone, alabasters, porphyries, or marbles of all kinds, hewn from countless Oriental quarries by whole armies of workmen. Roman architecture, as it spread itself over the whole of the then known world, was influenced naturally by the materials found in the various parts where it planted itself, but concrete, in conjunction with brick and stone casing or banding, was the favourite material although in Syria, notably at Palmyra and Baalbec, and in Egypt thequarries supplied stones of enormous : — : ; ; ; which were used locally. Climate. The north has the climate of the temperate region of continental Europe central Italy is more genial and sunny while the south is almost tropical. iv. Religion. The heathen religion of ancient Rome being looked upon as part of the constitution of the state, the worship of the gods came eventually to be kept up only as a matter of state policy. The emperor then received divine honours, and may almost be described as the leader of the Pantheon of deities embraced by the tolerant and wide-spreading Roman rule. Officialism therefore naturally stamped its character on the temple architecture. A list of the chief Roman deities is given on page 46. In early times three chief nations V. Social and Political. size, — ill. ; ; — — dwelt in the peninsula. In the central portion (or Etruria) lived ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. 113 theJEltniscans, probably an Aryan people, who appear to have been settled in Italy before authentic history begins, and who were great builders (page 119). In the south the Greeks had planted many colonies, which were included in the name of " Magna Grsec ia." The remainder of Italy (exclusive of Cisalpine Gaul) was occupied by tribes of the same Aryan race as the Greeks, and the common forefathers of both must have stayed together after they had separated from the forefathers of the Celts, Xgutons and others. But long before history begins the Greeks and^Ttalians had separated into distinct nations, and the Italians had further split up into separate nations among themselves. The common form of government in ancient Italy resembled that of Greece, consisting of towns or districts joined together in leagues. The government of Rome was effected firstly by chosen kings, aided by a senator and popular assembly, but about B.C. 500 it became Republican, and under Augustus Csesar in b.c. 27 the Empire originated. The "Building Acts" of Augustus, Nero, and Trajan had considerable influence on the development in Rome. vi. Historical. The foundation of Rome is of uncertain date, but is generally taken at b.c 750. The Republic engaged in many wars, conquering several Etruscan cities, but was defeated in B.C. 390, at the hands of the Gauls, who continued for some time to hold the northern part of Italy. About b.c. 343 began the Roman conquest of Italy, which was effected in about sixty years, and resulted in the dominion of a city over cities. Then came the wars with peoples outside Italy, Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, being firstsubdued. The first Punic war (B.c.264-24i)againstCarthage; when brought to a conclusion, resulted in Sicily becoming the first — Roman province. The second Punic war (b.c. 218-201) was the most severe struggle in which the Romans had engaged, for Hannibal, the great Carthaginian general, entering Italy from Spain, defeated all the Roman armies, and maintained himself in Italy until recalled by a counter attack of the Romans, under Scipio, upon Carthage itself. The third Punic war (b.c. 149-146) ended in the total destruction of Carthage, which, with its territory, became a Roman province in Africa. At the same time were effected the conquests of Macedonia and Greece, the latter becoming a province in B.C. 146, which induced the importation of Greek artists and works of art. Greece formed a stepping stone to Western Asia, which in turn gradually acknowledged the Roman power, till in B.C. 133 it also became a province. With the conquests of Spain and Syria, the Roman empire extended from the Atlantic ocean to the Euphrates, while Caesar's campaigns in Gaul in e.g. 59, made the Rhine and the English Channel its northern boundaries. In B.C. 55 Caesar crossed into Britain. F.A. I — — COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 114 This tide of conquest swept on in spite of civil war at home, and eventually rendered the empire a political necessity owing to the difficulty of governing so many provinces under the previous system. On Pompey's defeat at Pharsalia, Julius Caesar remained without a rival, but was murdered in B.C. 44. Then followed a period of great confusion lasting 13 years. The Triumvirate, consisting of Marcus Antonius, Caius Octavius (great nephew to Caesar) and Marcus iEmilius Lepidus, were opposed to Brutus and Cassius, and eventually defeated them. On the defeat of Antony at Aktion, Augustus Caesar (Julius Caesar's nephew) was made emperor b.c. 27, and governed till his death, a.d. 41. The Augustan age was one of those great eras in the world's history like that succeeding the Persian wars in Greece the Elizabethan age in England, and the beginning of the nineteenth century in Europe, in which what seems a new spring in national and individual life calls out an idealizing retrospect of the past. The poets Virgil (b.c. 70-19), Horace (b.c. 65-8), Ovid (b.c 43 A.D. 17), and Livy the historian (b.c 59 a.d. 17), were all contemporaries. Following Augustus came a line of emperors, of whom Nero (a.d. 54-69), Vespasian (69-79), Trajan (98-117) Hadrian under whom the empire expanded to its greatest (11 7-1 38) extent Septimius Severus (193-211), Caracalla (211-217) and Diocletian (284-305) were the most active in architectural matters. Italy went out of cultivation and depended on imported corn. A turbulent populace, and the huge armies required to keep in check the barbarian tribes on every frontier, dominated the — — government. Emperors soon chosen were sooner murdered, and the chaos that gradually set in weakened the fabric of the empire. Architecture then fell into complete decay until the vigorous efforts of"Constantine (a.d. 306-337) did something for its revival, which in large measure was also due to a new force, Christianity, which had been growing up and which received official recognition under this emperor (page 176). 2. ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER. The Romans adopted the columnar and trabeated style of the Greeks, and joined to it the Arch, the Vault, and the Dome, which it is presumed they borrowed from the Etruscans, and this union of beam and arch is the keynote of the style in its earliest developments. The Colosseum (Nos. 62 and 63) at Rome is a good example of this union in which the piers between the arches on the different stories are strengthened by the semi-attached columns which act the part of buttresses thus becoming part of the wall, and no longer carrying the entablature unaided. The arch thus used in a tentative manner along with the ; — — ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. II5 column eventually came to be used alone, and through the basilica, was finally utilized in a pointed form in the construction of those magnificent vaulted Gothic cathedrals, which were erected in the Middle Ages. Greek buildings (see page 102) were normally only one story in height, but owing to the varying needs of the Romans, buildings of several stories were erected by them. The orders, usually attached and superimposed, were chiefly decorative features ceasing to have their true constructive significance (No. 62 a). The Thermae or Baths, Temples, Amphitheatres, Aqueducts, Bridges, Tombs, Basilicas, and Fora, are all monuments of Roman greatness, showing great constructive and engineering ability combined with a power to use the materials at hand with the best possible results. The Greek method of building with large blocks of stone, unconnected with mortar, was- employed in the buildings of the Republic. The practical spirit of the Romans, however, urged them to make a more economical use of materials, and instead of composing the walls of their monuments of squared-blocks ^of stone, they inaugurated the use of concrete, a material consisting of small fragments of stone or quarry debris mixed with lime or mortar. These materials, not being special to any country, were used with success in every part of the Empire, and gave a similarity to all Roman buildings. The craftsmanship required, under the direction of the central authority, was perfectly simple for only rough labour, both plentiful and cheap, was required for mixing the materials of which the concrete was made, and spreading it tb form the walls. The structures could be erected by hands quite unused to the art of building thus the Romans employed the slaves of the district, subjects liable to statute labour, or even the Roman armies while the legal punishment of condemnation to work on public buildings was largely enforced. The Romans by their extended use of concrete founded a new constructional system and employed it in the most diverse situations, adapting it with rare sagacity to their new needs, and The various kinds utilizing it in the most important projects. of walling may be divided into two classes opus quadratum, i.e., rectangular blocks of stone with or without mortar joints, frequently secured with dowels or cramps, and concrete unfaced or As stated, this was a building faced, used especially in Italy. mixture formed of lime and lumps of tufa, peperino, broken bricks, marble or pumice stone, and from the first century b.c. was used extensively for various building purposes. {a) Unfaced concrete was usually used for foundations, and The latter was of four varieties (6) faced concrete for walls. i. Concrete faced with " opus incertum " (No. 46 b), which was the oldest kind, the concrete backing being studded classical ; ; ; : : ROMAN EXAMPLES. 1. EjWlTTXAnPLE or FlAClMC A DOME OVER fi DECACOI>l«kLC0nPAFn»\EKT 46. — ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. I17 ^ with irregular shaped pieces of stone, mainly used in the first and second centuries b.c. ii. Concrete faced with " opus reticulatum " (No. 46 c), so called from its resemblance to the meshes of a net (reticulum) the joints being laid in diagonal lines, iii. Concrete faced with brick (testae), used from the first century B.C. to the end of the Western Empire. The walling was faced with bricks, triangular on plan and usually about i^ inches thick (No. 46 d). iv. Concrete with " opus mixtum" consisting of a wall of concrete having in addition to the ordinary brick facing bands of tufa blocks at intervals. The majestic simplicity of their edifices gives them a severe grandeur expressing the Roman ideals of conquest, wealth and power. Thus from the time that concrete displaced the ashlar masonry of the Greeks, and allowed of unskilled labour, the style of the Romans tended to become everywhere uniform and generally above the influence of local conditions for through the colonies and legionary camps the new methods penetrated to the extremities of the empire, and cities could be improvised, which became in ; whence radiated the architectural ideas as well manners and customs of Rome. Although, as pointed out, the vault had been Vaulting. previously used by the Assyrians, the early Greeks, and the their turn centres as the — Etruscans, yet the Romans generalized vaulting as a structural system dating from the first century of the present era. They made it simple and practical by the employment of concrete, by which they covered the largest areas even now in existence. The effect was far reaching and gave freedom in the planning of complex structures, which were easily roofed, the vaults being of any form, and easily constructed on rough centres or temporary supports till the concrete was set. It will thus be understood that vaults of concrete had a very important effect on the forms of Roman buildings, and they were employed universally, so much so, that every Roman ruin is filled with their debris. The kinds of vault employed were as follows (a.) The semicircular ox waggon-headed vault. : The cross vault. The dome (hemispherical and semidomes). The semicircular or waggon-headed vault resting on two {b.) (c.) (a.) sides of the covered rectangle was used in apartments whose walls- were sufficiently thick. (b.) The cross-vault was utilized for covering a square apartment, the pressure being taken by the four angles. used over corridors and long apartments the pressure being exerted on points of division (Nos. 58 and 60), left the remainder of the When COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. Il8 walls free for window openings. If the oblong compartment or side walls had to be pierced by large openings, it was divided into square bays - genera,lly three and covered with groined vaults, that is to say, a in number longitudinal half-cylinder, of the diameter of the hall, intersected by three half-cylinders of similar diameter. hall were very wide, and the — Hemispherical domes or cupolas {cupa= cup) (Nos. 54 and were used for covering circular structures as in the Pantheon. Semi-domes were employed for exedrae and other recesses (No. 46 k). The great coherence of concrete formed of " Pozzolana " (see page 112) and lime was important by its use, vaults and domes of enormous size were constructed. Most of these were cast in one solid mass with no lateral thrust on the walls, thus having the form, without the principle, of the arch, which, if formed of radiating voussoirs of brick or stone, would possibly have pushed (c.) 55), ; out the walls. As Prof. pointed out, the Roman use of and daring than for walls, important effect on the general forms of Roman The use of buttresses had not been systematized, have been impossible to vault the enormous spans if had been composed of brick or of masonry as in Middleton concrete for vaults and had an architecture. and it would has was more striking the vaulting mediaeval times. The Roman concrete vault was quite devoid of external thrust and covered its space with the rigidity of a metal lid, or inverted porcelain cup. The construction of the Pantheon dome appears to be exceptional (page 134). In many cases (No. 46), as in the Baths of Caracalla and Basilica of Constantine, brick arches or ribs probably used as temporary centres are embedded in the concrete vaults at various points, especially at the " groins," but these are sometimes superficial, like the brick facing to walls, and only tail a few inches into the mass of concrete vault, which is frequently as much as 6 feet thick. The decoration of Roman buildings had little connection with the architecture proper, for a Roman edifice built of concrete could receive a decorative lining of any or every kind of marble, having no necessary connection with the general structure, such decoration being an independent sheathing giving a richness to the Roman architecture had the walls both internal and external. character, therefore, of a body clothed in many instances with rich materials forming a rational and appropriate finish to the structure, and differing essentially from Greek architecture. Besides the use of many colored marbles other means of decorating wall surfaces are briefly stated here. Cements and — ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. Iig Stuccoes (" Opus albarium ") were frequently used for the coverings of walls both internal and external, and the final coat was polished. Mural paintings were executed on the prepared stucco, and may be classified as follows (a.) Fresco painting, Varnish painting, and (i.) Caustic (b.) Tempera painting, (c.) : — painting. Marble, alabaster, porphyry and jasper as linings to the walls have been already referred to. They were usually 'attached by iron or bronze cramps to the walls upon a thick cement backing. Mosaics were also much used for ornamenting walls, vaults and floors. They are divided by Middleton into (a.) " Opus tesselatum," or " vermiculatum," formed of squared tesserae of stone, marble, or glass to form patterns. : " or " Opus scutulatum," of tesserae of marble, (6.) " Opus sectile porphyry, or glass cut into shapes to form the pattern of which the " Opus Alexandrinum " was a very rich variety. (c.) " Opus Spicatum," made of paving bricks in herring-bone fashion. The glass mosaics sometimes forming elaborate figure pictures, were mostly used to decorate the walls and vaults only, and not the floors. Gilded bronze was employed as a roofing material to important buildings, as employed at the Pantheon (page 134). The abundant use of statues, many of them brought from Greece, led to the adoption of niches for their reception within the thickness of the walls. These were either semicircular, crowned with a semi-dome, or rectangular, and they occasionally had columns supporting a pediment, thus forming a frame. 3. EXAMPLES. Etruscan Architecture. — In dealing with Roman Architec- ture mention must be made of the Etruscans or early inhabitants of central Italy, who were great builders, and whose methods of construction had a marked effect on that of the Romans. The style dates from about b. c. 750, and from their buildings it is known that they were aware of the value of the true or radiating arch for constructive purposes, and used it extensively in their buildings. The architectural remains consist chiefly of tombs, city walls, gateways (as at Perugia), bridges and aqueducts, and their character is similar to the early Pelasgic work at Tiryns and Mycenae (page The 54). walls are remarkable for their great solidity of construction, and for the cyclopean masonry, where huge masses of stone are piled up without the use of cement, or mortar of any kind. The " Cloaca Maxima " (c. b.c. 578) (No. 47), or great drain of Rome, COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 120 constructed to drain the valleys of Rome, has a semicircular arch of II feet span, in three rings of voussoirs, each 2 feet 6 inches high. There are no remains of Etruscan temples, but Vitruvius gives a description of them. The Temple of Jupiter CapitoUnus was the most important Etruscan example (dedicated B.C. 509), and is Its cella was divided into three generally taken as being typical. chambers containing statues of Jupiter, Minerva (Livy VII., iii) and Juno, and was nearly square on plan, with widely spaced columns and wooden architraves. It was burnt hi B.C. 83 and rebuilt by Sulla, who brought some of the marble Corinthian columns from the Temple of Zeus Olympius at Athens (page 90). Roman A^l-chitecture followed the Etruscan, and as indicated on page 114, was a composite style derived by the union of the Greek and Etruscan styles. The principal examples of Roman architecture were chiefly erected during 400 years, viz., betweenThe principal remains are found not only B.C. 100 and A.D. 300. in Italy, but throughout Europe to wherever the Roman occupation extended, as at Nimes and Aries in France, Tarragona and Segovia in Spain, Treves in Germany, Constantine in North Africa, Timgad in Algeria, and other places in North Africa, Baalbec and Palmyra in Syria, and many places in England (page 280). FORA. The Forum corresponded with the Agora in a Greek city, and as a meeting place and market, or a rendezvous for political demonstrators, corresponding to the Place of a French country town, the market place of English country towns, and to the Royal Exchange or probably Trafalgar Square The forurh was usually surrounded by porticos, in the Metropolis. colonnades and public buildings, such as temples, basilicas (halls of justice), senate house, and shops, and was adorned with pillars of was an open space used victory and memorial statues of great men. Rome possessed several Fora, and a plan of these is given " was the oldest, and grouped (No. 47). The " Forum around it were some of the most important historical buildings. A Romanum given (No. 48), which will indicate restoration is appearance in the its probable heyday of ancient Rome. The Forum Romanum was in early times also used as a for contests, which in after years during the Empire took place in the amphitheatres. This and the of Trajan, which was the largest of all, were the most important. The others include those of Julius Cassar, Augustus Vespasian hippodrome and Forum and Nerva. The models in the Walker Art Gallery, Liverpool, and the Crystal Palace, give a good idea of the appearance of this important centre of architectural history. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. 121 Pompeii also possessed an important Forum. streets at Palmyra and Damascus, Antioch, Bosra and elsewhere in Syria, and Asia Minor may also be best mentioned here. The remarkable colonnaded 1 TRAJ/1N5 COLUMN 2 8AStUai ULPI/l 5 TEMPLE OF VEHUS CENETRIX 4-T.Of HAR5 ULTOR (SCOlS.S-PLASTKJtAHWNC 5 TEHPLf Of MINERW 6 TEMPLE OF PEACE 7 STTE OF THE BA5ILICA itHELIfl 8 TEMPLE OF ANTONINUS 9TEMPUOFROH0L05 i, FAUSTINA 64S1UCA OF C0N5TANTINE TEMPLE OF VEHUS i, ROME 12 THE C0L055EUH I3ARCM OF COHSTAtfTINE W-AKCH OF TTTUS 10 11 15 HOUSE or TtiB^VESTAL 16 TEMPLE OF VESTA ARCH OF AUGUSTUS 17 VHtCINS I8TEMPI£OFDMJ3JUU03 19 TEMPLE OFCteTOR a POLLUX (JCOLaLeFT) W BASILICA JUUA 21 COLUMN OF PH0CA5 22 ARCH OF 5EPTIM1U3 SEVEfiUS 25 ROSTRA 2*T.0FSATam {8C0LUHH5 STANWNG) OF VESPA5WH ^COLUMNS STANBHC) 25T. 26TEMPLE Of CONCORD. 47- TEMPLES. Note. — The orders are described under the Comparative table {page 167). The Roman temples were the result of the amalgamation of the Etruscan and Greek types, for they resembled in many respects Greek examples, but their prostyle arrangement and the use of the podium was derived from Etruscan temples. The plans shown on No. 18 give some of the types used, and others are referred to later on (Nos. 49, 50, 52, 53 and 57). The characteristic temple is known as pseudo-peripteral (page 58), and had no side colonnades as was usual in Greek examples, the order of columns being attached to the flank walls and arranged as a prostyle portico towards the front only. Steps were provided at the principal end, between projecting wing walls, which often supported groups of statuary, and were continued along the flanks and back of the temple as a podium or continuous pedestal (Nos. 18 G, 49, 50) (page 167). Whereas Greek peripteral temples were normally twice as long as their width, the Roman examples were very much shorter. The size of the cella was frequently ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. 123 increased, being usually the whole width of the temple, which was used as a museum for Greek statuary and as a treasure store. As the architraves were supported by the enclosing walls on the flanks, temples could also be built on a larger scale than Nothing definite is known as to the ceilings, in the Greek style. but these may have been of coffering in stone as in the colonnades, of open timber-work as in the basilicas, or vaulted as in the Temple of Venus and Rome at Rome (No. 50), the Temple of Diana at Nimes (No. 50), and the Temples at Spalato. The abolition of the encircling colonnade and the continuous stylobate of steps resulted in a certain loss of unity in comparison with Greek examples, which in most cases were isolated and visible from all sides whereas the Roman temples were specially intended to be seen from the forum or open space upon which they usually faced, the front being therefore made important by the deep portico and flight of steps. No consideration was given to orientation as in Greek examples. Circular and polygonal temples were also used by the Romans, ; being probably derived from Etruscan examples. Rectangular Examples. At Rome. The Temple of (No. 49, Fortttna Virilis Date. ICO B.C. A, B, c). Remarks. A typical Roman temple plan. Ionic. Pseudo-peripteral tetrastyle. Now the church of Maria Egiziaca. Corinthian. Three-columns and S. Temfle of Mars UUor (the Avenger) (Nos. 52 and 67 g). The Temple of Concord (No. 47^*). The 42-2 B.C. B.C. a pilaster remaining (page 125). 27-A.D. Corinthian. Pseudo-peripteral prostyle-hexastyle. Unusual 14 plan, having cella twice as wide as long. The Temple of Also known Castor as and Pollux. Jupiter and 68). A.D. 6 Peripteral ocfastyle with front portico. columns remaining. Stator (Nos. 471", 67 a The Temple of Vespasian [^o. 47^). Corinthian. a.d. 94 Corinthian. Three Prostyle-hexastyle. Three columns remaining. A.D. 141 Corinthian. Pseudo-peripteral Temple of Antoninus and prostyle-hexastyle. Faustina (Nos. $2 I, J, K, L, and Now the church of S. Lorenzo. 68 E). double Peculiar The Temple of Venus and Rome a.d. 123-135 Corinthian temple (page 125). (Nos. 47", and 50 A, B, c, d). a.d. 284 Ionic. Pseudo-peripteral proThe Temple of Saturn (Nos. /^-j"^, style-hexastyle. Eight columns and 49 L, M, n). The At Athens. The Temple (Nos. 18 J, At Nimes. The Maison 50 H, J, of Jupiter Clympius c. 174 remaining. (See page 90.) 43 a). Carree (Nos. 18 G, a.d. 117-138 (See page 125.) K, 51). The Temple of Diana (No. 50 F, G). B E, (See page 125.) ROMAN EXAMPLES. ' II. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. Rectangular Examples At Spalato. The Temple of Date. jEscidapius (No. a.d. 300 125 (continued). Remarks. (See page 161.) 59)- At Baalbec. The Great Temple (No. 53). The Temple of Jupiter (No. 53). At Palmyra. The Great Temple of the Sun. a.d, 131-161 (See below.) a.d. 273 (See page 130.) A.D. 273 Peripteral octa.style, probably Corinthian, having attached bronze leaves. The Temple of Mars Ultor, Rome (b.c. 42-2) (No. 52), stood in the Forum of Augustus, in a precinct surrounded by an enclosing wall 100 feet high. It was one of the largest Roman temples, having columns 58 feet in height, but there are only three columns and a pilaster remaining, the capital of the latter being shown in No. 67 g. A short description is given on No. 52. The Temple of Venus and Rome (a.d. 123-135) (No. 50), had a peculiar plan consisting of two cellas, each provided with an apse placed back to back, and a pronaos at each end. It was pseudo-dipteral decastyle (No. 47"), the peristyle having twenty columns on the flanks, and the cella walls were of extra thickness to take the thrust of the vault. Internally there were niches for statues, and the cella was crowned with a hemispherical coffered vault, the apses having semi-domes. The plan on No. 47" gives the usually accepted restoration of this building, and that by Palladio is given on No. 50 a, b, c, d. This temple was raised on a platform and stood in a large enclosure, entered through imposing gateways, surrounded by a colonnade ot nearly 200 columns of red and grey Egyptian granite and red porphyry, occupying in all an area of about 540 by 340 feet. The Maison Carree, Ntmes (a.d. 117-138) (Nos. 18 g, 50 h, J, K, and 51), was erected during the reign of Hadrian, and is It is of the the best preserved Roman temple in existence. typical form, being pseudo-peripteral prostyle hexastyle, with (2orinthian columns supporting a rich entablature, and raised on a podium about 12 feet high provided with a front flight of steps only. The so-called Temple of Diana, NJmes (No. 50 e, f, g), was probably a nymphaeum connected with some thermae. The interior walls have detached Corinthian columns, supporting a cornice from which springs a stone-ribbed barrel vault, the thrust of which is counteracted by smaller continuous vaults over the side passages, probably a prototype of the vaulting of many southern French Romanesque churches. The Great Temple, Baalbec (a.d. 131-161) (No. 53), was It stood in dipteral decastyle, but only six columns now remain. a court 380 feet square with recessed porticos, in front of which was a hexagonal cortile entered by a dodecastyle Corinthian portico ROMAN EXAMPLES. III. .THSTEMPeaiDlI«A lARttmcKKltSHMIS] !Bk»Co»IIN«1E?ABW EWWHS«ANnE*llQ WHVRr.THEKWtsiJIl' ONAVW Scale or THGLISHFrfT pitN VTENafTEt iTEMPlEerDrMAArHIMES LlCHTloTllLlNltRloR PBoBABlT INTWOCED ACABOE 5EMICl«ai»R WINDOW PECULWR H HAWNG SlONt DIBBf BABRtl VAULT mot 15 CllNTMACTED EST SH4LLER WLI5 OVER AISB INTBE THRUST T ' (H)PLAN 50- PtWrodM (J) FRONT EUSWnON (K) PAKT ^IBE ElEVlTrON. Ml' FRPNT ROMAN EXAMPLES. IV. (DP^K^^sier ©R^E^ (}4)ELE\fA'nON Cf E^ADE ofTCMPLE SHMHg ENCEQINg VflS Temple ofkAiD 1 RDME.BC42 MUUcriMMUCtHtlGHI WERCBnUBTUianB KM m^Za AWiV fflC numz^i DUTHorcmi THE HUnTlOMt MU3 (ILlOt «Avmtu r iftt OHC a iKt URcrarcr IK KvuH unra lOOUJHHSniiySimiDIIIDUlHlBClKGJS mr HKH.THC PtBlftOtUS tfHUaWCKDH HHtlCHi MMEDlHrWClHCTKlWllMPLt IHrulffiHTHTa miiim mtic» w Him CtClMlHC A UffiC aPAEC m (/msm v sou II D[OWCD nilH IH fKW sAT THE kpceiho acxic HOCfi H SfHUta 52- ^m 0RllilHW.LT ! J - J (AFTER TSrtDRBj CREST) IW KHU in IB MRDUNiyHO tKA DUaCD vniH ^ Jl S \ 3 DETAIL Of MAINWICE ClOSINGWi ToTCMPLt DETAIL?«B[l ©RNICEiOtN- (P)plan' I Id' % Ji ROMAN EXAMPLES. V. WLBiriMLKSYiJ Halt Secticm on x.k. d) Half Ehtrhjce Fa^abe 1 ^'fen«Y.Y.THI©«SH eKATT[Bm»MTOfMflH@!Kr THElMPLEof JnPlMssiroffEU fHCUPSINGmLoFGiaNTK: BiaCXfioFSDNEOERMFT THE GiarTEMK m wmit ElIKrMailMJS n « THAK THE GREAT TEMPLE wLEHcmjtHrffiHiKiffl; 0HAB«WfHr23FIA6*E, ' A.D I3I-EI. lit HEXJOmSL IW-M«I B EmiKD K M[t AM HH OH EACH Pins 11 IS ma OTIKKHEB Sim OCTA^TYIE SIDE. THE HA?A9FFERED auLriFUOlQ^^llMH? EffiTERN FUGKT OF giEIB. IT15 , AND HA3 15 ©lyMNS ON EACH IHIERIOR miWe ARAB FORTRESS Km WBL Laos H THE WIiiilMt aDEStf WHICH l«Km,gOUTHAKDEMr ABE tXEDBJE.THE ciEKT IBM BKB EA^TAHOSMmSMABAMEtraiFtIBOVE THEPaiN.6(giUMSiriirn' ami AHE HE OHCf (EMAItO.TlIRE ARE AMirr 65 FIK HEIOHUllranQ). THESE MSSIVE C0L0HNSAIIE7W IN BIAMETES ANt fflBIST If 3 PIE(t5, HElB16CETHERwrmi«0N. IHE AKHITM.VE IS THE ENTA8U1UIIE « 3 li ' SECTIONS. BSm HEIGHT. (^TiHHSofJOTnEf[,5M« ImsietJmm.MM. F.A. COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 130 The buildings were constructed with large blocks of stone without cement, and the columns were built up in three A further short description is given on No. 53. pieces. in antis. The Temple of Jupiter, Baalbec (a.d. 273), is peripteral octastyle with a vaulted sanctuary at the west end, approached by a flight of steps. The interior was ornamented with half-Corinthian columns having returned entablature, from which sprung the Between the columns were two tiers of niches. coffered vault. Dawkins and Wood restore this temple as if vaulted, but other authorities do not think this possible. Circular and Polygonal Examples. At Rome. The Temple of Mater Matuta, {oxmerly known as the Temple of B.C. 27- A.D. 14. (See below.) A.D. 120-124. (See below.) A.D. 205. (See below.) Vesta. The Pantheon (Nos. 33, 54, 55, 56, 57, 67 H). The Temple of Vesta (No, 47). At Tivoli (near Rome). The Templeof Vesta (N03. 18 c, 57). At Spalato. The Temple of Jupiter (in Diocle- E c. 27-A.D. 14. (See page 134.) a.d. 284. (Seepages 136, 161.) A.D. 273. (See page 136.) tian's Palace) (No. 59). At Baalbec. The Circular Temple (No. 60 D, E, f). The Temple of Mater Matuta, Rome, formerly known as Temple of.- Vesta, is situated in the Forum Boarium, and is the circular peripteral, having twenty Corinthian columns, 34 feet and 3 feet 2 inches in diameter, and therefore nearly eleven diameters high. These surround a cella 28 feet in 7 inches in height diameter, and rest on a podium 6 feet high. It is built of Parian marble, with the exception of the podium, which is of tufa, and is approached by a flight of marble steps. The roof was probably of wood covered with bronze tiles. The V-shaped section of the leaves indicates the work of a Greek artist. It is now the Church of S. M. del Sole. The Temple of Vesta, Rome, (in the Forum Romanum) (No. 47), was founded in b.c. 715, but was frequently destroyed by fire and repeatedly rebuilt, finally by Septimius Severius in a d. 205. According to Middleton it was circular peripteral with eighteen columns surrounding a cella, and resting on a podium 10 feet high. Among the remains lately found are some fragments of the columns having fillets for fitting metal screens between the shafts. The Pantheon, Rome (Nos. 33, 37 a, b, c, 54, 55, 56, 57 e) is now, owing to the investigations of M. Chedanne in 1892, known to belong to two distinct periods. The circular portion, known as the Rotunda, occupies the site ROMAN EXAMPLES. VI. RpHE m poiiTico^^^g^^^^BEinc the: PflHTHEOn ^T ijUiii oUtjinq TUjon P|C THE REiqn orHflPRWfi tdipie: the PROBflWYflo iZ3 RE-ERCCTEP fl5 THE .^F!,:...... '...„,. ir 51TE orfl thuee (Hrp on ^^ that OrTHEOi TDI- POIJTIfO PIECE Or THE nEV/i)Ui0nc COVERED WITH LEAD. OKrPtY(pvtl?- cgEEE25Wa)«E JoUBLf PURPOSE EPV?fTI^BI?0(1~ ?AWMlNa "WZZVtp.C TliXfrlTIJE- Itl5 ITS OPE/Iriq 0(2- WEIGHT tt.MincAT™ PWfTTjfl ' MEMBfRScf EACHCoFfKi. — BOTZE- OoUlEi/tQ ii& 5hev/n at cd. okThisorawng OBWiaffffa SFolBHottHlrtS A^5ECKFtioK "rflE ratal V/AUS or RoFuNDAWlCrt) te soppofcrrnEDoHfi WiFiCfNTD' K5To«Aft)DIDM miNQSflWBLES wBASEMEHTof TWVERTIHE & ARE ABOUT 20 FT TrilCK.B0HGO6T *» PoRpam IN WTHTOfSlAB) sRoUHBas OF fil!ANlTE,l«Kl£, m TERNALLY PWHm 6^ BELOW rHtPAvrnrriT wifH MARBLE, ABOYE Wri STUCCO. UNDHDoMEis aiisKrcfcwQ)* THE NARBIE UHING (pNSI5fDofI«SiKE FAIlnSHCEhTttTO im. 56UD SHCKTE BRICK FACED & ORIGINAILY cevERED EX- . 5LAB5ofPENTFLK: MARBLE 5^" THICK IN BWIENTBfNM "KEoflfHlCH WERE EHG m3fi2"WII)E, MH5IBCo|1KUHlCA11N&^ WiTriCIQCAS. WAS FOUND BY M.CHEDANNE TO BE RJILT THE DOME OF BRiaWORK LAID IK HORIZONTAL COURSES BOTH-NEAR THE CENTRAL OPENING AND UP TO THE FOURTH RANGE OF COFFERS.THt INTERMEDIATE PORTION WAS NOT EXAMIN ED, BUT IT 15 HELD THAT A SERIES OF ARCHES MAY ExsTirlQ BPorlZE^ noUiBiciQ uoUdo tlIe "ErE"Fi?orir|DO!iTo/i. HAVE BEEN CARRIED IN THIS 'PORTION. THIS METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION MAY HAVE BEEN ADOPTED TOAVOID THE THRUST OF (oiukHstoMco are OHnoreD woliths or GREY f) RED EGYPTIAN THE POME. GMlTE ' 5(?l! »r I'li^'iir r r I I*' |3g |-< riFH 15RIKTHIAN CAPITAL? WHITE PfNTac .54- K 2 132 COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. of an older uncovered piazza, used as a " nymphseum," or place for plants, flowers, and running water, the level of its floor being 8 feet below the present level. In front of this "nymphaeum," and facing towards the south, was a decastyle portico, forming a frontispiece to a three-cell temple of the Etruscan type, built by Agrippa during the reign of Augustus, B.C. 27-A.D. 14. The present Rotunda was erected by the Emperor Hadrian, in A.D. 120-124, on the site of the more ancient " nymphaeum," the portico to the Etruscan temple being taken down and re-erected at the higher level. As rebuilt this portico was made octastyle instead of decastyle, and was made to face the north instead of the south. The Rotunda (now the Church of S. Maria Rotonda) is a circular structure having an internal diameter of 142 feet 6 inches, which is also its internal height. The walls, of concrete (opus incertum), with a layer of tiles every three feet in height, are 20 feet in thickness, and have eight great recesses, one of which forms the entrance three of the remaining seven are semicircular Two columns exedrse, the other four being rectangular on plan. are placed on the front line of these recesses, above which are relieving arches. The eight piers have niches entered from the exterior of the building, formed in three heights, of which the lower are semicircular on plan, and are 19 feet high to the springing of their hemispherical heads, the second tier have their floor on the same level as the cornice over the inner order, and the third tier are level with and entered from the second cornice of the exterior. In front of the Rotunda is the Corinthian octastyle portico, 1 10 feet wide by 60 feet deep in the centre, the first, third, sixth and eighth columns having two others behind them. At the back of the portico are niches, and staircases by which to ascend to the various parts of the edifice. The columns, 42 feet 6 inches high, in front of the recesses in the interior, are believed to be part of the original design of Hadrian's architect. The lower third of these columns is cabled, and the upper portion is fluted (No. 55). The marble facing to the walls between, and the columns, entablature, and pediments of the projecting altars are later additions. The attic or upper story was originally ornamented with porphyry or marble pilasters, with capitals, six of which are in the British Museum, of white marble and panelling of giallo antico, ; and pavonazetto, but in 1747 this marble panelling was removed and the present stucco decoration inserted. serpentine, The dome or cupola coffered in five ranges. is a hemisphere, having The manner its inner surface which the sinkings or mouldings are regulated or foreshortened so as to be seen from below is worthy of notice. in H S O £ o u X h < CM w H COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 134 The dome, although described by Middleton to be of concrete, was found by Chedanne to be built of brickwork laid in almost horizontal courses up to the fourth range of coffers, and also near the central opening at the summit. The intermediate portion was not examined, but it is held that a series of arches may have been ifornied in this portion, so as to relieve from pressure the recessed openings below. The effected solely by one circular unglazed opening, formed in the crown of the dome, and still retaining its circular bronze cornice (No. 54 c, d). Tliis method of lighting produces an effect which is solemn 27 lighting is feet in diameter, and there may have been a symbolic meaning appearance of the vault of the heavens in the temple of all the gods, the idea being that the worship of " One Jupiter should take place in a building open to the sky. great eye opening upon heaven is by far the noblest conception for lighting a building to be found in Europe." The circular portion was originally faced with marble up to the lower stringcornice, the upper portion being faced with stucco decorated with pilasters, as shown in the drawings made by Palladio in the i6th century. At the present time the walls are faced in brick with " opus reticulatum," divided by the two cornices. The dome, which has its lower portion formed in steps, was originally covered with bronze gilded plates, but these were removed to Constantinople by Constans II. in 655, and replaced and impressive ; in thus imitating the with sheets of lead. The Qctastyle portico has monolith Corinthian columns, 46 feet 6 inches high, 5 feet in diameter at the base, and 4 feet 3 inches at the top. These support an entablature 1 1 feet high, and a pediment having an inclination of about 23 degrees. Each of the three divisions of the portico ceiling appears to have been segmental and formed of bronze plates, since removed. The old Roman bronze door frame, doors and fanlight, originally plated in gold, still remain (No. 37 a). The Temple of Vesta, Tivoli (b.c. 27-A.D. 14) (Nos. 18 c, 57 H, J, k), is another circular peripteral example, having a cella 24 feet in diameter, surrounded by a peristyle of eighteen Corinthian columns, 23 feet 6 inches high, resting on a podium. The cella, 23 feet 1 1 inches in diameter internally, had two windows, and a doorway approached by a flight of steps. The columns are nearly gf diameters high, and the capitals, of which the foliage is derived from the acanthus mollis, are one diameter in height. The reason for the difference in design between the Temple of Mater Matuta, Rome, and this example are instructive. The Roman building, placed in a low flat situation, has columns of slender proportions in order to give it the required height whereas the Tivoli example, placed on the edge of a rocky prominence, and ; 136 COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. thus provided with a lofty basement, has columns of a sturdier proportion. The Temple of Jupiter, Spalato (in Diocletian's Palace) fA.D. 284) (No. 59), is a further development of the Pantheon. Externally it is octagonal, surrounded by a low peristyle of Corinthian columns, but the interior of the cella is circular, 43 feet 8 inches in diameter, with four circular recesses and three square, the entrance corresponding to a fourth. Between these are placed eight Corinthian columns with Composite ones superimposed, advanced slightly in front of the face of the wall. The whole is raised on a podium, and crowned with a remarkable domical vault constructed in tiers of brick arches, externally presenting a pyramidal form. The Circular Temple, Baalbec (a.d. 273) (No. 60 d, e, f), has a circular cella raised on a podium and approached by a flight of steps. It is surrounded by eight Corinthian columns, six of which are well advanced from the cella wall, and occupy the positions resultiiig from the division of a circle into seven equal parts. The entrance is placed centrally on the seventh division of the circle, and has a column on either side. The cella wall has Corinthian pilasters, between which are semicircular niches for statuary. The line of the entablature is curved inwards towards the cella between the six columns above mentioned. Internally it has superimposed Ionic and Corinthian orders. The Christian baptisteries erected in the following centuries were adapted from such circular temples as these just described, which are therefore extremely interesting with respect to architectural evolution. BASILICAS. These, erected as halls of justice and as exchanges for merchants, comprise some of the finest buildings erected by the Romans, and bear witness to the importance of law and justice in their These buildings are also interesting as a link between eyes. Classic" and Christian architecture, as explained later on page 181. The usual plan was a rectangle, whose length was two or three times the width. Two or four rows of columns ran through the entire length, resulting in three or five aisles, and galleries were usually placed over these. The entrance was at the side or at one end, and the tribunal at the other on a raised dais, generally placed in a semicircular apse, which was sometimes partly cut off from the main body of the building by columns. Ranged round the apse were seats for the assessQjcs, that in the centre, which was elevated above the rest, being occupied by the Praetor or Questor. In front of the apse was the altar, where sacrifice was performed before commencing any important business. The building was generally covered with a wooden roof, aii4 1 ROMAN EXAMPLES. VII. KEYSTONE I"! KKPLAH SEramios E0ME.2O+S. THBflOBCiKillitKTEDOfWltllL MAIlJUo-llASJOFEHIIttSCOllNI* IWTIK wm EACH OWES W WTtW. mm. wmtFiEiiONTiitsm CA5C WHICH LEADS TO MW Mist wEitramaiYfucciiiffiSBioB 0fDIEB1FK(ll3miHKJ5 5EVa(JS wiiniiiosEOfiiBivnMitiCAiAat lAfrUTMNACHAMr ltOI5E5 Wira umtm DIAWN.IIT4 A HOBE » FOOT-MLB SIDE Ttl SIATIS or THE colohb Of mi5 TEHfliAliEtAOIOrASKlEHOCK Of CIAimE46'5 ^ 1' —1 IN HHOiTsS'lllAll. OF ARCH ROMAN EXAMPLES. ^x^nPLc^ OF COLUMNS VIIL mma mmms ts the face of piess semer m. mm vaults .eciHe an ism exjimhe of col-, L£CTK THE WEISHT ON ISOLXTES POINTS OFSeiWItT. ABBIlICAVt?SA AC6UMHEBSTOCTUREtiamiHRiTi 0nERO?EM«-n!E SIBDIHEPLAHIS e«5lEi(ED1offiK- TEHPlE«r«Col«r« IMSTlABofTiiECElLA WMlbmimi:.. sk£eKter?ie?,i ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. 139 the exterior seems to have been of small pretensions, in comparison with the interior. Trajan's (the Ulpian) Basilica, Rome (a.d. 98) (Nos. 47% 58 B, e), of which Apollodorus of Damascus was the architect, was a fine example of the wooden roofed type. Entered from Trajan's Forum, it had a central nave 87 feet wide with double aisles, each 23 feet 9 inches wide, and an internal length excluding the apses of 385 feet. The total internal height was about 120 feet. The columns on the ground story separating the nave and aisles were of red granite from Syene, with white marble Corinthian capitals. At each end were semicircular apses, reached by flights of steps, having sacrificial altars in front of Galleries were formed over the side aisles, reached by them. steps as shown on the plan. Adjoining the Basilica were the Greek and Latin libraries, and Trajan's famous Column (page 156) stood in an open court between them. The Basilica of Maxentius or Constantine, Rome 312) (Nos. 46 I, 47'°, 58 A, c, d), formerly erroneously known as the Temple of Peace, consists of a central" nave 265 feet long by 83 feet wide between the piers, crowned at a height of 120 feet by an immense groined vault in three compartments. To the north and south are aisles roofed with three great semicircular vaults, each 76 feet in span, springing from walls placed These walls had communicating at right angles to the nave. openings formed in them, and aided by the weight of the aisle vaults, supported that of the nave. Monolithic columns were attached to the face of these piers, and supported pieces of entablature from which sprung the groined vaults. There were two apses, one to the north and one to the west of the central nave. Light was introduced in the upper part of the nave over the aisle vaults by means of lunettes, or semicircular windows in the wall formed by the intersecting vaulting. The building is similar as regards plan and design to the Tepidarium of the Thermae (No. 59), and is in many respects a prototype of a Gothic structure, in which the thrust and weight of an intersecting vault are collected and brought down on piers built to receive them. The vaults to the northern aisle still remain, exhibiting the deep coffering executed in brick work, and a portion of the main vault of concrete formed of pozzolana is still in position, although the column which was placed to carry it has been removed, thus showing the extraordinary tenacity of Roman concrete. Other basilicas at Rome were the Basilica Porcia (b.c. 184), believed to be the oldest, the Basilica Julia (No. 47), and the and the basilicas at Pompeii, Farno, Basilica Amelia (No. 47) and Treves, and at Silqbester in England, may be mentioned. (a.d. ; ROMAN EXAMPLES. IX. (JHtRAL ^LOCKOF^ATMS f 0\RACALL>\ ROJ^E OfQmcm^ (f\0.?t2-25^'^^^^\ CON?TR?JCTEB OH A \^ N^ NATURAL GROUflD LEVEL ^ PLATFORn SO FEET ABOVL TMt/V^ Kl^lQ FORr\ED /S Tf\E V'AULTEJO CM'XnpEP-S 1HEJ3ATM'3 , ^^^, .n^niNMft'^'^'^^NE'VH 730 FEET- ^ ^ FOR HBailNG TZ-IEv/ATER ^HOTROOm 'VPO/E^ STORAGE ROO^VS FOR FCIELOL StTAEPATH? /VajDmOD/\TED 1600 PATHERS WALLS OFCOHCRETE OF LII-\E S po^^oiaNawItmthiH taciNc of triaNguiar prices k boi^diNg courses of iarce TILES eFEET6'?EVtRY4FnNKQGn^^ 1=1 >-y rTI A FURlJ'\CB RiilUiDiiUilL S98^FEETQE^iER^I.PL^^I rR^TOFlED) P^I^CEc< P|Oc[£TnN^"6P<\JAT0 59- — ; ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. I4I THERMS. The Thermae of Roman or great public baths are quite as characteristic as the amphitheatres, being probably civilization derived from the Greek gymnasia. The principal existing remains are found at Rome and Pompeii in a ruined state, but much can be learned from the published drawings of the Italian architect, Palladio, made in the sixteenth century, when they were better preserved, and from the restorations of French students sent to Rome as prize winners of the iicole des Beaux-Arts. The Thermee supplied the place of the modern daily papers for the dissemination of news and gossip, and also answered in a measure the purposes of a modern club as a rendezvous of social A small charge of a quadrans (-J- farthing) was sometimes life. made, but in later days they were opened free as a bribe to the populace by Emperors in search of popularity. In general arrangement they usually consisted of three maia| parts (a.) A great central block. This was planned for the baths proper, the processes of bathing resembling the modern Turkish bath. The Tepidarium (warm room for bathers to rest in), Calidarium (hot room, usually containing a warm water bath), Laconium or Sudatorium (the hottest room, usually a circular domed apartment), and a Frigidarium (cool room, usually containing a cold swimming bath " piscina ") were the most important apartments added to which there were the Apodyteria (rooms for undressing), Unctuarium (rooms for oils, pomades or ointments, where the "aliptae " anointed the bathers and performed the rubbing down, shampooing with the " strigillus " or scraper, oiling and sanding the body). The Sphaeristerium (place for the games of ball), libraries, and small theatre occasionally formed part of the central structure. This surrounded the central block and (b.) A large open space. was frequently laid out as a stadium, with raised seats for spectators. It was also used for various athletic exercises (such as wrestling, races, boxing), or for lounging, and portions were planted with trees and ornamented with statues. These consisted of lecture (c.) An outer ring of apartments. rooms for the hearing of discourses, open colonnades, exedrae or recesses for the philosophers, poets and statesmen, and other necessary apartments. A large reservoir frequently occupied one side, being supplied by a special aqueduct from a distance. This reservoir supplied the Frigidarium, Tepidarium and Calidarium in succession. The external apartments were frequently let off as shops or utilized for the accommodation of the numerous slaves who formed part of the establishment. The whole block was frequently raised on a high platform. ; — ' COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 142 underneath which were the furnaces and other rooms for the service of the baths. Rome (a.d. 212-235) (Nos. 46 f, K and 59 a), accommodating 1,600 bathers, are the most important of all the remains, and give a splendid idea of their The Thermae of Caracalla, G, H, size and magnificence. entire site including gardens was raised on an artificial platform 20 feet high, measuring 1,150 feet (over one-fifth of a mile) each way, not including the segmental projection on three of the sides. Under this platform were communicating corridors leading to various parts of the establishment, vaulted chambers used as stores, the hypocaust, and furnaces for heating the water and hot The air ducts. Along the road front was a colonnade having behind it a row chambers in two stories, the lower at the street level, probably used as shops, and the upper on the platform level, for of small private " slipper " baths. The entrance to the establishment was in the centre of the north-eastern facade, and led to the large open enclosure laid out for wrestling and other games, around which, in the segmental projections and elsewhere, were grouped in the various halls for dramatic representations and lectures. The central building, used entirely for bathing, measured 750 feet by 380 feet, and therefore covered an area of 285,000 square feet, i.e., about equal to Westminster Palace (including Westminster Hall), but greater than Only either the British Museum or the London Law Courts. four doorways were formed on the north-east side, which was exposed to cold winds, but large columned openings, giving access to the gardens, were a feature of the south-western front. Although now in ruins, restorations have been made which show the relative positions of the Tepidarium, Calidarium (with sudatio), Frigidarium (with piscina), Sphaeristeria (for gymnastics), Apodyteria (dressing rooms), and other apartments. The planning of this and similar buildings is very instructive to architectural students and. worthy of careful study, being laid out on axial lines, which, while providing for the practical requirements of the bathers, produced vistas through the various halls and saloons. Moreover, by the system of exedrse and screens of columns, loss of scale was prevented, and the vastness of the building was emphasized. Internally the Tepidarium, forming the principal hall, around which the subsidiary apartments were grouped, constituted the controlling feature of the plan to which the other apartments were subordinated. It was 170 feet by 82 feet, roofed with an immense semicircular intersecting concrete vault, 108 feet above the floor, formed in three compartments, and supported on eight portions of entablature resting on granite columns, 38 feet high and 5 feet 4 inches in diameter, placed in front of the massive piers. This ROMAN EXAMPLES. X. ^HWTER IcHmofi iJMMCE pO'ESr'/IGIimsCNINtTIW Cf rfUGUSrUS B.C.I9. coNsniucTED or 5mu sidnk 6 NO CEMENT USED EXCEPT FOK WrniR CHANNEL ffl" THE TOP. HEIGHT ABOVE OTEflM JPl!' (A) /tm Bon BECw sr wmixNie Aa302 , 60. SCdLE? n BATHS 'L , (/ntR WLWDio) , - (B) SECTION ELEVOTIOH HI HONOUR »OfH15llB5EKrBffiJiHEI!laOCl£TlflN TnEasn6««)moiwiED3za)MmiR5 JOO """FtET '-'iamfmaiMM! GIUe001OUIiED.SIII!0M) Cllllil!nilW miai VCur- FERKUElSCOIlOICVICNEIl COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 144 great apartment was lighted by clerestory windows, high in the walls, admitting light over the roofs of adjoining halls by means of the intersecting vault, which was constructed on a similar system to that described for the Basilica of Maxentius (page 139). S. George's Hall, Liverpool, is of similar dimensions to the Tepidarium of Caracalla's Thermas, but with five bays instead of three. The Calidarium was roofed with a dome similar to that of the Pantheon. The Frigidarium was probably open to the sky, although as many tons of T iron were found below the surface of the bath, some suppose it to have been covered with a roof of iron joists (probably cased with bronze) and concrete. Viollet-le due has a drawing in his lectures of the Frigidarium restored, giving an excellent idea of its probable original appearance. The general adornment and color treatment of the interior must have been of great richness, and in marked contrast to the exterior, indicating a further secession from Greek principles. Sumptuous internal magnificence was aimed at in all the great Thermse, the pavings were patterned with mosaic cubes of bright colors, either planned in geometrical patterns or with figures of athletes the lower parts of the walls were sheathed with many colored marbles, and the upper parts with enriched and modelled stucco bright with color the great columns on which rested the vault springers were either of granite, porphyry, giallo antico, alabaster or other rare marbles from the ^gean islands. Various colored marble columns were used constructively to support the upper balconies and the peristyle roofs, and decoratively to form with their entablatures and pediments frames for the superimposed ; ; niches in the walls. The surface of the great vaults was also richly ornamented by means of coffering, or covered with bold figures, decorations in black and white, or colored glass mosaic. In these magnificent halls thus sumptuously decorated some of the finest sculpture of antiquity was displayed. This was brought largely from Greece or executed in Rome by Greek artists, and at the excavation of the Thermae during the Renaissance period much of it found its way into the Vatican and other museums in Rome, and in the principal European cities. Finally, additional interest was given to the interiors by- the perpetual streams of running water, issuing from the mouths of sculptured lions in marble or brightly polished silver, falling into capacious marble basins and producing a delicious cooling effect in the hot sultry weather. The exteriors appear to have been treated very plainly in stucco, more wisely left as impressive masses of plain brickwork, perhaps banded or dressed with bricks of a diiferent color. The unbounded license of the pubUc baths, and their connection or ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. I45 with amusements generally, caused them to be proscribed by the Early Christians, who held that bathing might be used for cleanliness, but not for pleasure. In the fifth century the large Roman Thermee fell into disuse and decay, caused by the destruction of the aqueducts by the fiuns and the gradual decrease of the Roman population. The Thermae of Agrippa, Rome (b.c. 27) (No. 46 l), were the earliest example. They have completely disappeared, but an idea can be obtained from the measured drawings of Palladio, published in Cameron's " Baths of the Romans," 1772. The Thermae of Titus, Rome (a.d. 80) (No. 6g b), were built on the foundations of Nero's Golden House. The Thermae of Diocletian, Rome (a.d. 302) (No. 46 j), had a plan, shown in a restored condition in No. 60 k, from which it will be seen that the general distribution resembled the Baths of Caracalla. The Tepidarium is 200 feet long by 80 feet wide and 90 feet high, and is covered with quadripartite vaulting of tufa concrete, springing from eight monolithic columns of Egyptian granite, 50 feet high and 5 feet in diameter, having Composite and Corinthian capitals of white marble each supporting a portion of highly ornamental entablature. This Tepidarium was converted by Michael Angelo, in a.d. 1561, into the Church of S. M. degli Angeli, and in 1740 a projecting choir was formed on one side by Vanvitelli, who thus converted the nave of the church into a kind of transept. The Balneum or small private bath was much used, and the three examples at Pompeii indicate their general characteristics and manner of use. These baths were heated by means of hot air in flues under the floors, and in the walls from the hypocaust or furnace in the basement (No. 46 f, g, h). Typical Roman baths are shown on No. 6g g, j. The so-called Temple of Minerva Medica, Rome (Nos.46 m A, b), is now generally regarded as a nymphaeum attached The absence of a hypocaust to the Baths of Gallenius (a.d. 266). and 83 it from being considered as a Calidarium. It is a decagonal on plan, 80 feet in diameter, with semicircular Above niches to nine of the sides, the tenth being the entrance. are ten windows of large size at the base of the dome, in order to give the necessary light and air to the plants. The dome is formed of concrete ribbed with tiles, bearing a remarkable similarity to It is particularly interesting S. Vitale at Ravenna (No. 83 c, d). in that the rudiments of the pendentive (see glossary) system are to be seen in the manner of setting the dome on its decagonal base, a system afterwards carried still further by the Byzantines. Buttresses were placed at points as required, admitting of the use of thinner walls, which is an advance on the construction of the or of flue tiles in the walls prevent M U z < o < O o o PL, ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. Pantheon (No. 54), I47 and a step towards Gothic principles of conand probably struction. The pendentives are of the rudest kind, were entirely masked by the original decoration. THEATRES AND AMPHITHEATRES. The design of Greek theatres was adapted to suit Roman requirements. The auditorium, instead of being rather more than a semicircle as in the Greek theatres, was here restricted to a semicircle, and consisted of tiers of seats one above the other, with wide passages and staircases communicating with the external porticos on each story. At the ground level, separating the auditorium of sloping seats from the stage, was a semicircular area which was occupied by the Senators, and which in its original circular plan in Greek theatres was occupied by the chorus. The stage thus becoming all important, was raised considerably and treated with great richness, and became connected more completely with the auditorium. Theatres were still constructed on the slope of a hill, but where the site did not allow of this they were, by means of the new art of vaulting, constructed tier upon tier of connecting corridors, in which the people might retreat in case of sudden showers. The Theatre at Orange, South France (No. 34 b), held 7,000 spectators, and is an example where the auditorium is constructed and not hollowed out of the side of a hill. In diameter it is 340 feet between the inclosing walls. Staircases for access to the various levels were placed on either side of the stage, which is 203 feet wide by 45 feet deep, and inclosed by return walls at right angles to the back wall. The great wall at the back of this stage, 314 feet long by u6 feet high, is ornamented by blind arcading, and has at the summit two tiers of corbel stones, pierced with holes, through which the velarium poles were placed. It originally had a portico attached to it. The Theatre of Marcellus, Rome (b.c. 23-13), is the only The remains consist existing example of a theatre in that city. of the arcading, two stories high, of the semicircular auditorium, the fafade of which was ornamented with the Tuscan order and the Ionic order superimposed. The Theatre of Herodes Atticus, Athens (No. 17) It is (a.d. 161), is also a fine example, seating 6,000 people. partly hewn out of the Acropolis rock and partly constructed, the seats having a marble casing. It is held to have been roofed with cedar, but this, however, probably only applied to the stage. Pompeii had two important theatres, which in recent years have been excavated. The theatres at Taormina, on the east coast of Sicily, at Fiesole, near Florence, and Aspendus, in Asia Minor, are other examples. L 2 ROMAN EXAMPLES. fmum ®F EtpVaTIOM XI. (B)^ECTIOi TMSOiri WEWINS 1. . BdILT DV VUP?15I?1N f T1TU3 AND COAPltTCD or\*ii2ioo5 nfnaah^ 50 B5-to obtain the- 80 hD. THE CON5TRUaiON 15 NofflBLC TOE THE jKlLrUL UJC eeefnoT BcNmr reonTHCiE jPCciflL ^u/iutc^. THE n?lTEEI?IL3 USED ?IBC (f\) CONCBCTC OP 5 VflBICTIEJ VIZ, COnPOJED OP iJVfl rOE FOUInIDSTIoMJ WHCI2E- emnnj STBCNSTH EEQOIEtD.ii TUEB $ WICK-BfTTJ fOB WflLl.? WHEEE \tV 5TEENQTH KEQUIEED { OWPOJCD or RJniCE'5T0NC rOB VflULT5 WHCEE UAHTNeSJ REqOlEED, (5) 6Eia< P?iClNCr,(C) i III B|0CK5 OE TUifl ? TBflVEETINE, (D) y^flEDlfEOE COLUnH5,COBI^ICt5,5E?lT?, i DENflncNTSL PUBPOJEJ. cxTEENfiL rftcBDC oonpojcD or blocks oe teSvektiNe set without /lOBTflB | c|RnPco to tnat orritu OF TOr MNGE^ 100 %nit opt 62. )0 I zoo ;oo reel : ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. 149 The amphitheatres are characteristic Roman buildings, being found in every important settlement, and in addition to their normal purposes were used for naval exhibitions, the water drains The for flooding the arena still existing in many examples. modern Spanish bull rings to some degree give an idea of the arrangement and uses of Roman amphitheatres. These are good exponents of the character and life of the Romans, who had greater love for mortal combats, which were considered to be a good training for a nation of warriors, than for the tame mimicry of the stage. The Flavian Amphitheatre, (The Colosseum), Rome (Nos. 62 and 63), commenced by Vespasian in a.d. 70, and completed (with the exception of the upper story) by Domitian in A.D. 82, is the most important example. The model in the Crystal Palace gives a good idea of the general distribution of its parts. In plan it is a type of all the examples, consisting of a vast ellipse 620 feet by 513 feet, having externally eighty openings on each story, those on the ground floor forming entrances, by means of which the various tiers of seats are reached. The arena proper is an oval 287 feet by 180 feet, surrounded by a wall 15 feet high. The seats, in solid stone, rise up from the arena, having underneath them corridors and staircases. The dens for the wild beasts were immediately imder the lowest tiers of seats, and consequently opened on to the arena, as at Verona (No. 64). The auditorium has four ranges of seats, the two lower forming the grand tiers, the third separated from the second by a wall, and the top range under the peristyle forming the later addition. Access to the various seats is from the eighty entrances by means of staircases placed between the radiating walls and by corridors, placed at intervals as shown. The radiating walls were cleverly constructed, concrete being used where least weight, tufa stone where more weight, and travertine stone where the heaviest pressures had to be supported (No. 62 b). The masonry was laid without mortar, and the construction is strong and solid, being of an engineering character. The system is one of concrete vaults resting on walls of the same material, 2 feet 3 inches thick, faced with travertine stone, 4 feet thick, and having an internal lining of 9 inches of brickwork, making 7 feet in total thickness. The supports have been calculated at one-sixth of the whole area of the building. The constructive principle consists of wedge-shaped piers radiating inwards, the vaults running downwards to the centre from the high inclosing walls consequently no building is more durable or more difficult to destroy a feeling well expressed by the line ; 'When falls — the Colosseum, Rome shall fall." w Bi h o h S i—t <J < <; o ff — COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 152 The external facade is divided into four stories. The three lower ones have their walls pierced with arches, and are ornamented with half columns of the Tuscan, Ionic, and Corinthian The upper story has orders, the two latter being on pedestals. Corinthian pilasters, and the height to the top of this order is 157 feet. Between the pilasters are the corbels used to support the masts of the velarium. In criticizing the general arcliitectural character of this wonderful building (No 63), points worthy of notice are i. The multiplicity of its parts, viz., three tiers of apparently countless arcades encircling the exterior, divided and united : ii. by three tiers of orders. The grand sweeping lines of the unbroken entablatures which entirely surround the building, The purely decorative use of the Classic orders of arcliitecture which being superimposed are in strong contrast to the Grecian method of single orders, iv. The thick piers behind the orders, connected by eighty arches and supporting the weight of the structure. The proportions of the attached columns on the facade, which all have the same lower diameter are unusual The Tuscan column is about gi diameters high and the Ionic and Corinthian about 8f diameters. The Colosseum was used as a stone quarry by the builders of later times, materials being taken from it for the construction of many Renaissance buildings (page 456). The Amphitheatre, Verona (No. 64), is in splendid preservation, all the stone seats being intact, although only four bays of the external wall are still standing. Other well-known examples are the Amphitheatres at Pompeii, Capua, Pola in Istria, Nimes, Aries, El Djem near Carthage, and remains of a roughly made example at Dorchester, in Dorset. iii. : — CIRCI. plan of a Roman Circus was an adaptation of a Greek stadium, but, however, was used for chariot or horse races, while the Greek stadium was principally used for foot races and athletic sports. At Rome there were several important examples, among which were the Circus Maximus and those of Maxentius, Domitian, Hadrian, Nero, Flaminius, and Sallust. The Circus Maxentius (No. 60 c) near Rome, also known as the Circus of Romulus, was built by Maxentius in a.d. 311. Although only part of it now remains, it is the most perfect example of a Roman Circus existing. It consisted of a long open circular-ended arena with a " spina along its axis. Surrounding this were rows of marble seats supported by raking vaults and an The ' , ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. 153 external wall of concrete faced with " opus mixtum " (page iiy)At one end were the " carceres " or stalls for horses and chariots, with a central entrance for processions and two side entrances, and at the semicircular end was the " porta triumphalis." TRIUMPHAL ARCHES AND PILLARS OF VICTORY. These were erected to emperors or generals in honour of their They consisted either of a single arch or of a central arch with a smaller one on either side. These rest on an impost, and have Corinthian or Composite columns on either side, and were adorned with architectural enrichments, statuary, and basreliefs relating to campaigns. An attic or surmounting mass of stonework was placed above, having a dedicatory inscription. {a.) The single-arched type, of which the central arch at Hyde victories. Park Corner, London, is an example. The Arch- of Titus, Rome (a.d. 8i) (Nos. 47,49, 69 a, c), commemorates the capture of Jerusalem in a.d. 70. On each side of the arch are semi-engaged columns of the Composite order, being the earliest known examples, and three-quarter columns occur at the angles. The archway has its soffit ornamented with deep coffers, in the centre of which is a relief of the apotheosis of Titus. The inner jambs have reliefs of the emperor in a triumphal car, being crowned by victory, on the one side, and the spoils taken from the Temple at Jerusalem on the other. The central keystones project considerably in order to support the main architrave, and are richly carved, as shown in No. 67 b. Other well-known examples of this type are the Arches of Trajan at (No. 70 d), Ancona (a.d. 113), Trajan at Beneventum (a.d. i 14) the Sergii at Pola, Augustus at Susa (Piedmont) Augustus at Aosta (Piedmont), Augustus at Rimini (B.C. 7), (a.d. 27), and Hadrian at Athens. The Arch of the Goldsmiths, Rome (a.d. 204) (No. 49), is not of arched construction, the opening being spanned by an entablature. (6.) The three-arched type, of which the Marble Arch, London, gives a general idea. The Arch of Septimius Severus, Rome (a.d. 204) (Nos. 47, 66 and 70), built to commemorate Parthian victories, has 57) 65, detached Composite columns resting on pedestals. A description is given on each of the illustrations Nos. 57 and 65. The Arch of Constantine, Rome (a.d. 312) (No. 47), was built in honour of Constantine's victory over Maxentius, and is one of the best proportioned examples. It has detached Corinthian columns supporting an entablature, which returns round each column, and above the attic were originally a quadriga, horses, and statues. ROMAN EXAMPLES, XII. M0li5E5 THE. ATRian WA5 THE PUBLIC PART rTHE BUILDING WHICH THE CLIENTS WERE ACCGSTOnED TO AWAIT THEIR PATRON, THCB RESE'IBLING A /AODERN HALL. THE PERISTYLE EORnED THE CENTRE F THE RE.5IIDENTIAL PORTION. THE ATRlUn & PERISTYLE WERE OPEN TOJHE S^^CMNC INROWM DWELLING IM ^^^^^^^^^^ THI5TRiaMPH4-LARGVA'5 DEDICATED '>V ROAWIS IN HONOR "'the &WEROR SEPTI^\IU5 5EVERU5 FOR HBYlCTORIESINTriEEAST IN CONJUNCTION Wra HIS &50N5CARACALLA&C£TA -feSOff 'i-TL^N iX 65- TOLF PmN w D H O W H S z < o 0! COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 156 The Arch at Orange is one of the finest examples of this type It has semi-attached Corinthian columns between outside Italy, the arches and three-quarter columns at the angles. Besides these, mention might be made of the Arch of Janus, Rome, in the Forum Boarium, built in the reign of Septimius Severus, a four-way arch built as a shelter at the junction of four roads and also the arches at Palmyra and in North Africa. Arches were also erected to form entrances to towns or bridges, and in such cases might serve the purposes of defence. Of this type of gateway the Porta Nigra, Treves, the Porte S. Andre, Autun, the Porte des Mars, Rheims, and the Porta Aurea, Spalato (Palace of Diocletian), are among the best known. Pillars of victory, or memorial columns, were sometimes erected to record the triumphs of victorious generals. Trajan's Column (No 58 b, 60 j, l), was erected in connection with his Basilica (page 139), and stood in an open court with galleries around at different levels, from which the bas-reliefs on its shaft could be viewed. " The sculptures wind aloft And lead through various toils, up the rough steep ; The hero to the skies." Roman Doric order, stands on a pedestal 16 feet 8 inches square, and 18 feet high, ornamented with sculptured trophies on three sides, and having a doorway on the fourth. The column is 12 feet in diameter at the base and is provided with an internal spiral staircase of marble, lighted by small openings. Its total height is 147 feet. The sculptures, numbering over 2,500 human figures, besides animals, and carved on a spiral band over 800 feet long and about 3 feet 6 inches deep, were probably intended to represent the unwinding of a scroll of parchment illustrating incidents of Trajan's war with the Dacians. There is a full-sized cast in the Victoria and Albert The column, of the Museum. The column erected in a.d. 161 to the memory of Antoninus Pius and that erected to Marcus Aurelius in memory of his victories over the Germans (a.d. 167-179) were founded on the design of Trajan's Column. Rostral Columns, a type of memorial which, in the time of the emperors, was numerous, were erected to celebrate naval victories. Rostra, or prows of ships captured after- a naval victory, were used in their ornamentation (No. 69 h), and a recital of the deeds which led to their erection was carved upon them. TOMBS. In contrast with those of the Greeks, tombs were numerous, and bear considerable similarity to Etruscan examples, in particular that of Regolini Galassi at Cervetri. — ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. 157 The Romans either buried or cremated their dead, both sarcophagi (No. 69 m) and urns being sometimes found in the same tomb chamber. The bodies of the emperors during the first three centuries were usually burnt on magnificent pyres, from which an eagle was set free, symbolizing the escaping soul of the dead emperor. In the second century a.d. the practice of cremation became the richer classes embalmed their dead and placed less usual them in massive and costly sarcophagi instead of the smaller ; receptacle for ashes. There are five varieties of No. 52 Roman tombs, as indicated on : — These were placed in subterranean vaults (a.) Columbaria. or caves, which are now known as catacombs, and have rows of niches in the walls resembling pigeon-holes hence the name. Each niche was reserved for a vase containing the ashes of the deceased, with the name inscribed thereon. Sarcophagi were also placed in these tomb-chambers, some of which in addition had " loculi " or recesses for corpses, as in the Tomb of the Gens — Cornelia, Rome. Monumental tombs consisted of tower-shaped blocks, square or circular, resting on a quadrangular structure and crowned with a pyramidal roof. These may be survivals of the prehistoric tumulus of earth with its base strengthened by a ring (b.) of stones. The Tomb of Cacilia Metella, Rome (b.c. 60), (on the Via Appia), has a podium 100 feet square, supporting a circular mass 94 feet in diameter, probably surmounted by a conical roof. The tomb-chamber was in the interior, and the whole was faced with travertine and crowned by an entablature, the frieze of which is carved with ox-skulls and festoons. The Mausoleum of Augustus, Rome (b.c 28), was erected for Little is now left, but it is known, from himself and his heirs. descriptions of Strabo, Tacitus, and others, tp have had a square basement surrounded with a portico of columns and supporting a circular mass, 220 feet in diameter, containing the mortuary chambers, the whole being capped by a mound of earth laid out in terraces and planted with cyprus and evergreen trees, and crowned with a colossal statue of Augustus. In the middle ages it was converted into a fortress, and in the eighteenth century, what remained of it, was used as a theatre. The Mausoleum of Hadrian, Rome (a.d. 135) was one of the most important of these monumental tombs. It is now the Castle of S. Angelo, and consists of a square basement about 300 feet each way and 75 feet high, supporting an immense circular tower 230 feet in diameter and 140 feet high, having a peristyle of marble columns, surmounted by a conical marble dome, as other examples. It was built of concrete, in which, — : COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 158 towards the centre of the mass, were formed the sepulchral chamber and converging passages, which slope upwards from the ground level. On the whole, the structure has been much altered since its construction, being converted in the middle ages into a fortress by the Popes, and is now used as a military barrack. (c.) Pyramid tombs, probably due to the introduction of Egyptian ideas, were also adopted, as in the Pyramid of Cestius with white (b.c. 62-12), which is formed of concrete faced marble, and has an internal tomb-chamber, the vault and walls being decorated with figure paintings. {d.) Smaller tombs, as isolated monuments, were often erected along the sides of roads leading from cities, as at Rome and in the Street of Tombs, Pompeii " Those ancient roads With tombs high verged, the solemn paths of Fame Deserve they not regard o'er whose broad flints Such crovifds have roll'd so many storms of war. So many pomps, so many wondering realms." Dyer. ; ! ; These often have subterranean tomb-chambers for sarcophagi with niches for cinerary urns, and the walls and vaults were ornamented with colored reliefs in stucco, as in the Tomb of the Pancratii. Above the ground the tomb resembled a small temple, often with a prostyle portico, and the upper chamber contained portraits or statues of deities and served as mortuary chapels. — (e.) Eastern tombs. The districts of Palmyra, Jerusalem and Petra in Syria Caria in Asia Minor, and Algeria and Cyrene in Africa possess many examples, some rock-cut, and some structural. The Tomb at Mylassa, in Asia Minor, is one of the most interesting examples of the latter. The illustration (No. 52) will show its ; general characteristics. The Tomb at Dugga, near Tunis (No. 52 g), somewhat resembles that at Mylassa, but with a walled-up colonnade. In addition to the foregoing, memorial structures or cenotaphs were occasionally erected. The Monument of S. Remi, in Provence (b.c first century) (No. 52 h), consists of a high pedestal ornamented with basreliefs and supporting a story of engaged Corinthian angle columns with arched openings between. Above is a circular story with fluted Corinthian columns, supporting an entablature and conical stone roof. The Ig'el Monument, near Treves, Germany, is of similar design. AQUEDUCTS. The aqueducts, although more of an engineering than architectural character, fulfilling a utilitarian purpose only, formed by ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. 159 and proportion striking features of the Roman landscape. Throughout the Empire remains are to be seen showing the importance put by the Romans upon an adequate water supply Rome had to be especially well supplied owing to their cities. to the inferiority of the local service and the large quantity required for the reservoirs, great thermae and public fountains, their size to say nothing of the domestic supply for its large population. In any views of the Campagna near Rome, the ruined aqueducts are striking features, and in approaching the Eternal City in the days of its glory, these enormous arched waterways must have impressed the beholder. Vitruvius (Book VIII., chapter vii.) gives interesting information on the subject, which is added to from other sources by Middleton. The Romans were acquainted with the simple hydraulic law that water will rise to its own level in pipes, and the upper rooms of their houses were supplied by " rising mains " in the same way Owing, however, to the fact that pipes had as modern buildings. then to be made of weak and costly lead or bronze (cheap and strong cast-iron pipes not being in use), it was found to be more economical by the use of slave labour to construct aqueducts of stone, or concrete faced with brick, having almost level water channels, above or below ground (Vitruvius recommends a fall of 6 inches to every loo feet), on immense arches above ground, a system which even in modern times has been followed in the Croton New York City. principle of all the examples is similar. smooth channel (speciis) lined with a hard cement, is carried on arches, often in several tiers and sometimes of immense height (say loo feet), conveying the water from the high ground, across valleys, to the city Many of them follow a circuitous course in order reservoirs. to prevent the slope of the channel being too steep when the source of the water was high above the required level of distribuIn the time of Augustus Caesar there were nine tion in Rome. Aqueduct which supplies A The of these aqueducts supplying The Aqua Marcia still Rome (b.c. 144) supply water to Rome. with water. and the Aqua Claudia (a. d. The " Anio Nevus" 38) (a.d. 38), sixty-two miles in length, entered the city on arches above those Aqua Claudia. The Pont-du-Gard, near Nlmes, in France (b.c 19; (Nos. 60 It forms part of an A, B and. 61), is the finest existing example. aqueduct twenty-five miles long, bringing water from the neighbourhood of Uzes. It is about 900 feet long, and is formed of three tiers of arches crossing a valley 180 feet above the River Gard. On the two lower tiers the central arch is the widest, and On the uppermost tier there are thirtythe others vary in width. five arches having 14 feet span, supporting the water-channel. The masonry is laid dry without mortar and, as will be seen on of the ;; COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. l6o No. 6i, some of the arch voussoirs of the intermediate tier projected to carry the temporary centering. Other aqueducts exist at Tarragona and Segovia, Spalato and elsewhere. BRIDGES. The chief characteristics of Roman bridges were solidity and simplicity, with a view to their withstanding the ravages of time and the elements. The roadway was generally kept level throughout. The Bridge at Rimini is the best preserved in Italy and has five arches. There are examples of two types of Roman bridges in Spain which are equally impressive, (a.) The many-arched type, as exemplified in the extreme length of the bridges at Cordova and Alcantara, (b.) The single-arched type, of which the romantic sweep of the bridge at Toledo, spanning the rocky valley of the Tagus, is the best example. PALACES. Of the Roman palaces the ruins only remain, but there is enough to show their enormous extent and imposing character. The Palaces of the Roman Emperors. The principal approach was from the Forum Romanum, by a road which branched off from the Via Sacra, on the west side of the Arch of — Titus (No. 47). Excavations on the Palatine Hill, commenced by Napoleon III. 1863, and afterwards continued by the Italian Government, have revealed remains of a group of magnificent palaces. These, commenced by Augustus (a.d. 3), and having additions by Tiberius, Caligula, Nero and Dornitian, were remodelled by Septimius Severus, and the giant remains attributed to him will probably impress the student of architecture most when visiting in the site. The — chief apartments in these palaces were ^The Tablinum or Throne-room the Basilica, or hall for administering justice the Peristylium, a square garden surrounded by a colonnade the Triclinium, or banqueting hall the Lararium, or apartment for statues of the household gods and the Nymphaeum. Besides these there were many minor chambers of service, whose uses cannot now be ascertained. The disposition of the buildings was governed by axial. lines Irregular spaces, caused by producing magnificent vistas. additions being made from time to time, were rendered symmetrical by the use of hemicycles and other devices, disguising the : ; ; ; ; ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. different angles of the buildings in relation to each other, frequently used by modern l6l a method architects. The Palace of Diocletian, Spalato, in Dalmatia (No. 59) another famous example, which formed the greater part of the mediaeval town of Spalato, and has thus been called a city in a house. It may be described as a royal country house, or better, perhaps, as a chateau by the sea. The original plan of the palace was approximately a rectangle, occupying an area of gi acres, being thus almost equal in extent to the Escurial in Spain (page 537, No. 238). There was a square tower at each angle, and in the centre of each of the north, east and west sides was a gateway flanked by octagonal towers, between which and those at the angles were subsidiary towers. These gateways formed entrances to porticoed avenues 36 feet wide, which, meeting in the centre, gave the palace the character of a Roman camp. On each of the fa9ades, between the towers, were rich entrance gateways the " golden " on the north, the " iron " on the west, and the " brazen " on the east, ending these main avenues, which divided the inclosed area into four parts, each assigned to a particular purpose. The two northern portions were probably for the guests and principal officers of the household while the whole of the southern portion was devoted to the palace, including two temples, that of Jupiter (see under circular temples, pp. 130, 136) and Jisculapius (page 125) and the baths. A circular vestibule, with a front portico in antis, formed an entrance to a here were placed suite of nine chambers overlooking the sea the private apartments and baths of the emperor, the finest being the portico, 524 feet by 24 feet, on the southern sea front. This served as a connecting gallery, and was probably filled with works The columns to the of art [cf. Elizabethan gallery, page 555). upper portion were detached and rested on carved corbels, a feature also seen in the golden gateway. Lining the inclosing walls of the whole area, on three sides, internally, were the cells that lodged the slaves and soldiers of the imperial retinue. The octagonal temple, and the more lofty halls of the palace proper, being visible above the inclosing walls in distant views by land and sea, were impressive features of the group. The architectural character is somewhat debased in style, broken and curved pediments with decadent detail being employed. The palace has a value, however, as a transitional example, for the entablature of the peristyle is formed as an arch, thus losing its constructive significance, and in the northern gateway arches rest directly on capitals without the intervention of an entablature, being an early example of a principle carried to its logical conclusion in the Romanesque and Gothic styles. (a.d. 300), is ; ; F.A. M — COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. l62 THE DWELLINGS OF THE ROMANS. These may be {b.) The villa, classified under or country house {a.) ; The domus, or private house {c.) The insula, or many- and storied tenement. The dwellings of the Greeks have already been touched upon (page 92), and there seems every reason to believe that Roman dwellings were evolved from them. They each possessed an atrium, forming the more public portion of the building, and a peristyle beyond, forming the centre of the family apartments. At Rome, the Atrium Vestae, or House of the Vestal Virgins (No. 47), and the House of Livia, are interesting examples. The excavations at Pompeii and Herculaneum have thrown considerable light on this important subject, and as Pompeii was a Grseco- Roman city, the remains which have been excavated are believed to differ but slightly from the later Greek dwellings. These Pompeian houses owe their, preservation to an eruption of Vesuvius, which in a.d. 79 overwhelmed the city, burying it in sahes to a depth of 10 feet. The streets of Pompeii were narrow (many only 8, 1 2, or 1 5 feet), the widest being 23 feet 6 inches, with a roadway 13 feet 6 inches and paths 5 feet wide. The houses had plain fronts to the street, the frontage on either side of the entrance passage being let off as shops. The absence of windows on the fronts is explained by some as being due to a lack of glass, in which case openings towards the street would have rendered privacy impossible. The rooms were lighted by openings giving on to internal courts already mentioned, as are Eastern houses to this day, and the inns France and England former days. are mostly one story in height, but stairs and traces of upper floors exist. Such upper stories were probably of wood, but as a decree was passed in the time of Augustus limiting the height of houses in Rome to 75 feet, brick or masonry buildings must have been largely erected. The openings were small, the light being strong in the sunny climate of Italy. The House of Pansa (No. 65, a, b) may be taken as a good type of domus or ordinary private house. It was surrounded by streets on three sides, the garden occupying the fourth, and, besides the house proper, consisted of shops, bakeries, and three smaller houses. A prothyrum, or entrance passage, led direct from the street entrance to the atrium, which served as the public waiting-room for retainers and clients, and from which the more private portions of the house were shut off. The atrium was open to the sky in the centre, with a " lean-to" or sloping roof supported by brackets round all four sides. The impluvium, or "water cistern," for receiving the rain-water from these roofs, was sunk in the centre of the pavement, while round were grouped the front rooms, probably used by servants or guests, or as semi-public of in The Pompeian houses ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. 163 rooms, e.g., libraries, each receiving sufficient light through the door openings. An open saloon, or tablinum, with " fauces,'' or narrow passages, led to the peristyle, or inner court, often the garden of the house and around were grouped the cubiculae or bedrooms, the triclinium, or dining-room (summer and winter), with different aspects, the oecus, or reception room, and the alse, or recesses, for conversation. The dining-rooms were fitted with three couches, each for three people to recline upon, as nine was the recognized number for a ; Roman feast. The peristyle was the centre of the private part of the house, corresponding to the hall of Elizabethan times, and it usually had a small shrine or altar (Nos. 68 g, 69 e). The walls and floors were richly decorated with mosaics and paintings. The kitchen and pantry are in the side of the peristyle, furthest from the entrance. The Houses of the Faun, Vettius, Diomede, the Tragic Poet, and Sallust, are other well-known examples of Pompeian houses which have their floors, walls, and vaults decorated in a characteristic style, to which the name " Pompeian " is now applied, and which were furnished with domestic implements such as candelabra (Nos. 68, 69), and fountains. The floors of these houses were of patterned mosaic, either in black and white (No. 69 k) or The walls were either painted to imitate of colored marbles. marble or executed in fresco, the darkest colors of the decorative Pictures were somescheme being placed nearer the ground. times framed with architectural features consisting of slender shafts, suggestive of a metallic origin, with entablatures in perspective. The ceilings, which have to be imagined, had probably painted and gilded timbers, forming an important element The roofs were covered with tiles or in the decorative scheme. bright colored terra- cotta. Lytton's great novel, " The Last Days of Pompeii," will be found of interest to the student as a description of the habits and life of the Romans. The Pompeian House at the Crystal Palace, designed by the late Sir Digby Wyatt, is an exceedingly good reproduction of an ordinary Pompeian house, the decorations being copies of original paintings at Pompeii. Hadrian's Villa, near Tivoli, resembled a palace in its extent, occupying an area of about seven square miles. Besides the imperial apartments it was surrounded by terraces, peristyles, Restorations have palaestra, theatres, a gymnasium, and thermae. been made by many authorities, as Piranesi, Canina, and others. Examples of Roman villas exist in England (see page 280). The insula, or tenement of many stories, seems to have resembled the modern flat. COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 164 FOUNTAINS. Fountains, both public and private, have always been one of the striking features of both ancient and modern Rome on account of their graceful designs, rich material, and the soothing effect in a hot and low-lying city of the clear water sparkling in the sun. The public fountains were exceedingly numerous, amounting to many hundreds, either as large basins of water (lacus) or as spouting jets (salientes), or the two combined and ornamented with most marble columns and statues. I Private fountains existed in great numbers, mainly in the courts and gardens of the houses, and exhibit much variety of design. They were of colored marbles and porphyries, often decorated with bronze statuettes. In some the water issued in jets from fishes, shells, or other objects, sometimes supported by a figure of a nymph. In others, wall niches lined with glass and mosaics were provided with lions' heads, fronj which issued the water, as have been found at Pompeii. 4. COMPARATIVE. GREEK. A. ROMAN. — Plans. Designs have refinement and beauty, proportion being of the and there is first importance, dignity and grandeur of effect irrespective of the smallness of scale. Unity was attained in the selfcontained temples, while variety of grouping and some picturesqueness was attempted in the PropylseaandErechtheion (Nos. a 18, z6, 30). and severity of outline caused by the simple method of post and beam, did not lend itself to such variety and bold- Purity planning as resulted froni the arcuated Roman style. No mixture of constructive principles occurs in the buildings of the Greeks, the limits of whose style have not been yet successfully expanded. ness of a. Plans. — Designs convey an of vastness and impression magnificence, and are characteristic of a powerful and energetic race. The Romans were pre-eminently great constructors. and knew how to use the materials at hand. This constructive skill was acquired by the building, on a large scale, of utilitarian works, such as the aqueducts and bridges. The arch, vault, and dome were the keynotes to the whole system of the style, and constituted a step toward Gothic architecture. By the use of the arch, wide openings were rendered possible, and by vaults and domes large areas and complicated plans could be roofed (Nos. 58 and 59), giving boldness and variety and leading to the system of intersecting ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. 165 ROMAN. The use of the true arch is avoided. An example of a vaulted building the Treasury of Atreus, at Mywhere thebedsof the stones are horizontal throughout, each bed overlapping the one below till the crown is reached (page 54). The Greek Temples were usually orientated, i.e., faced the east. vaults, by which the concentration of weights on piers was effected. The use of recesses is rectangular and semicircular on plan is a special Roman feature (Nos. 50 B, 54 b). cense, — Constructed of large B. ^A/'alls. blocks of marble, without mortar, allowing of refinement of treatment, and perfection of finish in construction. stone was used Where it The Roman Temples were placed without regard to orientation. B. courses for strength being introduced Such walls are thus often coarse in character. By the extended use of concrete, it may be said that the Romansinaugurated the employment of large masses coarse was frequently . covered with stucco. Jointing was not reckoned as a means of Stability was achieved effect. solely by the j udicious observance of the laws of gravity, the adherence of the blocks not being necessary, for the weights only acted vertically, and needed but resistance. vertical Even of irregular materials, reduced into fragments and bound together by mortar. These materials were not special to any country, but consisted of fragments of stone, brick or hard rock and quarry debris, all of which sufficed for the most for transmitting the pressure between the blocks only metal cramps were used. The employ- ment of marble directly shaped the development of the style. One-sixteenth of an inch was rubbed off the buildings on completion, this polishing being important projects. Great haste was necessary in the execution to complete sufficiently use, and doubtless many buildings were never perfectly for performed by slaves. The Anta (Nos. 21, 26, 27 l, 30, finished. pilaster The was employed at extremities and angles of cella walls. and 44 c. — W — was the Roman de- velopment of the Greek (Nos. 38 F and 67 f). f) Openings. Of minor importance, the columnar treatment giving the necessary light and shade. Doorways are squareheaded, and often crowned with a cornice supported by consoles, as in the fine example of the north doorway at the Erechtheion, Athens (No. 37 d h). indows, except on rare occasion s, as shown on plate No. 38, were not used in Temples, illumination being obtained from doorways or hypasthral openings (Nos. 20 c, 23 A, B, and 27 B, d). Walls.--Constructed of small, mean, and coarse materials, such as brick, rubble, and concrete, with brick or marble facing, bond c. Anfa — Openings. These were important features, being squareheaded or circular, principally the latter (No. 62 a). The semicircle divided vertically by two muUion piers was a favourite type of window. Arches sometimes had centering, supported springing line, afterat the wards filled up with brickwork, thus producing the segmental arch, common in the third and fourth centuries a.d. (No. 46 e), from the Basilica of Constantine. ROMAN ORNAMENT. I. MB plM i'i FM« TUB « TEWLEOF ^ MM 4 i ^ — J-J-- jpiLUffEE IN f^Mms. mm ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. 1). — Roofs. Extreme care was bestowed upon the elaborately constructed, and highly-finished, These roofs of the temples. were of timber framing (Nos. 23 and 25), and were covered with large slabs of marble with coverpieces which at the eaves were finished with richly carved ante- (Nos. 16, 19 c and 20 H, j). acroteria or blocks of stone resting on the vertex and lower extremities of the pediment, and supporting statuary or ornaments were characteristic features (Nos. 16 A, 20). The ceilings of the peristyles were coffered in stone with square or rectangular panels (No. 21), having carved enrichments, the richest examples being at the Parthenon (No. 23) and the Temple of Apollo Epicurius D. important development, and in many cases were richly coffered, as at the Pantheon(Nos. 54, 55). Timber framing also appears to have been employed, and according to Horace, splendid wooden coffered ceilings were employed Roof in the houses of the rich. coverings were either of terracotta, as amongst the Etruscans, or of bronze in the more important buildings, as for example the Pantheon. According to Vitruvius flat terrace roofs were employed, which it is believed were constructed of T-iron and fixse E. Columns. — The Roofs. — The noble vaults and domes described on page 117 constituted the The (No. 27). Coffered ceilings in framed timber probably roofed over the large span of the cella. 167 concrete, as in some of the larger halls of the Thermse. The ceilings internally were of various geometric patterns, such as octagons and squares in combination, as at Baalbec. — wherever Columns The orders were usedin connection with the arch, used. The column and beam are the keynotes of Greek architecture, the fluting being carried out when the columns were in and gradually lost their structural importance, being used in a decorative manner, as in the Colosseum at Rome, or in the structural orders were necessities E. Triumphal Arches. position. Orders never superimposed except Orders often superimposed, as at to interiors of Temples (Nos. 20, The only 23, 28 B and 31 d). Greek use of pedestals appears to be that of the Temple of Diana at Ephesus (No. 31). the Colosseum (No. 62 a). The Romans introduced pedestals on which they placed the column to secure greater height. canon of proportions, reduced to rules by Vitruvius, was gradually evolved for all the orders. ' A The Tuscan The Tuscan The The Order, which is merely a simplified form of the Doric, was not employed by the Greeks. Doric Order (No. 38 a) was by the Greeks, their most important buildings being largely used Order has a plain unfluted column and simple S. entablature (No. 262 b). Paul, Covent Garden, is a good modern example by Inigo Jones Doric Order (No. 38 b), was used by the Romans, not being suited to their ideas of little ROMAN ORNAMENT. ""scu™ 68. '" WlMOAMMffiSEI MM AEM CM. II. GLMIAIfllS HELMET ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. erected of this order. It was used without a base, the capital having a plain square abacus, beneath which is the echinus (No. 40 d), whose outline varies in different examples. The proportions of the columns proceed from extreme sturdiness in the early examples to great refinement in the late ones, and the shaft is usually fluted The architrave overhangs the face of the column (Nos. 16 and 38 a), and the triglyphs are over the central axes of the columns, except at theangles, where the endtriglyph appears at the extremity of the frieze (No. 16 a). The channels in the triglyph are rounded off at the top. The mutules, placed over triglyph and metope are much . inclined. The Ionic Order (No. 38 c) Greeks. The distinctive capital has the scrolls showing on two sides only, although an example of angle volutes is found in a special case at Bassse the (Nos. 27 and 29). The Corinthian Order (No. 38 e) was little used by the Greeks, and the examples remaining are thought by some to indicate the decline of Greek art, in that sculpture, as such, gave way to mere carving. The order was practically not introduced till the later age, although the earliest known example, viz., that in the cella of the Temple of Apollo Epicarius at Bassse, dates from 430. splendour and magnificence. The Temple of Hercules at^ Cora is the only temple in th^ style, but engaged columns occur in the Theatre of Marcellus. The Romans added a base, varied the abacus and echinus, and modified the cornice, adding a dentil course. The columns were less sturdy and the flutes were sometimes omitted. The architrave does not overhang the face of the column, but is in a line vertical with it (No. 38 b). In this order as approved by Palladio an d others the triglyphs in the frieze were over the central axes of the columns, even at the angle. The channels in the triglyph have square angles at the top. The mutules, usually placed over the triglyph only, are but slightly inclined. was used with great refinement by B.C. i6g appears to have in small only, such as the It been principally used buildings choragic Monumentof Ly sicrates (No. 38 e), and the octagonal Tower of the Winds at Athens, or internally in buildings of greater size. The Temple of The Ionic Order (No. 38 d) differed from the Greek chiefly as regards the typical capital, which usually had angle volutes, thus showing the face of the scrolls on each The side. entablature is of a richer description. The Corinthian Order (No. 38 f) was the favourite of the Romans, and was used in the largest temples, as those of Castor and Pollux (Nos. 67 A, 68) and Vespasian at Rome. The capital is the acanthus leaves surrounding the "bell" often being rich, in character and derived from the leaves known as the " acanthus molhs," which are blunt-ended and flat in section, or from the olive leaf, as in the Temple of Castor and Pollux. The entablature is very much enriched by ornamentation, probably derived from the painted work of the Greeks. The architrave hasnumerous and enriched mouldings, and the frieze is frequently carved with the acanthus naturalistic ROMAN ORNAMENT. i^MSIM©^ Di ra rO Ci'- [ud Q ra BUCK » WHITE MARBLE TE55'Ellt ABOUT UPON 69. DECORATED WITH PROWS OF CAP.TOECD /f^ W5, ERECTED AFTER A NAVAL VIOOH. %TNCH aOUARE TOamT GROUND. III. , . ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. ROMAN. GREEK. Jupiter Olympius at Athens may be considered a Roman building, or rather as a Greek designmainly carried out by Romans. (See page go.) The Acanthus leaves surrounding the " bell" were of the prickly acanthus (acanthus type (No. 33 f, h), having pointed leaves of Vshaped section. spinosus) Shafts of columns were fluted. Composite Order was never used by the Greeks, but a treat- The ment somewhat similar 171 is seen in the capitals of the Erechtheion where the necking under the Ionic scrolls are carved with the Anthemion ornament (Nos. 29 e and 41). scroll or with figure ornaments. The cornice is also considerably enriched, modillions (consoles, brackets or corbels) being introduced and giving an apparent support to the corona, and have between them sunk and sculptured coffers. The mouldings under the corona are much enriched with carving, as is even the corona itself. Shafts were fluted or plain. The Composite Order was invented by the Romans, being used principally in the Triumphal Arches. The upper portion of the Ionic capital was combined with the lower part of the Corinthian. In other details the orderfollows the Corinthian, but with additional ornamentation F. Mouldings. (Nos. 39 and 40). — The Greeks relied for effect F. on the graceful contour of their mouldings, which approach conic sections in profile, and which, though often covered with delicately carved enrichments, never lose the idea of grace of outline which the decoration seems but Executed in a fineto enhance. grained marble, they were often undercut so as to produce a G. manship. dentils are close together, of less depth, and have a fillet underneath. consoles used horizontally Roman in cornices Ornament (Nos. 41, 42, 43 and 44). The sculpture of the Greeks has never been surpassed whether executed in isolated groups or in works within the — boundaries of an architectural framing, as at the Parthenon. The ornamental sculpture used in the tympana of the pediments, the metopes and the friezes, and the carefuUy prepared cement used as a covering to stone or 4.0). Roman moulding. Greek consoles used only as vertical brackets to doorways as in the Erechtheion doorway (No. 37). (Nos. 39 and carving cut upontheir mouldings, which are usually parts of circles in profile. Ostentation replaces refinement, and in the latest examples, every member being carved, a certain rich picturesqueness of surface is produced in cornices and dres.iings, although the execution of the carving to the mouldings themselves is often of inferior work- fretted effect. Greek dentils are far apart, and occupy the whole depth of the Mouldings —The Romans relied on the rich (No.68)and vertically in keystones to arches (No. 67). G. Ornament 6g). (Nos. 67, 68 and —The Romans did not excel either in sculpture or painting, but Greek artists were employed, and Greek examples were prized and copied. In later times both vaults and floors of importance were executed in mosaic, but many examples show great vulIn the case garity of sentiment. of marble, for wall facings and PEIMCIPLES OF PE0F0ET10N» TETHMTYLEIISQ. -HEMS' h Meaor /TBAJANiff BENEmmjM. AKHOr SEPTIMUS 3EVEEUS, SOME. . ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. and good effects were produced, as the Romans were connoisseurs in marbles, which they sought out and imported from all countries. The ox-heads connected with garlands, so frequently carved on Roman friezes, are supposed to have originated from the actual skulls and garlands hung for decoration on altars at which the beasts themselves had been slain. brick, have already been referred to in the analysis of Greek architecture (page 108). It is generally admitted that the exteriors of the Temples were treated with color, which must have aided in the general effect. Polygnotus and other great artists were employed for decorative painting upon the temples and other buildings, part of the Propylsea being known as the Painted Loggia. The early frescoes were probably in the style of the vase painters of that period, while the later, if judged from the provincial imitations of Pompeii, must have been grand in style and decorative in effect. The Anthemion, or honeysuckle 42 H, 43 F, 44 A, E, F, n), was the characteristic motif of much Greek surface ornament, (NOS. 39 J, and was also employed on cymarecta mouldings. 5, 173 floors, rich A finely worked marble cement was frequently used as a covering to walls and stone columns, and formed a ground on which paintings could be safely executed, as The arabesques at Pompeii. which adorned the walls of the Baths of Titus (No. 6g a), influenced largely the fresco decoration of the Renaissance period. The Acanthus scroll with con- tinuous stem and spirals adorned with rosettes or grotesques, is specially characteristic (No. 67F). REFERENCE BOOKS. Adam (R.). — " Ruins of the Palace of Diocletian at Spalatro." — 1764. Anderson (W.J.) and Spiers (R.Phend). "The Architecture of Greece and Rome A Sketch of its Historic Development." Large 8vo. 1902. — — — — — : " Restauration des Thermes Caracalla a Rome." Paris, 1828. Cameron (C.). " Description of the Baths of the Romans." 1772Canina (L.). " Gli Edifizj di Roma Antica." 6 vols. 1848-56. Caristie (A.). " Monuments antiques a Orange, arc de triomphe et theatre." Folio. Paris, 1856. Choisy(A.). "L' Art deBatirchezles Remains." Folio. Paris, 1873. D'Amelio (P.). " Dipinti Murali Scelte di Pompei." Folio. Naples. Dennis (G.). "The Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria." 2 vols. 1878. Durm " Die Baukunst der Etrusker und Roemer " (" Handbuch Blouet (G. A.). Folio. (J.). — — — der Architektur "). 4to. Darmstadt, 1885. Dutert (F.)— "Le Forum Remain et les Forums de Jules Caesar, d'Auguste, de Vespasian, de Nerva, et de Traja." Folio. Paris, 1876. Gell (SirW.)andGandy(J.P.).— "Pompeiana." 3V0IS., 8vo. 1819-32. Gusman. " La Villa Imp^riale de Tibur." 4to. Paris. — Isabelle (C E.V— " Les — Edifices Circulaires." Folio. Paris, 1855. Jackson (T. G.) " Dalmatia, the Quarnero, and Istria." 8vo. 1887 Lanciani (R.). " Ancient Rome in the Light of Recent Discoveries. — 8vo.Boston, 1888. OPTlfflL ttffi B — ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. 175 REFERENCE BOOKS— Continued. Mau (A.). — " Pompeii New York, iSgg. Middleton Nibby (A.). Its Life : and Art," translated by F. W. Kelsey. — " The Remains of Ancient Rome." — "H.). Descrizone della Villa Adriana." Rome, (J. 8vo. iSga. — " Arte Pompeiana Monumenti Scelti." 1827. Niccolini Small Naples, 1887. — Niccolini Several vols, " Le Case e Monumenti di Pompeii." large Naples, 1854-189-. — Palladio (Andrea). " Quattro Libri dell'architetturadi A. Palladio." (F.). folio. : (F.). i folio. I Venice, 1570, and other editions. The best English translations are those by Leoni (1715) and Ware (1738). See also the author's monograph, with Life and Work of Palladio, published in igoa. Paulin (E.). " Thermes de Diocldtian." Folio. Paris, 1877. Penrose (F. C). "Temple of Jupiter Olympius." Transactions — R.LB.A., — vol. 4, p. 8. — Piranesi (G. B. and F.). " Antichiti Romane." Forming about 30 or 40 large folio volumes, each containing a magnificent series of engravings of Buildings and Antiquities in Ancient Rome and its Environs. Circ. 1748-1791. Pliny. " Historias Naturalis" (a.d. 23-79). Ponce (N.). " Description des Bains de Titus." Paris, 1786. Tatham (C. H.). " Etchings of Grecian and Roman Architectural — — — Ornament." Folio. 1826. Taylor (G. L.) and Cresy (E.). " The Architectural Antiquities of Rome, measured and delineated." 2 vols., folio. 1821-1822. Vignola (G. B. da). " Cinque Ordini d'Architettura." Various English and French translations. 4to. Vitruvius (Marcus). " The Architecture of." Translated from the Latin by Joseph Gwilt. Imp. 8vo. 1826. Vulliamy (H). " Examples of Ornamental Sculpture in Architecture." — — — — 1818. Folio. Wood (R.). Church (A. — " The Ruins of Palmyra and Baalbec." 2 — " Roman Life in the Days of Cicero." J.). vols. 1827. (Historical Novel.) For Classic Orders, see Chambers (Sir W.) Folio and 4to. — " The Decorative Part of : Mitchell (C. F.). — " Classic Architecture." Mauch — Civil Folio, Architecture." igoi. M. von). " Die Architektonischen Ordnungen der Griechen und Roemer." Folio. Berlin, 1875. Normand(C). " Parallel of the Orders of Architecture." Folio. i82g. Spiers (R. P.). " The Orders of Architecture: Greek, Roman, and (J. — — Italian." Folio. 1901. student should visit the Crystal Palace for the Pompeian House of the Roman Forum, the Colosseum, Pantheon and other, The British and the Victoria and Albert Museums should buildings. be visited for actual fragments. The and models — EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE. " A fuller light illumined all, A breeze through all the garden I. swept." Tennyson. INFLUENCES. — The position of Rome as the centre of a i. Geographical. world-wide empire was an important factor (see page iii), "All roads lead to Rome," and Christianity, to become universal, had to grow up at the capital, however eastern its birthplace. Ravenna, subdued by Justinian in a.d. 537, was the connecting link of the early Christian and Byzantine styles (see page 193). The quarry of the ruins of Roman buildings ii. Geological. — influenced the architectural treatment of the style, both in regard to construction and decoration, as columns and other architectural features and marbles from the older buildings were worked into the design of the new basilican churches of the Christians. iii. Climate. See Roman Architecture (page 112). iv. Religion. History presents no phenomenon so striking as the rise of Christianity, which spread so rapidly that in a very short period it was diffused throughout the whole civilized world. In A.D. 313 Constantine issued his celebrated decree from Milan, according to Christianity equal rights with all other religions, and in a.d. 323 he himself professed Christianity, which then became the established religion of the Roman Empire. The Christians, who up to that period were an unpopular dissenting sect, and had worshipped in the Catacombs, which formed their burial-places, were now able to hold their services openly and — — freely. The Council first of of Nice, a.d. 325, called by Constantine, was the several Councils of the Church for the settlement of disputes about heresies. temporary reaction took place in a.d. 360-363, under Julian, known as the "Apostate." A — EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE. 177 Gregory the Great (590-604), when besieged by the Lombards Rome, employed the imperial army of Constantinople and acted as the defender of Rome, making common cause with the people against the Lombards and others. V. Social and Political. On changing the capital of the empire from Rome to Byzantium in a.d. 324 Constantine practically reigned as an absolute monarch till his death in a.d. 337, the old Roman political system coming to an end. at — The division of the Roman Empire first took place in a.d. 364, Valentian being Kavpefofoi the West and his brother Valens of the East. Theodosius the Great, reigning between the years a.d. 379-395, reunited the Eastern and Western portions of the Empire. The series of emperors in the West came to an end in a.d. 476, and the empire was nominally again reunited, Zeno reigning at Constantinople over the Eastern and Western Empires. Theodoric the Goth reigned in Italy, a.d. 493-526, a period of peace and prosperity, in which Byzantine art influenced Early Christian art by way of Ravenna, which, from 493-552, was the capital of the Gothic dynasty. Kings of separate states were then elected in Italy, Spain, Gaul, and Northern Africa, Odoacer, the new king of Italy, recognizing the supremacy of the one Roman Emperor at Constantinople. The emancipation of the West from direct imperial control made possible the development of Romano- German civilization, which facilitated the growth of new states and nationalities,/gave a fresh impulse to the Christian Church, and laid the foundations of the power of the Bishops of Rome. From the Roman or common speech several of the chief languages of modern Europe commenced to arise, and in consequence are called Romance languages. vi. Historical. The Early Christian period is generally taken as lasting from Constantine to Gregory the Great, or from A.D. 300 to 604. The Teutonic invasions of Italy commenced about A.D. 376, and Teutonic settlements took place within the empire about this time, these movements being caused by the — incursions of the Huns into Germany. The West Goths sacked Rome under Alaric in a.d. 410. The the battle of Chalons, a.d. 451, aided in consolidating Christianity in Europe. During the reign of Gregory the Great (a.d. 590 to 604) the Latin language and Early Christian architecture, the latest phase of Roman art, ceased to exist, and for the next two centuries architecture was practically at a standstill in Europe, when the old Roman traditions were to a great extent thrown aside, and Romanesque architecture was gradually evolved. defeat of Attila, King of the Huns, at COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 178 2. ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER. One style was evolved from another so gradually that it is impossible to say exactly where the one ended and the next began. This gradual growth characterizes progress in other departments Each age feels its way towards the as well as Architecture. expression of its own ideals, modifying the art of the past to meet fresh conditions. Little money being at the command of the Early Christians, it was necessary for them to adopt places of worship which could be readily constructed. Many of the Roman Temples, which were now rendered useless for their original purpose, were utilized for the new faith, and in addition new churches built on the model of the old Roman basilicas, and formed of columns and other features from Pagan buildings, were erected. These are known as basilican churches, and were often situated over the entrances to their former hiding-places or crypts, and were constructed with columns of different orders and sizes which were made to an uniform height by the addition of new pieces of stone, or double bases, or in some cases by the omission of the base mouldings (No. 77). On this account, although extremely interesting from an archaeological point of view, the early buildings can hardly have the value for study, in the architect's mind at least, v/hich a new in architecture, arising from new structural necessities, is certain to possess. The earlier basilican churches had their columns closely spaced, and were crowned with the entablature which supported the main wall, on which rested the wooden roof (No. 75 b), but as the arch came more into general use these columns were spaced further apart, being connected by semicircular arches manner (Nos. 72, 73 A and 74). The basilican church with three or five aisles, covered by a roof, is the special type of the style as opposed to the vaulted types of the Byzantine style (Nos. 80, 81, 84 and 85), in which a circular dome was placed over a square space by means of the pendentive (No. 79). The architectural character is impressive and dignified due to the increase in the apparent size of the basilicas by the long perspective of the columns, and the comparative lowness of the interiors ih proportion to their length. wooden ; 3. EXAMPLES. BASILICAN CHURCHES. The plans of the basilicas, or Roman halls of justice, were copied by the early Christians for their places of worship, and N 2 l80 COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. thus became stepping-stones from the Classic of pre-Christian times to the Gothic architecture of the Middle Ages, which may b^said to commence with these Basilican churches. Some authorities, however, believe the early Christian churches to have been evolved from the Roman dwelling-house, where at first the community were in the habit of assembling, or from the class-room where philosophers taught. How suitable the ^oman basilica type (No. 58) was for Christian worship is seen from the plan of S. Clementje, Rome, A.D. 1084 (Nos. 72, 73 b), which, although rebuilt in the eleventh century, contains the original internal arrangement of the churches of the fifth century. ^ An atrium or forecourt, being an open space surrounded by arcades, formed an imposing approach in most of the Basilican churches. The covered portion next the church called the narthex was the place for penitents. In the centre of the atrium wa^ a fountain or well, the water from which was used for washing before entering the church a custom which still survives in an altered form amongst Catholics, who dip their fingers into a stoop, or holy-water basin, at the entrances of their churches. The nave, lighted by a clerestory of small windows, had an aisle on either side, such aisles being usually half the width of the nave. Occasionally two aisles occur on each side of the ftave, as in the Basilicas o^ S. Peter (No. 75 c), S. Paul (No. 75 e), and S. John Lateran. Galleries for the use of wornen were sometimes placed over the aisles, as at S. Agnese and S. Lorenzo but where none existed the sexes sat apart on opposite sides of the nave. — ; A transept, called the " bema," or " presbytery," which existed in a modified form in the pagan basilicas, was occasionally introduced, converting the plan into a Latin cross, of which the nave was the long arm. Some consider, however, that this cruciform ground plan wa^s derived from the buildings erected for sepulchral purposes as early as the age of Constantine. choir became necessary, owing to the increase of ritual, and was inclosed by low screen walls, or " cancelli " (from A which the word chancel is derived), and provided with an " ambo " or pulpit on either side, from which the Gospel and Epistle were read (No. 72). The hishop took the place formerly occupied by the " pratory or " questor " (page 136), until in subsequent ages the seat was moved to the side, becoming the bishop's throne. The presbyters, or members of the council of the early Church, occupied seats on either side of the bishop formerly occupied^ the assessors. The apse became the sanctuary which remained circular-ended in Northern Europe. The altar in front of the apse, formerly used by the Romans EARLY CHRISTIAN EXAMPLES. I. )XLIMEMTE1@IIE 100 aiCTlSBlIf IflOf ^MdTL, Of OKtW ))jFKl =jfEtT IN WBMm Mmsm m fORMlKC yaitof? If M 5ffll[0ll=J=J=JfEET i-^MraclllMYEMMi 73- COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. l82 for the pouring out of libations, or sacrifices to their gods, was for the celebration of Christian rites, and a baidachino, now used or canopy, supported on marble columns, was erected over it. In later times :the altar was frequently placed against the east wall of the apse (No. 72). The. interiors of these buildings owe their rich effect to the use of glass mosaic ("opus Grecanicurn,") which was placed frequently in a broad band (No. 74) above the nave arcading and to the semi-dome of the apse (No. 78 g, k), which is frequently richly treated with a central figure of Christ seated in glory and set in relief against a golden background. " Below was all mosaic choicely planned, With cj'cles of the human tale." The ceilings of timber were also formed in compartments and were richly gilded (Nos. 74 and 76). The pavements were formed out of the abundant store of old columns and other marbles existing in Rome, slice's of columns being used as centres surrounded by bands of geometric inlay twisted with intricate designs (No. The 7.8 b, l). Basilican "Church of S. Peter (a.d. 330) was erected near the site of the martyrdom of S. Peter in the circus of Nero. It had a " transept," or " bema," 55 feet wide, and Five arches, the centre called 113 feet high (No. 75 a, b, c). the arch of triumph, gave access from the body of the church,, and at the sanctuary end was a semicircular apse on a raised floor, against the centre of the wall of which was the Pope's seat. The priest stood behind the altar, and thus faced east, as the chancel was at the west end of the church. S. John Lateran (a.d. 330) has been altered so much in modern times as to have lost its early character. There were in all thirty-one Basilican churches in Rome, mostly made up of fragments of earlier pagan buildings. The interiors of these basilicas are impressive and severe, the repetition of the long rows of columns being grand in the extreme, as in the interior view of S. Paolo fuori le mura (Nos. 74, 75 e), built A.D. 380 by Theodosius but re-erected in a.d. 1821, and S. Maria Maggiore (Nos. 75 d and 76). There are also important examples at Ravenna, a city well situated for receiving the influence of Constantinople, and at one time the seat of an Exarch of the Empire. S. Apollinare Nuovo, A.D. 493-525, built by Theodoric the Goth, and S. Apollinare in Classe, a.d. 538-549, are important threeaisled Basilican churches carried out by Byzantine artists on Roman models, and they are interesting for the impost blocks to the capitals supporting the pier arches, and the fine mosaics. At Torcello, near Venice, the foundations of the original old w D h o w H S u z (a B O >• J COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 184 bishop's throne, surrounded by six rows of seats in the apse, still exist, giving a good idea of the Early Christian arrangements. BAPTISTERIES are another description of building met with in Early Christian architecture. They were originally used only for the sacrament of baptism hence the name " Baptistery." The form was ; derived from the Roman circular temples and tombs, already described (page 136). There was generally one baptistery in each city, as at Ravenna and Florence, and it was as a rule a detached building, usually adjoining the atrium or forecourt. Indeed, until the end of the sixth century of our era the baptistery appears to have been a distinct building but after this period the font came to be placed in the vestibule of the church. In adopting the Roman tombs as models for these buildings, the early Christians modified them to some extent, for the internal columns which in Roman examples were generally used in a decorative way were now used to support the walls carrying the domes. To cover a large area with one roof was difficult, but by the addition of an aisle in one story round a moderate-sized circular tomb, the inner walls could be replaced by columns in the lower half, resulting in such a building as these early baptisteries (No. 75 h, j). The Baptistery of Constantine, Rome (No. 75 j, k, l), is octagonal, and the roof is supported by a screen of eight columns ; two stories in height. The Baptistery, Nocera, between Naples and Salerno, is being 80 feet in diameter, with two rings of columns. This building is domed and covered with a wooden roof, and appears to be the first instance of the use of both, as the Roman architects always allowed the stone vault to show externally, as in the Pantheon. In the case of this building, however, the vault is merely an internal ceiling which is covered with an external wooden roof, and is similar to the practice of Gothic architects, who, in the mediaeval period, covered the stone vaults of their churches with timber roofs (No. 109). S. Stefano Rotondo, Rome (a.d. 470), though not a baptistery, is a good example of a circular plan of similar type (Nos. 75 F, G, H, and 77), being 210 feet in diameter, and with roof supported on two circular rings of columns, all taken from older buildings, the outer range supporting arches, and the inner a horizontal architrave. The two central columns are an addition circular, to support the roof timbers. The Baptistery, Ravenna, founded at the end of the fourth an octagonal structure with two arcades in the interior, one above the other. The dome, constructed of hollow tiles, has century, is EARLY CHRISTIAN EXAMPLES. II. 4''C'«lllW)FJ0PP0RTEDBV OF EIGHT COLUMNS TWO STOREYS IN HEISHT, flMEEN — lEMPnSTRYISNOW WJC LiiiEiwiV*!/ If WrtciiQi6#j™ SMIE FOR ELEVmONS 75- __JJOFEET SCALE fORMNS "f m i y f '» W ^" M S O Oi m" m o o o < 3 o o o EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE. 187 mosaics representing the Baptism of Christ, and altars with It resembles the Temple at the open books of the Apostles. Spalato (p. 130), but with arcades instead of horizontal architraves. fine TOMBS. Rome S. Constanza, (a.d. 330), was erected by Constantine as a tomb for his daughter, but was converted into a church in It has a dome, 35 feet in diameter, supported on twelve 1256. pairs of coupled granite columns. The Tomb of Galla Placidia, Ravenna (a.d. 420) (No. 73 h, exceptional, as it is cruciform in plan, instead of the usual circular form. It is 35 feet by 30 feet internally, and has a raised lantern at the crossing, pierced with four windows. It is domed by a portion of a sphere, and is one of the few examples in which the pendentives and dome are portions of one hemisphere (No. 79 h). Each of the arms of the cross contains a sarcophagus, and the interior is remarkable, as it retains all its ancient poly- J, k), is chromatic decoration in mosaics. The Tomb of Theodoric, Ravenna (No. 73 c, a decagon, 45 feet in diameter externally, and containing a cruciform crypt. Traces remain of an external arcade round the upper portion, standing on the decagonal basement. The roof consists of one slab of stone, hollowed'out in the form of a flat dome, 35 feet in diameter, and round the edge of this block are stone handles, originThe ashes ally used to place this immense covering in position. of the founder were placed in an urn on the top of the covering. D, E, F, g), is two (a.d. 530) Stories in height, the lower story being Syria has a number of interesting monuments erected between the third and eighth centuries, notably those by Constantine the Church of the Nativity, Bethlehem, the Church of the Ascension, Jerusalem, and the octagonal Church of the Holy Sepulchre' on the site of the Temple of Solomon, also at Jerusalem. The Syrian type appears soon to have broken away from Roman influence, due largely to the abundance of hard stone, the absence of brick, and the distance from Rome. Piers were used instead of columns, and roofs formed of stone slabs were usual. favourite plan was a circle placed in a square, the angles being Such filled with niches, as in the Churches at Bozrah and Ezra. are considered to be prototypes of later Byzantine churches of the type of S. Sergius, Constantinople (No. 79 e, f, g), and S. Vitale, Ravenna (No. 83 c, d). Salonica possesses important examples, notably the domical Church of S. George. In Asia Minor, as at Ancyra, Pergamus, and Hierapolis, and in Egypt and Algiers are many examples of basilican and circular buildings of the Early Christian period. — A S o o" Q z o H o <A o z <! h W h (/) en — EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE. 189 COMPARATIVE. 4. — A. Plan. The early Christians adopted the Basilican model for their churches (Nos. 73 and 75), but in addition the halls, baths, dwelling-houses, and even the pagan temples were used for places of worship. An isolated circular church , used as a baptistery,' was generally attached to the chief Basilica or cathedral. Walls. — These were still constructed according -to the methods, rubble or concrete walling being used, faced with plaster, brick, or stone. Mosaic was used internally, and sometimes externally on the west facades for decorative purposes. c. Openings. Doors, windows, and niches were generally spanned by a semicircular arch, the use of the lintel being dispensed with. The window openings were small (No. 78 d, f) those to the nave being in the clerestory high in the nave wall above the aisle roof, a feature which was developed in Gothic B. Roman — ; architecture (Nos. 73 Roofs. a, — Wooden 75 b, g). (No. 75 b) covered the central nave, simple forms of construction such as King and Queen post trusses being employed. These roofs were ceiled in some ornamental manner (No. 74), the decoration of a visible framework being of a later date, as at S. Miniato, Florence (No. 93). The side aisles in the churches were occasionally vaulted, and the apse was usually domed and lined with mosaic (Nos. 72 and 78 g, k). E. Columns (Nos. 72, 77 and 78). They are often of different design and size, being mostly from earlier Roman buildings which had fallen into ruins or were purposely destroyed. It was natural that the early Christian builders, not being good craftsmen themselves, should use in their buildings the materials and ornaments which had been left by the pagan Roman. A rich and grandiose effect was often obtained at the expense of fitness in the details of the design. Middleton states that all the fine marble columns D. roofs — ' In later Romanesque and Gothic periods, these early baptisteries, themselves founded on the Roman circular temples and tombs, were treated as follows in the different European ^countries In Italy, where the churches were not derived from a combination of a circular eastern church with a western rectangular nave, as in France, but were direct copies of the Roman basilica, the baptistery always stands alone. In France, circular churches were built to stand alone, and when it was necessary to enlarge them, the circular building was retained as the sanctuary or choir, and a straight lined nave was added for the use of the people. Thus from the circular church originated the apsidal choir of ihe Gothic period. In Germany, the earlier baptistery was joined to the square church and formed a western apse. The Germans also built circular churches, and then added choirs for the priests, that they might pray apart from the people (No. 83 B). In England, the Gothic builders generally jjreferred a square east end, except where French influence made itself felt, as at Westminster. Circular churches were erected, as the Temple Church, London, but they were few in number, and due to the Knights Templars (page 219), being built as copies of the Rotonda of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem. : EARLY CHRISTIAN. ORNAMENT. mm AWAY (T FUiRILEMURfl.BSME (^(0PU5 flLEX/lINDRINUM) OPEN WlilSeW SEffii CflTOEBML iiSKOWMUS ^BCHSIiyW FELIX WraOiW "VENICE VIIICENTUSY MSMcemiK j'msiis iiMOKE,ienE _ /M®li<!IC ™iaPSC rmSME^E MME CEMTML FIGURE mflESt '^ WEj °" EITHER JIDE S'^CLEMEMT, rV\ m MME 514-52? MSMIC FLMR S^N ®l«WNNl-E-MyL®,W1E^ — EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE. igi churches of Rome have been taken from ancient Roman buildings, except those in S. Paolo fuori le mura. F. Mouldings. These are coarse variations of Roman types, and the carving is of the rudest kind, though rich in general effect. The technique of the craftsman gradually declined, and was at a low ebb during this period. Enrichments incised upon mouldings were in low relief, and in the — the acanthus ornamentation, although still copied from the antique, became more conventional in form. The introduction of much color is a feature G. Ornament. of the period, giving much richness to the interiors. The domed apse (No. 72), as has been mentioned, was lined with mosaic, the subject generally being Christ surrounded by angels and saints. The arch of triumph, separating the nave from the bema, was ornamented with appropriate subjects long friezes of figures line the wall above the nave arcades (Nos. 72, 74 and 76), and the wall spaces between the clerestory windows often had mosaics representing subjects taken from Christian history or doctrine. The figures are treated in strong colours on a gold backThe design is bold and simple, both in form and ground. draperies, and an earnest and solemn expression, fitting well the position they occupy, characterizes the groups. The method of execution is coarse and large, and no attempt was made at neatThe interiors are, by the ness of joint or regularity of bedding. aid of these mosaics, rendered exceedingly impressive. In addition to the richness of the wall surfaces formed of colored mosaics the pavements of colored marbles in geometric patterns added much to the rich effect of the interiors. These pavements were formed largely of slices from the old Roman porphyry columns, which were worked into designs by connecting bands of geometrical inlay on a field of white marble (Nos. 72, 78). The glass mosaic used to decorate the ambones, screens, and episcopal chairs, as in the fittings of the church of S. Clemente at Rome (No. 78), was of a finer and more delicate description. — ; 5. REFERENCE BOOKS. — — (Prof. Baldwin). " From Schola to Cathedral." 8vo. Bunsen (C. C. J.). " Die Basiliken des Christlichen Roms." Brown Munich, 1843. — "The Ancient Coptic Churches of Egypt." Butler(A. J.). Butler (H. C.) 1900. — American 8vo. 1884. Archasological Expedition to Syria, 1899 New York, 1904. Folio. (H.). "Monuments Hubsch 1886. Folio. — de 1' Architecture Chretienne depuis Constantin jusqu'a Charlemagne." Folio. Paris, 1866. Vogue (Marquis de). " Les Eglises de la Terre-Sainte." Paris, i860. Vogue. " Syrie Centrale." 2 vols. Paris, 1865-67. — — ^(^^^^::^^^;lKla>i Historical Novels. — BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE. "So a church as this had Venice none walls were of discoloured Jasper stone Wherein was Chiistos carved ; and overhead Chaucer. lively vine of green sea agate spread." fair : The A I. INFLUENCES. — i. Geographical. Byzantium (renamed Constantinople by Constantino) occupies the finest site in Europe, standing on two promontories at the junction of the Bosphorus and the Sea of Marmora. It was called "New Rome" by the Turks of Asia, and, like the other Rome in Italy, it rests on seven hills. It occupies an important commercial site, standing at the intersection of the two great highways of commerce the water highroad from the Black Sea into the Mediterranean, and the land high-road from Asia into Europe a position which, from early times, gave it power and influence, especially over the corn trade carried on with the western merchants on the northern shores of the Euxine. The absence of tides and the depth of its harbour, an inlet known as the " Golden Horn," four miles in length, rendered its quays accessible to vessels of large burden. Constantinople possessed no good building ii. Geological. stone or even material for making good bricks, but as far as possible the materials upon the spot had to be employed. Most of the marble used in the new capital was brought from different quarries round the Eastern Mediterranean/ for Constantinople was a marble-workin^centre from which sculptured marbles were exported to all parts of the Roman world. Mr. Brindley, a writer on the subject, is of opinion that quite seventy- five per cent, of the colored marble used in Santa Sophia, and the other churches and mosques in Constantinople, is Thessalian green (Verde Antico), and that the architect was influenced by the kind of column likely to be at once obtainable. The quarries were situated in different parts of the empire, the monolith columns being worked by convicts in groups of sizes such as the quarry could produce. — ; — BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE. 193 — Owing to Constantinople being hotter than to its being further east, the Romans on settling there altered their method of building to suit the novel conditions due to climate and their contact with Oriental arts. iv. Religion. Constantine first made Christianity the state religion (page 176). The political division that came to pass between east and west was followed by a separation of churches also. This was due to the " Filioque controversy " as to whether the Spirit proceeded from the Father and Son or from the Father iii. Climate. Rome, and — only the Eastern Church, which still claims to be the orthodox church, maintaining the latter, and the Western the former. The iconoclastic movement during the eighth and ninth centuries was in force and ended in the admission of painted figures in the, decoration of churches, but all sculptured statues w^e excluded. ; These and other points of differepce in ritual have vitally affected Eastern church architecture up to the present day. V. Social and Political. Constantine, whose system of government was an expansion of the despotic methods introduced by Diocletian, removed the capital from Rome to Byzantium in A.D. 324, the position of the latter city being unrivalled as a great commercial centre on the trading highway between east and west. After his death rival emperors troubled the state, and disputes in the church were rife the Council of Nice in a.d. 325 being the first of the general councils called to suppress heresies. The eastern emperors lost all power in Italy by endeavouring to force upon the west their policy of preventing the worship and use of images. By the election of Charlemagne, chosen Emperor of the — — West in a.d. 800, the — Roman Empire was finally divided. Historical. Byzantium is said to have been founded in the seventh century e.g., and was a Greek colony as early as the fourth century e.g. Byzantine architecture is that which was developed at Byzantium on the removal of the capital from Rome to that city. It includes not only the buildings in Byzantium, but also those which were erected under its influence, as at Ravenna and Venice, also in Greece, Russia, and elsewhere. During the reign of Justinian (a.d. 527-565) Italy was recovered to the Eastern Empire, accounting for the style of some of the buildings. Ravenna became important owing to the Emperor Honorius . vi. transferring his residence there from Rome in a.d. 402, and it was created an archiepiscopal see in a.d. 438. After the fall of the Western Empire the town was taken by Odoacer, and in a.d. 493 Theodoric the Great took the city, which, remaining the residence From of the Gothic kings till 539, rivalled Rome in importance. a.d. 539-752 it was the seat of the Exarch of the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Emperors. The Byzantine style was carried on until Constantinople fell into the hands of the Turks in a.d. 1453, when it became the capital of the Ottoman Empire. COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 194 2. ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER. general architectural character depends on the development dome, induced by the adoption of circular and polygonal plans for churches, tombs, and baptisteries. This is in contrast with the Romanesque style, which developed the vault in Western and Northern Europe (page 224). The change from the old Roman forms was of course gradual, but in the course of 200 years the East asserted itself, and under Justinian the Church of S. Sophia (a.d. 532-537) was erected, and remains the greatest achievement in the style the interioir being perhaps the most satisfactory of all domed examples. Although no line can be stated as separating distinctively the Early Christian and Byzantine styles, yet, as already stated, the Basilican type is characteristic of the former and the vaulted, church with pendentives of the latte^^ A Byzantine building consists generally of a brick carcass or' " shell," constructed after the size of the marble shafts had been assured. The walls of this shell were finally sheeted internally with marble, and the vaults with colored mosaics on a golden background. In fact no church was founded during this period in which mosaic was not intended to be employed, and the decoration of S. Sophia and the churches of Niceea and Thessalonica show the perfection to which this was carried out. The core of the wall was generally of concrete, as in the Roman period, but the manner in which the bricks of the casing were arranged contributed greatly to the decoration of the exterior. They were not always laid horizontally, but sometimes obliquely, sometimes in the form of the meander fret, sometimes in the chevron or herring-bone pattern, and in many other forms of similar design, giving great richness and variety to the facades, as may be seen in the churches of Thessalonica. Externally an attempt was made to render the rough brick exteriors of Roman times more pleasing, by the use of bands and relieving arches of The of the — an ornamental character. Byzantine art and influences were carried westward by traders, and are found at S. Mark, Venice, S. Vitale, Ravenna, S. Front, Perigueux, and elsewhere, largely directing the architecture of these districts. The dome, already referred to, is the prevailing motif or idea of Byzantine architecture, and had been a traditional feature in the old architecture of the East, and M. Choisy, in his " Art de Batir chez les Byzantins," traces the influence of this tradition of domical construction on Greek architecture to show how from' this fusion the later imperial architecture Domes were now became possible. placed over square apartments, their bases being brought to a circle by means of " pendentives " (Nos. 79, BYiJANTINE ARCHITECTURE. 195 whereas in Roman architecture 80, 82, 83 B, 84, 86, III c) these features were as a rule placed over a circular apartment. Windows were now formed in the lower portion of the dome, which in the later period was hoisted upon a high circular drum, a feature which was still further embellished in the Renaissance Period by the employment of a circular peristyle or colonnade. In vaulting, porous stones, especially pumice, were used sometimes the domes were constructed of pottery, as at S. Vitale, ; ; Ravenna (No. 83 d), where it is formed with urns and amphorae placed side by side and grouted with mortar. The architecture of the Byzantines was thus developed by the use of brick in the fullest manner, especially in domical vaulting, and there is an absence of preparatory and auxiliary work, M. Choisy remarking that the " greater number of their vaults rose into space without any kind of support " {i.e., without centering), by the use of large flat bricks, which is quite a distinct system, not derived from a Roman but from an Asiatic source. Byzantine art is the Greek spirit working on Asiatic lines, for the dome on pendentives was invented and perfected entirely in the East. In the Byzantine system of vaulting the vault surfaces gave the conditions of the problem, and the groins or angles of intersections were of secondary importance, presenting a direct contrast to the mediaeval buildings of Europe. The grouping of the smaller domes round the larger central one was very effective externally (No. 79), and one of the most remarkable peculiarities of Byzantine churches was that the tunnel vault and the dome had no additional outer covering, but were visible externally (No. 80 a); thus in no style does the elevation so closely correspond- with the section as in the Byzantine. From the time when the architect permitted the forms of the vaults and arches to appear as architectural features in the facades, the regular entablatures of the "Romans were abandoned, and in the church of S. Sophia is seen the fully-developed Byzantine style for whereas in the older buildings of Rome the columns and entablatures could be and were removed without causing the ruin of the building, in S. Sophia the true Greek expression of truth in construction was reverted to, its columns and capitals being not merely ornamental, but really supporting The Classic orders were dispensed with, and the the galleries. semicircular arches made to rest directly on columns designed The capitals, of which there are seven distinct for the purpose. types, four being in S. Sophia, assume a novel form (Nos. 88 and 89), appropriate to their new purpose of receiving the springers of arches, the voussoirs of which were always square, and not set in receding planes, as in so-called Gothic architecture. As Freeman says " The problem was to bring the arch and column into union in other words, to teach the column to : : — o 2 BYZANTINE EXAMPLES. grC^NTil^E I. fOTEM ooME comTBuerioN RADIAT11{{ [A) I ll-FOST H H B(B AWGMH^JitEnJOIDMmDtlED gTCmmr Of'COKOf «m r^EE TO MWEIHAl DIRECTIONS MD ffmcnm-mA ciHTBHi.poOT. JWBTOTOWUBIKTHIBBIMNISHlHeTtiRUrST CWHfflRMMimVI&MME DIOTNtT$mEEE?. -DWEraraDEHTWE&IDMI m,nmsmmofmt KTEKIOK VIEWf^FTiB Cmifl) 79- BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE. 197 This was done by shaping the block of marble which formed the capital so that a simple transition from the square block to the circular shaft of the column was formed. Further, as Messrs. Swainson and Lethaby say, the numerous round shafts of S. Sophia exhibit a remarkable and beautiful structural expedient, by which the necking is entirely suppressed, and bronze annulets surround the shafts under the capital and above the base. These prevent the shafts from splitting a likely result, since the monolithic shafts had to be set up contrary to the direction of the quarry bed and also the lead seating from being forced out by the superincumbent weight. The science of construction acquired by the Romans descended to the Byzantines, for the walls were formed with a brick facing and concrete core a method also employed for vaults, bridges, and aqueducts. The building procedure was developed somewhat as follows the general form of the building being support the arch." — — — : more or — thing necessary was to collect was necessary to have a certain knowledge where such might be quarried or otherwise obtained, before even the foundations were prepared, for the columns decided the height and points of support of the building. These shafts once assured, the body of the structure was proceeded with as a brickwork shell without further dependence on the masons, who were only required to prepare the bases, capitals, and cornices, everything else being completed as a brick carcass.' " The building was thus made of vast masses of thin bricks, with mortar joints of equal thickness and when this had settled down and dried, the walls were sheeted with their marble covering, the vaults overlaid with mosaic, and the pavement laid down. In this way the carcass was completed at once, and, further, the bricklayers not having to wait for the masons by reserving the application of the marble until the structure was dry and solid, it was possible to bring together unyielding marble and brickwork with large mortar joints that must have settled down very considerably This independence of the different parts of the structure was a leading idea in Byzantine construction, and is obviously necessary when the quantity of mortar is so great that the bricks become secondary in height to the joints. Brick, moreover, was the material preferred in the construction of walls, and lent itself to all the caprices of the architect for as interiors were always lined with marble and mosaics, or decorated with frescoes, such walls were the most suitable for the reception of these kinds of ornamentation. Bricks being so much used, it is not surprising that the Byzantines took great pains in their manufacture when it is remembered that they employed them in their military as well as in their ecclesiastical and domestic architecture. The form of these varied a great deal, -but the less decided, the first monolithic marble shafts, and it " ' ; ; ; ig8 COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. ordinary shape was like the Roman, an inch and a half in depth, and they were always laid upon a thick l)ed of mortar, as already mentioned. Moulds were used for the pieces forming cornices, and the shafts of columns when of this material were built of circular bricks. The universal use of brickwork made the Byzantines pay great attention to their mortar, composed of lime, sand, and crushed pottery, tiles or bricks, and it remains as hard as that in the best buildings of Rome. The interiors were beautified by richly colored marble pavements in opus sectile or opus Alexandrinum (page 119). The use of natural stones in mosaics and inlaid pavements had been abolished, and the art of enamelling had arrived at perfection, all the mosaics which still adorn the domes and apses being of colored glass enamel rendered opaque by oxide of tin, an invention which was introduced in the Early Christian period. The extensive use of rich marbles and mosaics caused a flat treatment, with an absence of mouldings, cornices and modillions, which were subordinate to the decorative treatment. The simple exteriors of brickwork, with bandings of stone, did not -leave the same scope for mouldings as in other styles. Flat splays enriched by incised or low relief ornamentation were introduced, and mosaic and marbles were used, in a broad way, as a complete lining to a rough carcass, architectural lines being replaced by decorative baiids in the mosaic, which was worked on rounded angles. One surface melts into another as the mosaic is continued from arch and pendentive upwards to the dome, and the gold of the background being carried into the figures, unity of surface was always maintained. Although columns of the richest marbles were taken from old buildings, the importation and sale of newly quarried columns and other decorative materials, such as rare marbles, did not in the least decrease. The Theodosian code in fact encouraged this branch of trade and industry, and the mode of ornamentation by means of colored marbles was carried to a greater extent than ever before. The quarries opened by the Romans continued to be used, and the workmen employed in them were governed by imperial decrees issued specially for their guidance. 3. EXAMPLES. Byzantine examples consist mainly of churches and baptisteries. In the former, although a certain number follow the Basilican type, the majority are founded on the circular and polygonal plans of the Roman and Early Christian periods. SS. erected Sergius and Bacchus, Constantinople (a.d. 527), by Justinian, is nearly square in plan, being a rectangle of BYZANTINE EXAMPLES. ELE/ATION II. : COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 200 log feet by 92 feet over all, and has an interior arrangement very similar to S. Vitale (No. 83), but it has four niches only, and is The inclosed in a square instead of an octagon (No. 79, e, f, g). dome, 52 feet in diameter and 66 feet high, is visible externally, having no wooden roof, and is of a peculiar melon-like form caused by the formation of ridges and furrows from base to summit. This church, picturesquely situated on the shores of the Bosphorus, is in a ruinous condition, but was being partially restored by the Sultan at the time of the authors' visit in January, 1896. The beautiful frescoes and mosaics are, however, irreparably damaged in consequence of the penetration of rain through the roof. S. Sophia, Constantinople (HagiaSophia=" Divine Wis(Nos. 79, 80, 81), was built by order of Justinian, in a.d. 532-537, on the site of two successive churches of the same name, {a.) The wooden-roofed basilic^, erected by Constantine, i.e. The A.D. 360. (6.) The church erected by T^heodosius, A.D. 415. architects were Anthemius of Tralles and Isodorus of Miletus. The plan consists of a central space 107 feet square, bounded by four massive piers, 25 feet square, connected above by semicircular arches, and supporting a dome 107 feet in diameter {cf. East and west are great semicircular spaces, S. Paul, London). crowned with semi-domes, and out of these are formed smaller exedrae, in their turn covered with semi-domes. The area thus formed is a great oval-ended nave 265 feet by 107 feet. Outside this central ^rea are aisles over 50 feet wide, in two stories, north and south, the upper story being for women. These aisles bring the main building approximately to a square, which, excluding the apse and narthex, measures 250 feet by dom") — 237 feet. The narthex, to the west of the main building, was set apart catechumens and penitents, and forms a grand apartment over 200 feet long by 30 feet wide it is in two stories, the upper forming a gallery to the church. Further west is the outer narthex and atrium, with marble columns and brick pillars. To the north and south, forming continuations of the four great piers already mentioned, are massive buttresses, 25 feet wide by 70 feet long, pierced with double arches on the ground and upper story. These piers take the thrust of the main arches and dome on the two sides where there are no semi-domes. SS. Sergius and Bacchus would resemble S. Sophia in plan if it were cut in two and a dome on pendentives placed over an intervening square, and the whole doubled in size. The domical method of construction governs the plan, which is subservient to it. The square central space is crowned with a dome, 180 feet above the pavement, but in itself only 47 feet in height above its base {i.e., less than a semi-dome). for ; I « M o o w H S O < w z I— N m H 2; <: H Z o O W p. o (A 202 COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. The two semi-domes, east and west, abut against the great arches which support the central dome and act as buttresses to it on the east and west sides. The smaller exedrae are also covered with semi-domes, as has been stated. The pendentives carrying the central dome have a projection of 25 feet and a height of over 60 feet. The great piers supporting the dome are of stones, the rest of the building being of brickwork. The construction of the dome is explained on No. 80. Internally, the actual effect of the whole is one of extreme intricacy, although the general scheme is very simple, while scale is obtained by the careful gradation of the various parts from the two-storied arcades to the aisles and lofty dome, which rests, with little apparent support, like a canopy over the centre, or, as Procopius, an eye-witness, described it, " as if suspended by a chain from heaven." The impression is that of one great central domed space with semicircular domed ends, the height gradually decreasing from 179 feet at the centre. The walls and piers are lined with beautifully-colored marbles ' (Phrygian white, Laconian green, Lybian blue, Celtic black, white marble with black veins from the Bosphorus, and Thessalianmarble), in varied patterns, fixed by means of metal cramps the floors are laid with colored mosaics of various patterns, and the vaults and domes are enriched with glass mosaics of the apostles, angels, and saints on a glittering golden ground. Although many of these are now concealed by matting covered with plaster, or are replaced by quotations from the Koran, yet the four pendentives still exhibit the six- winged seraphim, whom Mahometans acknowledge under the names of the four Archangels, Gabriel, Michael, Raphael, and Israfil, and when the light is favourable the figure of Christ can still be seen in the vaults of the apse. The columns of many-colored marbles are used constructively to support" the galleries which rest on a variety of groined vaults. Moulded bronze rings encircle the column shafts at their junction with the capitals and bases, and elsewhere. The lower stories of the aisles (north and south of the ceti'tral space) are supported by four columns of dark green marble from the Temple of Artemis (Diana) at Ephesus, the upper stories having six columns of the same material. -Each of the four small exedrae has two large columns of dark red porphyry below, brought from the Temple of the Sun at Baalbec, and six smaller columns on the upper story. The total number of columns in the church is 107 (the same number as the diameter of the church in feet), of which forty are below and sixty-seven above. The capitals are mostly of the pyramidal or cubiform type, with small Ionic angle volutes and delicately incised carving. ; - w D H O W H S U < g h < m COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 204 bear the monogram of Justinian, and on a column to the south exedra on entering is the date 534. A variation of the dosseret block is in general used on the lines of the Classical abacus. The lighting is partly effected by forty small windows piercing the dome at its base. Additional light is introduced through twelve windows in each of the spandrel walls, north and south, under The bases of the domes the great arches which support the dome. Many of of the smaller exedrag are also provided with windows. the windows are small and spanned by semicircular arches others are more elaborate, as in those to the " Gynaeceum," or women's gallery, reached from the exterior by four gently sloping ascents, one at each corner of the building, and from the interior by stone staircases, in which large semicircular headed openings are divided into six by columns in two heights, the lighting area being filled with lattice work of marble 3 inches thick, pierced Externally with openings about 7 inches square, filled with glass. the walls are faced with brick and stone in alternate courses. The vaulting of the domes and semi-domes is visible, being covered with lead J-inch thick, resting on wooden battens placed immediately on the brick vaults. The immense buttresses already referred to make imposing external features, as also the two great spandrel walls between them, deeply recessed from their face, and provided with windows lighting the central area. The plainness of the exterior causes the building to depend for effect entirely on the massiveness of its form and the general Some ; symmetry of its proportions. Sophia is the masterpiece of Byzantine architecture as the Parthenon is of Greek, or the Pantheon of Roman but neither in plan nor treatment does it seem to have been largely imitated, especially in respect of the abutting semicircular domes. S. Irene, Constantinople, originally constructed by Constantine and several times destroyed and rebuilt, finally about A.D. 740, is interesting as preserving the Basilican plan of nave and two.aisles with Eastern apse and Western atrium. It has a dome which is believed to be the earliest example, resting on a high drum pierced with windows to light the interior. The Theotokos Church, Constantinople, dating from the ninth to the twelfth century, is a small but perfect example, having a double narthex crowned with three domes, and a central dome over the church itself. The Church of the Chora, Constantinople, is an interesting example, dating originally from the fourth century, but subsequently much altered. It has a central area crowned with a dome resting on a drum 26 feet in diameter, pierced by windows, and has semicircular windows on three sides, and an apse on the fourth. It has an inner and outer narthex, ornamented with S. ; . mi IS(pMPo5ED»H6LW earthen P* FiTlfD INTO EACH CBIER S1I03 BflTS U5Hr«E55 ENABLING THE B»ILDtR5 loDMNaE WITH THE DESIGNED BUT im 115 PSOiaiTlC THE MINEWA MEBIfAROnE T«EARCHE5fBuT(BE»ES BUND NEJESiARY IH S5£R£II)SJ;I.30PH1A. THE CHURCH imr 15 80ILTIN BRICKS WITH THICK MoRTAlf JOINTS. OCTAGONAL m PLW SRESEMBUNC 5 SERGWS affcKliPoBM INDoHEaEWW JiBACCHOS (6NSrAHTlN0PLE mmMwa. (kmMEmAmic&miMimm WTERNAILYTHEmmcmsAN. OCrACONEtCIIAKttEtf WHICH DWEUSESToTflo PIERS THUS SVITAIE RAVENNA ITWAS BUILT ASA I1(»L"16I1B-H0I)5E AND AFTERWARDS OiED ASHE CIWHINt RUCE Of the WESTERN EHPEloBS. THE CmiiC (H« BSAIICDAII 053-1+13 ^- .; FofiMIHQAHEflEPHAL6 5IDED HGTOETk! IHIERHAL PIERS 51im)RtABW476"DmEIR. T»E5IIlEAISlE5AREIN£ai«Er5, mi Scale oiPi-ANS ° §fAI£»5ECTlON5 1 83- '° ^ D*tE CRdWHED Bf8 SlfinVWGDDEN R(Bf OF THE IT* CENTIJAY BYZANTINE EXAMPLES. III. guporas iqBEOF ALWER wnm^ ICEQ ^.D. 1063-1071) (NnRTHEX IIOCHSid) /i^CBEEKCROSS ON PmNWrnCENTlM. DONE&ONEOVEK EaCH^^mOFTHE CRO'5'?. T«PWN momm derived FBOMHECHUKH? THEn^POSTLESSlT CONSWNTINOPLE DEMOUSHEDIINIK ISTH CEMTURYd' SlfiOHT PEHCUEUX (Aaiizo) IS ^ IMODIFIED.fl coiPv?siiwsrea SECTION OM X^. w p H O W H s u < W Z P <; COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 208 it is now known as the " mosaic supposed by some that the facade of this church served as a model for that of S. Mark, Venice (No. 85). The Church of the Holy Apostles, Constantinople, founded by Constantine the Great, but rebuilt by Justinian, and destroyed in a.d. 1463, to make way for the Mosque of Sultan Mahomet II., was the second type of Byzantine plan, and is interesting as being thp prototype of S. Mark, Venice (Nos. 84, large mosaic decorations, hence mosque." It is 85, 86) (see belo\y). S. Vitale, Ravenna (a.d. 526-547) (No. 83 c, d), whose prototype was the Temple of Minerva Medica at Rome (No. 83 A, b), is octagonal on plan, an inner octagon of 50 feet being The apsidal chancel opens inclosed by an outer one of no feet. from the inner octagon, by a square bay cutting through the outer aisle. The relation of the chancel to the octagon is successfully designed. It is to be noted that the other seven arches of the inner octagon have columns placed on a half circle, carrying round the gallery usual in Eastern churches. In many particulars ByzanThe dome is composed of earthen pots, tine influences are seen. and protected by a wooden roof, thus differing in construction from Roman exariiples. The church built by Charlemagne, and containing Aix-la-Chapelle (No. 83 e, f), is his tomb, at derived from this church (see page 261). B. Mark, Venice (Nos. 84, 85 and 86), was erected, for the most part, between a.d. 1063-1071, the columns and marble mosaics to the exterior being added between 1100-1350. Venice was by situation one of the connecting links between the Byzantine and Franconian Empires, and a great depot of the traffic between the East and West, which is evident in Venetian architecture. The plan of S. Mark (No. 84 c) is in the form of a Greek cross, of equal arms, covered by a dome in the centre (42 feet in diameter), and one over each arm of the cross, and is derived from the Church of the Holy Apostles at Constantinople. It is worthy of note that the square piers, which carry the dome, are pierced on the ground floor and gallery levels: the gallery arcade connects the piers on either side, fhe depth of the gallery being that of the pier. The vestibules fill out the western arm of.the cross to a square on plan. The interior (Nos. 84 a and 86) is richly veneered with colored marbles casing the lower part of the walls above, and extending in one great surfabe over vault and dome, is a lining of richly colored glass mosaic, in which are worked figures of saints mingled with scenes from their lives, set off by a broad background of gold. Mosaic, in fact, is the real and essential decoration of the church, ; to which all architectural detail is subordinated. a a; p h u w h X o < w z < F.A. — COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 210 The external ia.qa.de (No. 85) has five entrances, enriched with shafts of many-colored marbles brought from Alexandria and the ruined cities of the East, forming a rich and beautiful portal. Mosaic panels also serve to enrich with color the spandrels of the arches. It must be remembered that this and the external domes are a later casing upon the original exterior of the usual Byzantine type (No. 84 a). described by Ruskin, who says that they depend not only upon the most delicate sculpture in every part, but also on the most subtle, variable, inexpressible color produced by transparent alabaster, polished marble, and The effects of S. Mark have been lustrous gold. The Byzantine parts, and other Greek church to the style spread over Greece, Russia, and has been the accepted style of the present day. In Greece the buildings are small but exquisitely executed, as may be seen in the little Metropok Cathedral (No. 87), the Church the Church 0/ of the Kapnikarea, and other churches at Athens Daphni, near Athens, and the Monastery of S. Luke of Stiris, on the north of the Gulf of Corinth. At Thessalonica (Salonica), in Macedonia, S. George (a.d. 400) is an early example of a domed church, and 5. Demetrius (a.d. 500550) an example of a five-aisled basilica with transepts (not ; showing externally), and galleries. In Russia among the best known examples are the Cathedrals of Moscow, Kieff, and Novgorod, all of which have a decided Eastern aspect, due to the use of bulbous-shaped domes and unusual details. In Armenia teristics, are also interesting examples with local characsuch as the Church of S. Sophia, Trebizond. 4. COMPARATIVE. — A. Plans. Byzantine churches are^^aJl distinguished by a great central square space- cavered jwith a dome, supported by means "of pendentives, shown in No.~79T^,"kT On each side extend^§J)Qrt arms, forming a Greek cross, which with the narthex and side (galleries make the plan nearly square (Nos. 80, 84). The narthex was placed within the main walls. The essential difference in plan between a Byzantine church and an Early Christian basilican church are as follows : The leading thought in a Byzautine church is vertical, by the grouping of domes round a principal central one, towards which the eye is drawn, The leading idea in an Early Christian basilica is horizontal, by means of the long perspective of columns, which direct the eye towards the apsidal termination. BYZANTINE EXAMPLES. IV. Sketch? OTTHmAL FROM N.E. CENTURY. J_ scsusf pyBs UJLSJSjSJ'm. ^wnitMim « ssenas 87. p 2 COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 212 — Walls. These were often constructed of brick. Internally, the oriental love of magnificence was developed, marble hence a flat casing and mosaic being applied to the walls treatment and absence of mouldings prevailed. Externally the buildings were left comparatively plain, although the fafade was sometimes relieved by alternate rows of stone and brick, in B. all ; various colors. — Doors and windows are semicircular headed c. Openings. (No. 89 G, h), but segmental and horse-shoe arched openings are sometimes seen. The windows are small and grouped together (Nos. 80 a and The universal employment of mosaic in Byzantine churches, 87). and the consequent exclusion of painted glass, rendered the use of such large windows as the Gothic architects employed quite inadmissible, and in the bright climate very much smaller openTracery was, in conings sufidced to admit the necessary light. sequence, practically non-existent as a northern architect would understand it. The churches depend largely for light on the ring of windows at the base of the dome, or in the " drum," or circular base on which the dome is sometimes raised (No. 86), and on openings grouped in the gable ends (No. 80 a). Such windows, grouped in tiers within the semicircular arch beneath the dome, are a great feature in the style. Portions of the windows are occasionally filled with thin slabs of translucent marble (No. 89 g). D. Roofs.— The method of roofing these buildings was by a series of domes formed in brick, stone, or concrete, with frequently no further external covering. In S. Sophia the vaults are'covered with sheets of lead, a quarter of an inch thick, fastened to wood laths, resting on the vaults without any wood roofing (No. 80 b). Hollow earthenware was used in order to reduce the thrust on the supporting walls (No. 83 d). The Byzantines introduced the dome placed over a square or octagonal plan by means of pendentives (No. 79 j), a type not Roman architecture. early examples the pendentives were part of one sphere. good idea of this type is obtained by halving an orange, cutting off four slices, each at right angles to the last, to represent the four arches, and then scooping out the interior the portion above the crown of these semicircles is the dome, and the intervening triangles are the pendentives. Such domes are rare, however, perhaps the only example in Europe being that over the tomb of Galla Placidia (No. 73 h, j, k), already described In the later type the dome is not part of the same (page 187). sphere as the pendentives, but rises independently from their summits (Nos. 80 b, hi c). The early domes were very flat; in later times they were raised on a drum or cylinder. found in In A ; " ; COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 214 — E. Columns. In the earlier buildings, these were taken from ancient structures, which not being so numerous in the East as in the neighbourhood of Rome, the supply was sooner exhausted and thus there was an incentive to design fresh ones. Capitals sometimes took a form derived from the Roman Ionic (No. 8g c) or Corinthian types (Nos. 88 and 89 d), or consisted in the lower portion of a cube block with rounded corners, over which was placed a deep abacus block, sometimes called a " dosseret This represented the disused Classic architrave, (No. 89 D, e). and aided in supporting the springing of the arch, which was larger in area than the shaft of the column. Further, an altered shape of capital was required to support the arch, a convex form being best adapted. The surfaces of these capitals were carved with incised foliage of sharp outline, having drilled eyes (No. 88) between the leaves. Several other types are shown in No. 89. Columns were used constructively, but were always subordinate features, and often only introduced to support galleries, the massive piers alone supporting the superstructure. F. Mouldings. These were unimportant, their place being — taken by broad flat expanses of wall surfaces. Internally, the decorative lining of marble and mosaic in panels was sometimes framed in billet mouldings, probably derived from the Classic dentils, and flat splays enriched by incised ornamentation were used. Externally, the simple treatment of the elevations in flat expanses of brickwork, with occasional stone banded courses, did not leave the same scope for mouldings as in other styles. G. Ornament. The scheme of ornamentation was elaborate in the extreme, the walls being lined with costly marbles with the veining carefully arranged so as to form patterns, and the vaults and upper part of walls with glass mosaic having symbolic figures, groups of saints and representations of the peacock (the emblem of immortal life), the whole forming a striking contrast to the less permanent painted frescoes usually adopted in the Western Romanesque churches (page 227). Mosaic thus was used in a broad way as a complete lining to a rough structure, and architectural lines were replaced by decorative bands in the mosaic. One surface melts into another as the mosaic sheet creeps from wall, arch, and pendentive up to the dome, and the gold surfaces being continued as a background to the figures, unity of surface is always maintained. Greek rather than Roman technique was followed in the carving, due to the origin of the craftsmen. The carving was mainly executed in low relief, and effect was frequently obtained by sinking portions of the surfaces. A special character of the carving was due to the use of the drill instead of the chisel (No. 88). The acanthus leaf, deeply channelled, and of V-shaped section, is — . BYZANTINE ORNAMENT. i'npo5r CAPiTM FRoniME porch r S^DILnLTRimTMBSMLONia OF S.50P»1I'\ CONSTANTINOPLE ]JtZ>\NTINECORlNTHnN eiRDSp^WETWPIT^L eiRnCORINTKI*^(?J»IT«tL ^ lOPHl^ CONTP^NTINOPLE ? DE«\CTRIU1 THESIAIONICA THEBRE.ASTWMJ.^ LATIICEWSRK ARL OF'WnBLES'THICK THE PIERCED OPENIks ABE 7' HIGH nuEEJiNwrrH PANES OFCro THETJ^BLE DIVISIONS, I5EING SPLWEDi! 1§'«"C1NF\CE 0=EVATION 89. ItCTION COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 2l6 adopted from the Greek variety, but became more conventional, with acute-pointed leaves, drilled at the several springings of the teeth with deep holes. The great characteristic of Byzantine ornament as compared with Classical, is that the pattern is incised instead of seeming to be applied, for the surface always remained flat, the pattern being cut into it without breaking its outline. Grecian and Asiatic feeling strongly pervades Byzantine ornamentation, and this is accounted for by the fact that Constantinople was a Greek city, and in close contact with the East, and Oriental methods. Note. A good general idea of the exterior of a church in this style is to be gained from the Greek Church in the Moscow Road, Bayswater, erected by Oldrid Scott, as also the new Roman Catholic Cathedral at Westminster by the late John F. Bentley. The mosaics and casts in the Victoria and Albert Museum should also be inspected. — REFERENCE BOOKS. — Choisy(A.). " L'Artde BitirchezlesByzantins.'' Folio. Paris, 1883. 8vo. Didron (A. N.). — " Christian Iconography." 2 1886. Knight (H. G.). — " Ecclesiastical Architecture of Italy." 2 5. vols., vols., folio. I 842 -I 843. and Swainson (H.).^" Church of Sancta Sophia, 8vo. 1894. Milligen (A. van). "Byzantine Constantinople." 8vo. 1899. " Saint Mark's, Venice." A large and beautiful monograph in several vols., 4to and folio, published by Signer Ongania. Venice, 1881. Salzenburg (W.). " Alt-Christliche Baudenkmale von Constantinopel." 3 vols., folio and 4to. Berlin, 1854-1855. .Schultz (R. W.) and Barnsley (S. H.).— " The Monastery of St. Luke of Stiris in Phocis." Folio. 1901. Texier (C.) and Pullan (R. P.). "Byzantine Architecture." Folio. 1864. Scott (Sir W.).— " Count Robert of Paris." (Historical Novel.) Lethaby (\y. R.) Constantinople." — — — mmE CftWmJl or ' TH[ \fl&MDIDE5 90. ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE. GENERAL INTRODUCTION.' I. INFLUENCES. —The which grew up on the decay known as Romanesque, was on throughout practically the whole of the Western empire that is, in those countries which had been directly under the rule of Rome. The position of each country will be slightly touched upon under its own heading. The influence of Byzantine art brought through Ravenna and Venice also influenced the Italian Romanesque in Lombardy and Europe generally. i. Geographical. of the carried Roman empire, style and is — ' Before treating of the development of the style peculiar to each country, a general outline sketch is given. — 2l8 COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. — ii. Geological. In these early times a rough use of the material at hand characterizes the style in each country, and will be referred to under the same. ill. Climate. Local styles were favoured by the variations of climate north and south of the Alps, as referred to in each country. iv. Religion. The Christian Church, which was the civilizing and educating agency of the period, was striving to extend its boundaries in Northern Europe, and the erection of a church was often the foundation of a city. The monastic communities, with the encouragement and aid' of Charlemagne, came into The papacy had been rising to great power and existence. influence, and, directed with skill, it rivalled or controlled such The Pragmatic Sanction (a.d. 554) civil government as existed. had already conferred authority on the Bishops over the provincial and municipal governments, thus increasing the power of the Church, with which now often rested the nomination of public As East and West drifted apart their functionaries and judges. architecture developed on opposite lines, but architecture of Western Europe due to Eastern influence is classed as Byzantine. The different countries looked to Rome until each developed its own style. Religious enthusiasm and zeal prevailed, and was manifested in magnificent edifices, and in creed warfare, so that when the Turks overran Palestine, the loss of the Holy Places resulted in the long warfare known as the Crusades (1096-1270) between the Christians of the West and the Mahometans of the East. Until the middle of the twelfth century science, letters, art and enlightenment generally were the monopoly of religious bodies, and pupils of monks afterwards became the designers of many of the great Gothic Cathedrals. The feudal rank of bishops and abbots made them in some sense military chiefs, occasionally taking the field in person. Schools attached to certain monasteries discharged to some extent the functions of universities, as those at S. Gall, Tours, and Rheims, and the aid thus rendered by monastic institutions to architecture was therefore important. Down to the thirteenth century, architecture was practised largely by the clergy and came to be regarded as a sacred science, as stated by Albert Lenoir in " I'Architecture Monastique." Dr. Jessop's " Daily Life of an English Monastery " is interesting as showing the life led by the monks, and may be studied with advantage. (For a description of the typical plan of a monastery see page 276.) Among the chief monastic orders were the following (i.) The Benedictine order, founded in the South of Italy in the sixth century by S. Benedict, by whose decree architecture, painting, mosaic and all branches of art were taught. All the — — : ROMANESQUE ARCHITECtURE IN EUROPE. 21^ England belonged to this order, Canterbury (No. ii8 b) and Westminster Abbey (No. 127) being the chief older monasteries in establishments. The usual arrangement consisted of a square cloister having on one side a church of cruciform plan with aisles, the transept forming a part of one side of the cloisters. The refectory was usually parallel to the nave, on the opposite side of the cloister. The dormitory was generally placed on another side with a staircase in connection with the church for night services. The manuscript plan existing in the Library of the monastery of S. Gall, in Switzerland, is interesting as showing what was considered a typical plan of the buildings of this order (page 261). (2.) The Chmiac order was founded in a.d. 909, the celebrated Abbey at Cluny being the headquarters. The plan was especially notable for double transepts, a feature which was adopted in many English Cathedrals, as at Lincoln (No. 117 f) and SaHsbury (No. 117 The e). was founded in a.d. 1098, at Citeaux, In plan, the typical church was divided into three parts transversely by screens, walls, or steps. There were frequently no aisles. The transepts were short, as also was the eastern arm of the cross, and the choir extended westward of the transepts. There was an absence of towers and painted glass. The influence of the Cistercian foundation extended to various countries of Europe. In England the most important were Furness, Fountains, Roche, and Kirkstall Abbeys. (4.) The Augustinian order differed little from the Benedictine. It was introduced into England in a.d i 105, and Bristol, Carlisle, and Oxford Cathedrals were founded by this order. (5.) The Premonstratensian order was instituted at Premontre, in Picardy, in a.d. 1119, and Castle Acre Priory in England is an example. (6.) The Carthusian order was founded by S. Bruno, about A.D. 1080, the chief French establishment being the Grande Chartreuse, near Grenoble, others being Vauvert, Clermont in Auvergne, Villefranche de Rouergue, and Montrieux. Two churches were preferred, one for the monks and the other for the people. In plan the typical feature was the great rectangular cloister, surrounded by an arcade on which the monks' cells opened, each being self-contained and with its own garden. By the rules of the order, speech was interdicted, and the Carthusian must work, eat and drink in solitude. Such a regime explains the extreme severity of their architecture. In Italy the establishments at Florence and the Certosa near Pavia, and in England, the Charterhouse, London, were the most important. (7.) The military orders included the Knights Templars and Hospitallers. The churches of the Templars were circular (3.) in Cistercian order Burgundy. COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 220 plan, as in the Temple Church, London, and those at Cambridge, Little Maplestead, and Northampton. It is supposed they were erected in imitation of the Rotonda of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem. (8.) The Friars, of which there were several orders, were founded Their churches were large, plain, and without at a later period. aisles, being designed for preaching purposes. (a.) The Dominicans (preaching or black Friars) were founded by S. Dominic about a.d. 1170, and later held a high place in Christian art, Fra Angelico being the best known member of the order. They came to England about in A.D. 1217. The Franciscans (mendicant or grey Friars) were founded Francis of Assisi, in a.d. 1209, and were distinguished for intellectual capacity, Roger Bacon being one of the (b.) by S. most distinguished members. They first came to England in A.D. 1216. The Carmelites (or white Friars), were driven out from Mount Carmel by the Saracens, in a.d. 1098. They came (c.) to England in a.d. 1229. The Austin Friars (or Hermits). («.) Friars of the Holy Trinity, instituted in a.d. 1197. (/.) Crutched {or crouched) Friars, instituted in Bologna, in A.D. ii6g. crush the (9.) The Jesuits were established in order to (d.) Reformation, and first came to — England in a.d. 1538. Social and Political. The system of feudal tenure, or the holding of land on condition of military service, was growing up, and caused important changes in the social and political organization of states. While through its operation the class of actual slaves died out, still the poorer freemen gradually came to be serfs, bound to the land and passing with it, on a change of V. ownership. The growth of the towns as civilization advanced is noticeand the privileges which they acquired, amounting almost to independence, rapidly gave them importance. Constant warfare rendered the condition of the people unsettled during this period, and skill in craftsmanship was at the lowest ebb. Christianity and civilization gradually extended from southern to western Europe. The clergy the scholars of the able, — — period directed the building of the churches, while the influence of the freemasons produced important results. In the year a.d. 799 the Roman Empire in vi. Historical. the "West practically passed from the hands of the Romans, by the election of the first Frankish King, Charlemagne, whose election is a convenient date to mark the end of the Roman Empire as such. Till the time of Charlemagne very little — a- ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE. 221 was done, but he in a great measure restored the arts Western Europe before his death in a.d. 814. Before the year a.d. iooo, when it was popularly supposed that the world would come to an end, little building was carried out, bj^t after the millennium had passed, buildings sprang up in all parts, with many local peculiarities, which will be noticed under each country but the change was slow, traditional forms being firstly transformed in general design and detail, and then new features building and civilization to ; created. the nations of Europe had at this time come into France, Germany, and Spain, were becoming powerful and tending to set aside the rule of the Holy Roman Empire, which now had become only a title. In northern Europe, Denmark, Sweden, and Norway were distinct kingdoms, and England had become welded into one by the Norman kings at the end of the eleventh century. Nearly existence all ; 2. ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER. The term Romanesque may be said to include all those phases of Western European architecture which were more or less based on Roman art, and which were being carried out, in a rough and ready way, in various parts of Europe, from the departure of the Romans up to the introduction of the pointed arch in the thirteenth, century. The general architectural character is sober and dignified, while picturesqueness is obtained by the grouping of the towers, and projection of the transepts and choir. As helping towards the appreciation of the character of Romanesque architecture, imagine an ancient civilization of vast extent, devoid of physical force, and recognisable only by the multitude of its monuments, some intact, others injured or partially destroyed, all unguarded, and most of them disused calamity which happens in due course to every great nation or group of peoples and further suppose that the civihzation is represented by a man, dormant, but who slowly, and with many a contortion, and many a yawn, threw off the sleep of ages and awakened to a sense of the treasure he possessed, of the wants he began to understand, of the means to the ends he would attain. In his midst were ruins of vast edifices, some still standing among heaps of stones hewn and carved, of sculptured capitals and friezes, of monoliths of porphyry and marble, while his own shelter afforded him little protection either from heat or cold. What happened ? As time went on he gathered up the smaller fragments and arranged them perhaps upon the foundations, still intact, of an ancient building, and as he gradually acquired a knowledge of the uses to which he might apply this and that fragment, he insensibly — ; ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE. 223 produced a new art founded on the old. This explains the birth of Romanesque, for on the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, the quarry of the ruins of ancient buildings largely influenced the work done, both in construction and decorative treatment, for the earlier buildings of the period were often built from the remains of ancient Roman buildings in the vicinity. In the course of time, however, a new style was evolved, for, putting aside spasmodic efforts, the period of the tenth to the twelfth centuries is remarkable for the tentative employment of a new constructive principle and a new use of material. The first was the principle of equilibrium which succeeded that of inert stability as used by the Romans, and the second was the employment of dressed stonework in comparatively small pieces, connected with mortar beds of considerable thickness. This was a method not before attempted, because the materials in use up to that time had not demanded it. By this new employment of materials, the whole current of architecture was turned to a constructive system which should answer to its needs, and whichj many tentative experiments, was to lead to the next glorious period of architecture the thirteenth century in which elasticity of structure was joined to the principle of equilibrium. In Italy (page 228) there were various early Christian edifices erected at Ravenna from the fifth to the seventh centuries, for Ravenna was the principal city in Italy during this period, being the seat of the Exarch or representative of the Byzantine Emperor in the western part of his dominions. These buildings partake, naturally, of the elements of the fully developed Byzantine style, in the same way in which S. Mark, Venice, and S. Front, Perigueux, was the result of the close connection of these centres with the trade and commerce of the East (No. 84). In France (page 246), especially in the Western and Northern Provinces, the old traditional basilican plan was preferred and adhered to during the eleventh and twelfth centuries, with certain exceptions, notably S. Front, but the dome raised on pendentives became the common kind of vaulting, in the South, in conjunction with the aisleless nave. It is worthy of note also that the use of the pointed arch occurred in the South of France sooner than in the North, and it is considered by some, but with apparently little foundation, to have been derived from contact with the Saracens, who invaded this portion of France from 719-732. Further, the development of monasteries in the eleventh century gave a great impulse to civilization and agriculture, and exercised considerable influence on architecture. Provence was, moreover, in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries the chief centre of the growing traffic from the East, and the highway by which artistic and other products of the Levant were dispersed through France and the North of Europe. Similarly, the development from Roman to Gothic art was after — — — COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 224 accomplished through the ordeal of the destructive, yet purifying dissolution of the Dark Ages, whence the true spirit of Roman construction emerged, cleared to a great extent of the extraneous elements with which it had been so long encrusted. Up to the end of the twelfth century the Provencal architects had led the way, but at this period the lay architects of the North, seizing on the Provengal principle of the Pointed arch, soon developed from it the magnificent Gothic system of the perfected architecture of the thirteenth century. Romanesque The Roman system Vaulting. plain cross vaulting (No. iii a), ^was used in Europe up to the twelfth century, when it began "'"|e, be superseded by the " groin-rib " type of vaulting, in which a framework of ribs supported vaulting surfaces of thinner stone, kno*n as " severies," or "in-filling." This method introduced a new principle in vaulting, viz., designing the profile of the groin ribs and leaving the form of the vaulting surfaces to adapt themselves to them whereas in Roman architecture the vaulting surface was first settled, and the profile of the groins followed as a matter of course. It was therefore necessary for the Romanesque architects to find the profile of the ribs, and especially that of the diagonal rib, which had previously been settled without design, as mentioned above, by the intersection of the two vaulting surfaces meeting at right angles. If the vaulting surfaces were semi-cylindrical the diagonal groin was of necessity a semi- ellipse, but the use of ordinates, as shown in No. Ill E, does not appear to have been employed by the Romanesque architects, who surmounted the difficulty arising from the difference of span of the diagonal and transverse ribs as follows (a.) On the Continent, especially in Germany and France, the vaultingjibs were usually portions of circular curves of similar curvature starting from the same level, thus the diagonal rib, having the longest_spanjrose to a greater height than the transverse and longifudinal riDsl^Nurri2, d^). The panelling was then filled in on the top of these ribs, and in consequence the structure was highly domical, (b.) In England, however, where the vaults were generally constructed with level ridges, this domical form was not used, the difference in height between the diagonal and the transverse ribs being equalized by stilting the latter (No. 112 b, d*, g) or else by forming the diagonal rib as a segment of a circle, the longitudinal and transverse ribs becoming semicircular (No. 112 d''). In vaulting an oblong compartment the difference between the heights of the diagonal and wall ribs was still greater and produced an awkward waving line of the groins on plan (Nor. iii b and 112 c). In the vaulting of the naves of the Romanesque churches in of ; : " ; ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE. 225 at Worms (No. 105 g), Mayence and Spires France, as at the Abbaye-aux-Hommes (No. 112 e, f), and Abbaye-aux- Dames at Caen, and N6tre Dame, Paris (No. 157); and in England, as at Canterbury the difficulty of spanning oblong Germany, as in ; compartments was surmounted by including two of them in one square bay of vaulting, each main bay corresponding with two square compartments of the side aisles (Nos. 94 a, b, e and 105). In some instances the intermediate pier was carried up as a vaulting shaft and formed the vaulting compartment into six parts on plan, which was then known as " sexpartite (six part) vaulting (Nos. 100 c, 105 b and 112 f). The weight of the vaulting in this case was therefore supported by alternate piers, which were accordingly strengthened (No. 105 c). During the following centuries this principle of rib design became more complex by the multiplication of the frame-work of ribs described under Gothic vaulting (page 272). It will also be found that all these difficulties of accommodating the heights of ribs of different spans, especially in oblong compartments, were surmounted by the introduction of the pointed arch (Nos. hid and 112 d). 3. EXAMPLES 4. (refer to each country). COMPARATIVE. — In church architecture further developments from A. Plans. the type of the Early Christian Church took place. Charlemagne gathered around him artists and skilled workmen, and calling architecture out of its sleep, took the Roman basilica as a model Transepts were usually added, and the for the new churches. chancel prolonged further east than in the basilicas, the church partaking more and more of a well-defined cross on plan, as The transepts were the at S. Michele, Pavia (Nos. 94 and 95). same breadth as the nave, which was usually twice the width of the aisles. The choir was raised considerably by means of steps, and underneath, supported on piers, was formed a vaulted crypt as at S. Miniato, Florence (No. 93) and S. Michele, Pavia (No. 94), in which the saints and martyrs were buried. The earlier examples have choirs without aisles, the latter, however, being continued round The in later examples. in connection with the churches are often of cloisters great beauty and have capitals and other features elaborately carved. The towers are special features, and of great prominence in the design, as at the Church of the Apostles at Cologne (Nos. 104 F.A. Q COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 226 c). They are either square, octagonal, or circular, with well-marked stories, having windows to each, and are placed at the west and east ends and the crossing of nave and transepts. and 105 — Walls. Roman work and precedent, of course, influenced constructive art in Europe, although technical skill was at a very low ebb during this period. Walls were in general coarsely built, having on the exterior, buttresses formed as pilaster strips of slight projection, connected at the top by horizontal mouldings, or by a row of semicircular arches resting on a corbel table Semicircular arches, resting on rudely projecting from the wall. formed capitals, also occur. Other peculiarities are referred to in the comparative table of each country. The door and window openings are very c. Openings. characteristic. The principle upon which the jambs were formed was in receding planes, or rectangular recesses, known as " orders," in which were placed circular columns or shafts. The arches followed the same method, being built in concentric rings (No. 94 f, h, ]). continuous abacus often occurs over these columns, and the profile of the jamb is carried round the semicircular portion of the arch in southern examples. The principal doorways are usually placed in the transepts. The characteristic rose (or wheel) window occurred over the principal door of the church in the west front, as at Iffley Church, Oxon (No. 138) also in Southern Italian examples, as at Palermo. D. Roofs. The general employment of vaulting, especially over the side aisles in the eleventh century, was due to the desire of fire-proofing the building, but the central nave was still often covered with a plain wooden roof. The form of arch universally employed was semicircular (No. 94 a), often raised, i.e., stilted (No. 112 d', g). In early examples rib mouldings were not used in the vaulting, but when introduced, about iioo a.d., were at first plain, and afterwards moulded in a simple manner (No. 94). Intersecting barrel vaults (No., 112 g) were usual, and the difficulty in constructing these in oblong bays led to the use of pointed arches in later times. When the crossing was crowned by an octagonal dome, four of the sides were carried on " squinch " arches (Nos. 94 and 105). The Romanesque architects used " flying buttresses " under the aisle roof, in the case where the thrust of a vaulted roof had to be met (Nos. 94 and 100) but it was left for the Gothic architects of the thirteenth century to place them •above the aisle roof and weight them with pinnacles. E. Columns. The shafts of the columns have a variety of treatments, flutings being used (Nos. 98 b, 107 l), of vertical, spiral, or trellis work form, or the whole shaft is sometimes covered with sculptured ornaments. In early examples forms of the Corinthian or Ionic capitals occur as in the third column from B. all — A — ; ; — — ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE. 227 the right in S. John's Chapel, Tower of London (No. 135), where Also see Nos. 98 j, k, l, m, and Classic influence is apparent. 103 D, E. The capital in later times was often of a cushion (cubiform) shape, as in S. John's Chapel, Tower of London (No. 135), with lower corners rounded off and no carving, or is sometimes richly carved and scolloped (Nos. 146 and 148 b, c). F. Mouldings. These were often carved elaborately, as will be referred to in English Romanesque (Norman) architecture (No. 139). The abacus over the capital (Nos. 98 j, m, 103, 107 and 146) is always distinctive in form it is higher, but projects less than in the Classical style, and is moulded with alternate fillets and hollows. The base to the column (Nos. 107 d, h, and 146) is generally an adaptation of the old Classical form, or Attic base, resting on a square plinth, at the angles of which flowers or animals were occasionally carved to fill up the triangular part, and the lower circular moulding often overhangs the plinth. The carving and ornaments were derived from G. Ornament. many types of the vegetable and animal kingdom and treated in a conventional way, often but rudely carved (No. 139). In the interiors fresco is more commonly used than mosaic, which required great technical skill. Early stained glass was influenced by Byzantine mosaic. — ; — — Note. The above are the principal characteristics of the style as a whole. Local influences of taste, climate, geography, and geological formations were instrumental in producing the different characteristics of each country. Q 2 ITALIAN ROMANESQUE. CENTRAL ITALY. " In Middle Rome there was in stone working The Church of Mary painted royally The chapels of it were some two or three In each of them her tabernacle was And a wide window of six feet in glass Coloured with all her works in red and gold." I. i. Geographical. INFLUENCES. —The boundaries of Central Italy extended to Florence and Pisa on the north and west, and to- Naples on Pisa was by position a maritime power, while the south. Florence lay on the great route from south to north, commanding the passage of the Arno. Tuscany possessed greater mineral wealth ii. Geological than .any other part of Italy, and building stone was abundant. The ordinary builditig materials of Rome were bricks, local volcanic stone (tufa or peperino), and Travertine stone from Marble was obtained from Carrara, or Tivoli, a few miles off. Paros and the other Greek isles. iii.. Climate. (See Roman architecture, page 112.) iv. Religion. It was during this period that, although the Popes had only small temporal dominions, they began to make their power felt in civil government, and the disputes with the emperors began. Pippin, king of the Franks, asked by the Pope (Stephen II.), defended the latter from the Lombards and gave him the lands they had seized and also the chief city of the Exarchate (Ravenna), which the Pope accepted in the name Thus in 755 Central Italy severed its connection of S. Peter. with the Empire and became independent, thereby inaugurating the temporal power of the papacy. Charlemagne, invited by Pope Adrian I. (772-779), advanced into Italy in 773, and, after defeating the Lombards, entered Rome for the first time in 774. He gave the — — — 1 The style is divided into three central, north, table of the three together is given on page 242. and south. The comparative COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 230 Dukedom of Spoleto and other concessions to Adrian, thus adding temporal power, and from this period ponnection with Byzantium was broken off. Gregory VII. ruled that the clergy should not marry, and that no temporal prince should bestow any to his which resulted in the struggles between the Guelphs and Ghibellines (page 405). V. Social and Political.— In Italy, especially in Tuscany, an artistic movement, in which architecture was most prominent, took place in the eleventh century, the daughter arts of painting and sculpture being in a state of inaction. The growth of an ecclesiastical benefice, decisions commerce and the independent v;ews caused by education, were important factors in the rise of Naples, Pisa and Amalfi and other cities for self-defence, owing to insufficient protection from Constantinople. vi. Historical. Genoa, Pisa, and Amalfi sent merchant fleets to the ports of the Holy Land for the Eastern Fair at Jerusalem, arid thus were brought in contact with Eastern At the commencement of the eleventh century, Pisa, the art. rival of Venice and Genoa, was the great commercial and naval power in the Mediterranean, and took the lead in the wars against the infidels, defeating the Saracens in a.d. 1025, 1030, and 1089 at Tunis, The Pisans were defeated by the Genoese in 1284, which led to their decline. The rise of Florence dates from 1125, when, owing to the destruction of Fiesole, the inhabitants of this latter city moved there, and in the following century its growing commerce caused it to rival Pisa. Lucca was an important city at this period, being also a It republic, and its architecture was influenced by that of Pisa. was lent by the feuds of the two parties, the Guelphs and Ghibellines, the former supporting the power of the Popes and the latter industrial population, the increase of — that of the Emperors. 2. ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER. ITALIAN (central) NORTHERN EUROPEAN r-T ROMANESQUE. ROMANESQUE. New ideas rarely found. Constructive boldness not sought after, departure being made from the ancient Basilican type. The Italians have always possessed a greater capacity for beauty in less The principal aim is perfection in the construction of vaulting, which influenced the whole design as in Normandy and the Rhine provinces, where vaulting was now — being developed. Such treatment caused the introduction of many than for developing a bold new constructive ideas, and novel construction into a complete style. The Byzantine influence was strong, especially in several districts, as Venice, Ravenna, and Pisa, which latter city in particular possesses a distinct style of its own. detail, ITALIAN (central) ROMANESQUE. 3. 23I EXAMPLES. Pisa Cathedral (a.d. 1063-1092) is a fine example of the style (Nos. 91 and 92), the interior, with rows of columns and flat ceiling recalling the Early Christian Basilican church, but the transepts with segmental apse at each end were an advance on the Basilican plan. Over the crossing or intersection of nave and transepts is an elliptical dome of later date. Externally, blind arcades built in stripes of red and white marble, ornament the fafades, which also have small open arcades, one above the other, producing a fine impression (No. 91). The building depends for its artistic effect upon the beauty and interest of its ornamental features rather than the promise of logical development into a new style which a northern example possesses. The Campanile (Bell Tower), Pisa (a.d. 1172), is a circular structure 52 feet in diameter, ornamented with eight stories of arcades (No. 91). During its erection the foundations gave way, thus causing the tower to lean about 1 1 feet from the vertical. The Baptistery, Pisa (Nos. 70 g and 91), designed by Dioti Salvi in a.d. 1153, is circular, 129 feet in diameter, with encircling aisle in two stories. Built of marble, it is surrounded externally on the lower story by half columns, connected by semicircular arches, above which is an open arcade in two heights, supported on small detached shafts. It was not completed till a.d. 1278, and has Gothic additions of the fourteenth century, in consequence of which it is not easy to ascertain what the original external design really was. The structure is crowned by an outer hemispherical dome, through which penetrates a conical dome 60 feet in diameter over the central space, and supported on four piers and eight columns. Thus, if there were another internal hemispherical cupola, it would resemble the constructive scheme of S. Paul, London (No. 253 b). This Baptistery bears remarkable similarity to the church of S. Donato (ninth century) at Zara, in Dalmatia, which, however, has a space only 30 feet in diameter. S. Michele, Lucca (a.d. 1188, fafade 1288), and S. Martino, Lucca (a.d. 1060-1070, facade 1204), bear considerable similarity to the architecture of Pisa, the reason being that Lucca belonged to that city when most of its churches were erected. Pistoia Cathedral (twelfth century a.d.), resembles these churches. Rome. In the Romanesque period, i.e., from 600-1200, while the architecture of the rest of Europe was slowly developing towards the Gothic style, that of Rome was still composed of Classic columns and other features taken from ancient buildings. During this period a series of towers were also erected in the imperial city. The origin of these is not clear, as the custom of — COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 232 was not then in existence, but they may be regarded as prototypes of the medieeval towers and spires. bell ringing The Cloisters of S. John Lateran, Rome (a;d. 1234), and of Paul beyond the walls, Rome (a.d. 1241) (No. 98 b) are of extreme interest. They are formed in square bays, the vault arches inclosing the arcades in groups of five or more openings. The special feature of the cloisters consists of the small twisted S. columns inlaid with glass mosaic in patterns of great beauty, and forming an evidence of the patient skill of the craftsman. S. Miniatp, Florence (No. 93), is a leading example of the Central Italian style. The length of the church is divided into three main compartments, and the raised eastern portion, under which is a crypt, is open to the nave. This division of the church by piers seems a prelude to the idea of vaulting in compartments, and is an evident departure from the basilican type of long unbroken ranges of cplumns or arcades. The marble panelling, and banding in black and white marble of the exterior and interior, were carried to a further extent in the Gothic period. Very notable is the open timber roof with its decoration, recently restored, in bright coloring and red. For the Comparative table of gold, green, blue of Italian Romanesque, see page 242. NORTH I. ITALY. INFLUENCES. — Geographical. Milan, the capital of Lombardy, always i. had a high degree of prosperity, on account of its favourable situation in the centre of that state, and its proximity to several of the Alpine passes. The city is surrounded by rich plains, and the cultivation of the mulberry (for the silkworm), and the vine, adds to the general prosperity of the district. Ravenna and Venice, Empire, reflect as trade connecting links with the Eastern the culture and architectural forms derived therefrom. ii. Geological, — Brick plains of Lombardy, of this material. — is. and the the great building material of the shows the influence local architecture iii. Climate. North Italy has a climate resembling that of Central Europe, i.e., a climate of extremes. Milan is near enough to the Alps to experience cold in winter, while in summer the heat is often excessive. iv. Religion. At the end of the fourth century, Theodosius, the great emperor, had been forced to do penance on account of a massacre in Thessalonica, S. Ambrose, Bishop of Milan (374-398), closing the doors of the Church against him. This is an instance — ITALIAN (central) ROMANESQUE. 93- S. MiNiATO, Florence. COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 234 power the Church had acquired. S. Ambrose's fame and influence maintained the Ambrosian rite, which differed in some points of ritual, such as side altars not being used {cf. Milan Cathedral, page-4o8). V. Social and Political. The devastating wars in the North Italian plains led to the, gradual rise of the Venetian state, the first form of government being republican, but an oligarchy in which a Duke, or Doge, was invested with supreme authority gradually grew up. Italy itself consisted of a number of separate cities which were independent commonwealths. vi. Historical. Venice from the first kept up a close alliance with Constantinople, by means of which both the naval importance and commerce of the little state continually increased, especially after the eleventh century, by which time commercial relations had extended to the Black Sea. and the coast of the Mediterranean, including Dalmatia, Croatia, and Istri^,. The barbarians who occupied the valleys of the Rhine and Po pursued a similar development in spite of the intervening Alps, Milan of the great — — being as much German as Italian. In Italy, the old Roman population eventually caused barbarian influence to wane, but had come to pass little building was done. The eleventh and twelfth centuries were the great building epochs in Lombardy. until this 2. ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER. NORTH ITALIAN ROMANESQUE. CENTRAL ITALIAN ROMANESQUE. Arcades restricted to top of gables and apses The character is less refined owing to the use of stone and brick rather than marble. Wide, flat, and severe fa9ades are typical, covering the whole church, without marking in any way the difference of nave and Arcades in several stories were employed as an ornament to the fafades (No. 91). Marble facing' was carried to such an extent as to form a style in that material. The Basilican type was closely adhered to, and beauty and delicacy of detail were preferred to the invention of fresh architectural forms produced by a new system of construction. Detail much affected by Classic remains and traditions, which re- aisles. A rose window (No. g6) and a porch resting on lions are often the chief relief. Details show a breaking away from Classic precedent. In sculpture, hunting and other scenes reflecting the life of the no.rthern invaders are frequent, and in these a grotesque element is prominent. The churches were of the Basilican type, and were nearly all vaulted and roofed. Side aisles are often in two stories, the clerestory is omitted, the walls between the side chapelsformingbuttresses. sulted in the production of carving and ornament of great refinement. At Pisa ancient sarcophagi richly sculptured with figures existed, by whose study the Pisani were in- fluenced. The churches were mostly roofed with plain open-timbered roofs, the members of which were ornamented with bright coloring. ITALIAN 51 fllStt ROMANESQUE EXAMPLES. m Two STOBIEf.. ,. y.|i IJipfCLySTfEEBJEt °fi^/ 5»°* * ^ * * * * sfellEKI?,giaK 94- '' _ 5..p ... _ 1^ a^ ifx' ITALIAN (north) ROMANESQUE. 3. S. 237 EXAMPLES. Antonio, Piacenza (a.d. 1122), S. Ambrogio, Milan 140), and S. Michele, Pavia (a.d. 1188), are good examples. (a.d. 1 The latter aisles in (Nos. 94 and 95) two is vaulted in square bays, with side and piers of clustered stories, Zenone, Verona section. 1139) (No. 96), is an important example, having, under the slope of the gable, arcaded corbels, which are characteristic of the work in this district also the great western rose (wheel) window, and the projecting porch to the main doorway, with columns supporting arches, and resting on the backs of crouching lions (No. 98 g). The origin of the arcaded galleries in many of the more important churches of the period (Nos. 91 and 95), is interesting, as illustrating how such architectural features have had, originally, a constructive meaning. Thus, when a wooden roof was placed over a circular vault, the external walls did not need to be continued solid above the springing of the vault, as the ends of the rafters exerted little thrust hence this portion was arcaded, the arches being connected with the extrados of the vault, giving a deep shadow in an appropriate position (Nos. 104 and 105 b). This arcading, from being used merely in this position, came to be employed, in every possible part of the building, as a decorative feature, so that it even entirely covered the western fa9ade. Similarly in the later Gothic periods in England, the battlemented parapet, primarily of use for defence at the top of the building, was employed as a decorative feature on window transoms and other S. (a.d. ; ; positions. The Palazzi Farsetti and Loredan, and the Fondaco dei Turchi, a great warehouse on the Grand Canal, used in the Eastern trade, are well-known examples at Venice, in which are found the characteristic cubiform capital, carrying semicircular arches which are often stilted. The Campanili, or bell towers, are important features of the period. They were not joined structurally with the church to which they belonged, as in England, France, and Germany, but were placed at some little distance, and sometimes connected with the main building by cloisters (No. 96). These campanili occur in most of the North Italian towns, and in many cases are rather civic monuments than integral portions of the churches near which they are situated, as that of S. Mark, Venice. In these cases they were erected as symbols of power, or commemorative monuments, being similar in purpose to the civic towers of Belgium (page 390J. In plan they are always square, and have no projecting buttresses, as in countries north of the Alps, being treated as plainly as possible, without breaks, and with only sufficient windows to < O '4, Bl > z o z M N (A »;,ijS*,(«a(SiS \ \ \ \\\«\\v ; ITALIAN (SOUTHERN) ROMANESQUE. 239 admit light to the internal staircase, or sloping way the windows increase in number from one in the lowest story to five or more in the uppermost story, which is thus practically an open loggia, and the whole is generally crowned with a pyramidal shaped roof, as is the Campanile of S. Zenone, Verona, which is typical (No. 96). For comparative table of Italian Romanesque, see page 242. ; SOUTHERN ITALY AND " Therein be SICILY. neither stores nor sticks, Neither red nor white bricks But for cubits five or six. There is most goodly sardonyx. And amber I. laid in rows." INFLUENCES. — Geographical. Being situated centrally in the Mediterranean sea, and being of triangular form, Sicily presents one side to Greece, another to Italy, and the third to North Africa, and its history is a record of the successive influences of the powers i. to whom these countries belonged. — Geological. The deposits of sulphur contributed to the wealth and prosperity of the island, while the mountains afforded ail abundant supply of a calcareous and shelly limestone, which ii. architectural character. The climate of South Italy and Sicily is almost sub-tropical, for palms grow in the open air, and there are celebrated orange and lemon groves near Palermo. On the southeastern coast of Italy the towns have the general characteristics of Oriental cities, the buildings having flat roofs and other Eastern influenced iii. its Climate. features. — — In Sicily, owing to Mahometan influence, the iv. Religion. facades were ornamented with intricate geometrical patterns, which were invented because the Mahorrietan religion forbade the representation of the human figure (page 654). The Mahometans introduced into V. Social and Political. Sicily valuable commercial products, such as grain and cotton. Their civilization was, however, considerably aided by the previous — Byzantine influences. Southern Italy has always maintained a close connection with Sicily, and has yet to be fully explored for traces of its architectural development. vi. Historical. — In a.d. 827 the Mahometans landed in Sicily, and gradually overran the whole island, and the latter part of the tenth century was the most prosperous period of their sway. Sanguinary struggles amongst certain sects led to the insurrection of several cities, and hastened the downfall of the Mahometan From 1061-1090 the Normans, under Robert and dynasty. 24I ITALIAN (south) ROMANESQUE. Roger de Hauteville, conquered the island, and a descendant of the latter was crowned at Palermo, 1 1 30. During this period Sicily prospered, and her fleet defeated the Arabs and Greeks, but civil wars as to the right of succession led to the island passing in 1268 to Louis of Anjou. 2. ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER. The change from the Byzantine to the Mahometan dominion, and from the latter to the Norman in the eleventh century is traceable. Byzantine influence is shown in the plans of certain churches, as in the Church of the Martoraiia at Palermo, where a square space is covered by a dome supported on four freestanding columns. Mahometan influence is evident, particularly in the decorative parts of churches, as mentioned above. Architecture developed considerably under the Norman rule by the erection of cathedrals, and a school of mosaic was maintained in the Royal Palace during this period. The churches have either wooden roofs, or a Byzantiiie dome, but are hardly ever vaulted. Dark and light stone was used in courses externally, and rich mosaics and colored marbles, were employed as a facing internally. The arcfiitectural features of the interiors, of which Monreale Cathedral (No. 97) has typical examples, were subordinate to the mosaic decorations which clothe the walls. 3. EXAMPLES. Monreale Cathedral (begun 11 74, No. 97), on the high ground to the south-west of Palermo, illustrates mixed Byzantine and Mahometan influences. In plan it resembles a Roman basilica, with apses at the eastern end of nave and aisles, the choir being The nave columns have well carved raised above the nave. capitals of Byzantine form, supporting pointed arches, which are square in section, and not in recessed planes as in northern Pointed windows without tracery occur in the aisles. walls are ornamented with mosaics in color, representing scenes from biblical history, surrounded by arabesque borders. A dado, about 12 feet high, of slabs of white marble, is bordered by inlaid patterns in colored porphyries. The open timber roofs, intricate in design, are decorated in color in the Mahometan style. The interior is solemn and grand, the decoration being marked by severity, and by great richness in the material employed. The low, oblong, crowning lantern, the early bronze doors, and rich cloisters, are notable. The Capella Palatina, Palermo (1132) (in the Royal Palace), work. The F.A. R COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 242 for Monreale Cathedral, and though of small size, is It has a unrivalled for richness of the effect of thejnosaics. richly treated ceiling of stalactite forms. S. Giovanni degli Eremiti (1132) and the Martorana Church {1113-1143) are other examples .at Palermo which show the blending of Saracenic and Byzantine ideas. S. Nicolo, Bari (1197), is a good and typical example of the churches of Southern Italy which are small in comparison with The entrance front is always their northern contemporaries. distinguished by a projecting porch, with the columns resting on lions' backs, supporting a projecting roof, above which is the The detail of these buildings is characteristic wheel-window. always refined and graceful, which may be due to some extent to The the Greek descent of the inhabitants of this part of Italy. crypts are a special feature, that at Otranto being noteworthy for the numerous points of support employed to carry the choir. was the model 4. COMPARATIVE. Central, North, and South. — Plans. The plans of most of the churches were substantially same as the basilicas, more especially in Central Italy in the North the churches are mostly vaulted, modifications being introduced on the lines of German work in the South, the low lanterns at the crossing, oblong in plan, are marked features, as at Monreale Cathedral (No. 97). The choir was occasionally raised to admit of a crypt beneath, reached by steps from the nave. A number of circular examples were built mainly as baptisteries, that at Novara being connected to the cathedral by an atrium. There is a fine atrium at S. Ambrogio, Milan. In the North A. the ; ; the open arcades of the apses seen in conjunction with the usual arcaded octagonal lantern at the crossing, constitute the charm of the style. Projecting porches were preferred to recessed doorways, and are bold open-arched structures, often of two stories, resting on isolated columns, and placed on huge semi-grotesque lions, having a symbolic character. Towers, as at Piacenza and S. Zenone, Verona (No. 96), are detached, being straight shafts without buttresses or spires, which, when occurring, can be traced to German influence. The flat blind arcades of the northern style were B. Walls. developed by the Pisan (Central) architects in their galleried fagades. The west front, including the isles, was carried up to a flat gable, with arcading following the rake, and other arcades The Northern facades are flatter, and carried across in bands. sometimes have a large circular window to light the nave. In the South this feature is highly ela;borated with wheel tracery, as — ITALIAN ROMANESQUE ORNAMENT. 98. R 2 — COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 244 in the churches at Palmero. Flank walls are occasionallydecorated by flat pilaster strips, connected horizontally by small arches, springing from corbels (No. 98 c). c. Openings. In consequence of the bright climate the openings are small (No. 98 a), and opaque decoration was preferred to translucent. Window tracery was not developed. The wheel windows (No. 96) just described are only rudimentary in pattern, attention being chiefly bestowed upon their decoration, as in the rich carving of the Palermo examples. D. Roofs. Where round-arched cross vaulting, or simple barrel vaults, were not employed, the timber roofs of the basilican style often effectively decorated with color were used. In the southern examples, domes rather than vaults were attempted, but timber roofs are the rule in Palermo and Monreale (No. 97), and, owing to Mahometan influence, great richness in timber ceilings — — was attained. The nave roofs of of wood with flat Italian churches continued to be constructed ceilings till the thirteenth century. Plain small span were common and divided into compartments by flat bands, a practice which was continued in the Gothic period. Piers with half shafts were employed rather than E. Columns. columns, especially in the North, where vaulting was more in use, but coupled and grouped shafts were seldom properly groined vaults of — developed in relation to the vaulting ribs. Buttressing was obtained by means of the division walls between an outer range of chapels, more often than not unmarked on the exterior. In Central Italy, as at Toscanella, rude Corinthian columns carry a round-arched arcade, above which the plain walls are pierced, by the small arched openings of the clerestory, while the roof is of the simple basilican type. No. 98 j m, show typical capitals. F. Mouldings. Flat bands are characteristic of the Northern style. Strings were formed by small arches, connecting one — Rude imitations of old Classical detail are met with. Southern work is far superior in detail, often possessing good outline, grace, and elegance. Richness and elaboration were attempted in the doorways (No. 94 h, j). G. Ornament (No. 98). Roughly carved grotesques of men and animals (No. 98 e, f), vigorous hunting scenes, and incidents of daily life are found in Northern sculpture. In Central Italy greater elegance is displayed, and Classic models were copied. The rows of apostles on the lintels of the doorways, as at Pistoia, are similar in treatment to Byzantine ivories. In Southern examples, bronze doors are a feature, as at Monreale Elaborate decoration in mosaic exists as in the Cathedral. Palermo churches and elsewhere (No. 98 h), and the use of color was the main object in the design of interiors. pilaster strip to another. — ITALIAN ROMANESQUE. 5. 245 REFERENCE BOOKS. Cattaneo (R.)-— " Architecture in Italy from the Vlth to the Xlth Translated from the Italian. i8g6. Cresy and Taylor. " Pisa." 4to. 1829. Centuries." — — " Etude sur I'Architecture Lombarde." Dartein (F. de). 2 vols., folio. Paris, 1865-1882. Delhi (A. J.) and Chamberlin (G. H.).— " Norman Antiquities of Palermo and Environs." Folio. Boston, 1892. Gravina (D. D. B.). — " II Duomo di Monreale.'' t vols., large folio. Palermo, 1859. Gruner(L.).— "Terra-Cotta Architecture of North Italy.'' 4to. 1867. HittorffQ. I.) et Zanth (C. L. W.).—" Architecture Antique de la Sicile." Knight. Folio. Paris, 1827. " Normans in Sicily." — 1838. — " Saracenic and8vo. Norman Remains to Knight (H. G.). Normans Illustrate the m Sicily." Folio. 1830. Rohault de Fleury. — " Monuments de Pise au Moyen Age." 2 vols., Paris, i856. " Die Bauwerke in der Lombardei vom 7 bis 14 (F.). Jahrhunderts." Folio. Darmstadt, 1846-1854. Salazaro (D.). " Studi sui Monumentidella Italia meridioni dal IV^ al and Osten folio 4to. — — XIIP Secolo." z vols., folio. Napoli, 1871-1877. Schulz (H. W.) " Denkmaeler der Kunst des Mittelalters in Unter- — and 4to. Dresden, i860. Street (G. E. ).— " Brick and Marble Architecture of North Italy." 1874. " Harrison (F.). "Theophano." (Historical Novel). italien." 3 vols., folio — 8 vo. — FRENCH ROMANESQUE. ' ' How reverend is the face of this tall pile, Whose ancient pillars rear their marble heads To bear aloft its arched and ponderous roof, By its own weight made steadfast and immovable Looking And tranquillity. terror It strikes on the aching sight." I. an awe — CoNGREVE. INFLUENCES. — i. Geographical. France is practically on the high road between the south and north of Europe, and the relative position of each district influenced the various prevailing types of architecture. When Rome was a great power it was by way of Provence and the Rhone Valley that civilization spread hence the strong classical element which is there prevalent. The trade with Venice and the East introduced to the district of Perigueux a version of the Byzantine style in stone. ii. Geological. France is exceedingly rich in building materials, especially stone, of which most of the towns are built. The soft, fine-grained stone- of Caen, used throughout Normandy, was also exported to England. In the volcanic district of Auvergne walling was executed in a curious inlay of colored ; — material. — iii. Climate. In France there are three climates (a.) the north resembles that of the south of England (b.) the west on the Atlantic coasts is warmer, owing to the Gulf Stream and warm S.W. winds (c.) the south, on the Mediterranean, with a landscape almost African in its aspect, is sub-tropical. iv. Religion. Christianity, when introduced, took a strong hold in the Rhone Valley, Lyons contributing martyrs to the cause. In this district the most interesting event was the rise of the Cistercians (page 219), the severity of whose rules as to church building, caused a reaction from the decorative character of the later Romanesque, as in the facades of S. Gilles, and Attention was then concentrated upon of S. Trophime, Aries. ; ; — FRENCH ROMANESQUE. 247 the means of producing grand and severe effects, and the change the pointed style was promoted, by the effort to solve the to problems of vaulting. V. Social and Political. Hugh Capet ascended the Prankish throne towards the close of the tenth century, Paris being made the capital of the kingdom. At this period the greater part of the country was held by independent lords, and the authority of the king extended little beyond Paris and Orleans. Lawlessness and bloodshed were rife throughout the century, hence archi- — tectural progress was impossible until a more settled state of society was established. vi. Historical. On the death of Charlemagne, Northern France was invaded by the Northmen, from whom Normandy was named, and their ruler Rollo was the ancestor of the Norman kings of England. The conquest of England in 1066 marked the transference of the most vigorous of the Normans to England, Normandy becoming an English province until the time of King John. The hold, however, which they retained on their possessions in France was the cause of continual invasions and wars in the two countries, until the complete fusion of races in both was marked by the loss of the English possessions in France. — 2. ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER. The southern and graceful style is cloisters, version of old Roman fresh significance. remarkable for its rich decorative fafades Provence being a new features, which seem to have acquired a the buildings of In Aquitania and Anjou the vast interiors in one span, supported by the massive walls of the recessed chapels, are impressive, and seem to revive the great halls of the Roman Thermae. In the is the promising commencement of a new epoch, having the first tentative essays of a new system. The interiors were close set with pier and pillar, and heavily roofed with ponderous arching, forming a link to the marvellous structures of the next three centuries, where matter is lost in the emotions north the style expressed. The plain thick walls, usually with flat external buttresses in the north or internal buttresses in the south, emphasized the richness of the west fronts of the churches in both districts. The development of vaulting, which was different in the north and south (page 223), made much progress, especially along the Loire Valley. In the south, naves were covered with barrel vaults, whose thrust was resisted by half barrel vaults, over two-storied aisles (No. 100 b), thus suppressing the clerestory, as to Notre Dame du Port, Clermont-Ferrand. In the north, naves were covered by groined vaults, often in COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 248 square compartments and covered with sexpartite vaulting, the groined ribs being constructed independently and supporting the infilling or " severies." 3. EXAMPLES. France exhibits several varieties of the Romanesque style, in which different peculiarities are traceable, and for this reason divided into southern and northern provinces, the it may be main dividing line being the Loire. The influence of Roman remains was naturally greatest in the parts where they more particularly occur, as at Nimes, Aries, and Orange, and other places in the Rhone Valley. The South of France may be roughly divided into the provinces of Aquitania, Auvergne, Provence, Anjou and Burgundy. Aquitania has two distinct styles, the first having roundarched tunnel-vaults, and the second having domes spheroidal in shape, elongated upwards and supported on pointed arches, indicating an eastern influence. 5. Sernin, Toulouse, is an example of the first type. S. Front, Perigueux (a.d. 1120) (No. 84), an example of the second type, is due to a large trade with Byzantium. It is a Greek cross on plan, and closely resembles S. Mark, Venice (page 208). The illustration (No. 84 b) shows the arches supporting the domes as pointed, but they have latterly been made semicircular. Attached to the church is a magnificent campanile in stone, consisting of a square shaft, surmounted by a circular ring of columns, carrying a conical dome. S. Front acted as a prototype of churches with cupolas in France. Angouleme Cathedral (No. 100 e, f, g) is of the second type, but has a long aisleless nave with transepts provided with lateral chapels and an apsidal choir with four chapels, forming a Latin cross on plan. The nave is covered with four stone domes, that over the crossing being carried above the roof and having a stone lantern. Both transepts were originally crowned with towers, but the southern one was destroyed in 1568. Cahors Cathedral (a.d. 1050-1100) is an imitation of S. Irene at Constantinople (page 204). Auvergne being a volcanic district, the geological influence is apparent, the buildings having a local character imparted to them by the inlaid decoration formed of different colored lavas, as at Notre Dame du Port, Clermont-Ferrand, and the frequently Church at Issoire. Provence has numerous remains of the eleventh and twelfth centuries, in many of which pointed tunnel-vaults were used, all showing Classical influence, as at Notre Dame, Avignon. The portals of 5. Trophime, Aries (No. 102), and the Church at 5. Gilles, exhibit great richness of effect and beauty of detail. The cloisters, consisting of columns, used in couples in the depth FRENCH ROMANESQUE. 249 of the wall, and carrying semicircular arches, are specially interesting. The columns have deep capitals sculptured with sharp and distinctive foHage (No. 103 d, e) and support semicircular arches, which are left entirely open, no attempt at tracery filling being made. Anjou has many examples rich Notre Dame la Grande, Poitiers. in decorative treatment, as The Abbey of FontevrauU {a.d. 1101-1119) resembled Angoul6me Cathedral in its aisleless nave and general arrangement. Burgundy was specially rich in monastic establishments which influenced the architectural treatment of the churches, many of which have been destroyed. The great Abbey -Church of Cluny (1089-1131) was the most famous in this province and was the longest in France, with double side aisles to the main body of the church, and a chevet of five apsidal chapels. The pointed arch was employed in the arcade of the nave, which was covered with a great barrel-vault, and the aisles probably had groined vaulting. Autun Cathedral (iogo-1132) is an example of the aisleless churches which are found in various parts of France. The Church at Vezelay (a.d. iioo), and that at Vienne are other interesting examples, the former having a groined vault instead of the longitudinal barrel-vault. Tournus Abbey Church is an interesting example in which arches spanning the nave from pier to pier support transverse vaults, under which windows were formed in the nave walls. The North of France comprises the provinces of Central France, with Paris as the radiating centre, and the provinces of Normandy and Brittany. Normandy possesses many fine examples of this period owing to its prosperity and the power of the Norman dukes. These examples are of the vaulted basilican type, which was being developed towards the complete Gothic of the thirteenth century. The city of Caen possesses a number of examples illustrating the difficulties of vaulting, which ultimately led to the introduction of the pointed arch. The Abbaye-aux-Hommes (S. Etienne), Caen (Nos. loo-ioi), commenced a.d. 1066 by William the Conqueror, in expiation of having married Matilda in spite of their close relationship, is the best known example. The plan seems to have been founded on the Romanesque church of Spires (Germany). It had originally an eastern apse, but this was superseded later by the characteristic chevet (No. loi). The west end is flanked by two square towers crowned by octagonal spires with angle pinnacles, this fafade being a prototype of the Gothic schemes to follow. The vaulting illustrates the difficulties of spanning oblong compartments without the aid of the pointed arch. Two bays COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE 250 nave are comprised under one vaulting compartment, which thus being approximately square, the rise of the transverse, diagonal, and wall ribs is nearly equal. This resulted in a system known as sexpartite vaulting (page 225) (Nos. 100 c, d, 112 E, f), which, however, was superseded immediately on the introduction of the pointed arch, when each compartment, whatof the its shape, could be vaulted without reference to the neighbouring one, because the difference between the width of the nave and the distance longitudinally between the piers could be easily surmounted by pointed arches of different radius manipulated so as to equalize the height of the ribs. The Ahhaye-aux-Dames (La Trinite), Caen (a.d. 1083) (No. gg), in which the progress of intersecting vaulting is seen, the Church of S. Nicholas, Caen (a.d. 1084), and the Abbey Church of Mont S. Michel (since restored), are notable examples. The Abbey of S. Denis, near Paris, was erected by the great building abbot. Abbe Suger, in-1144, and the choir and west front still remain as left by him, although a fourteenth century nave has been wedged between them. ever 4. — COMPARATIVE. Plans. In the south, internal buttresses, inclosing the outer range of chapels, were preferred, as at Vienne cathedral. Round churches are rare in this district. Towers are detached, resembling Italian Campanili. Cloisters were treated with the utmost elaboration and richness, usually having double columns with magnificent capitals which receive the round arches of the narrow bays, and were left entirely open, as glazing or tracery were not required by the climate. In the north, the increasing demand for vaulted interiors modified the planning, and the vaulting ribs were provided with individual shafts, which developed the pier plans. In the setting out of the bays important changes were introduced, thus in early plans the naves were vaulted in square bays comprising two aisle bays longitudinally (No. lob), but on the introduction of the pointed arch each oblong bay of the nave formed a vaulting compartment corresponding in length to each aisle bay. B. Walls. Massiveness is the characteristic of all the early work. Walls were of rubble with facing stones. Elaboration was reserved for doorways in the arcaded lower portion of the facades, which are often models of simplicity and richness. Buttresses are often mere strips of slight projection (No. gg), and the fagades were arranged in stories, with window lights in pairs or groups. Flying buttresses, admitting of high clerestories with windows lighting the nave, were introduced between a.d. 1150-1200. The towers are mostly square with pyramidal roofs (Nos. g8 and loi). A. — a o M o z w FRENCH ROMANESQUE EXAMPLES. XfllE Of SECTIONS TiWsmt lOO. nmL 100 MMY¥ FRENCH (north) ROMANESQUE. loi. The Abbaye-aux-Hommes View of (S. Etienne), Caen. East End. COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 254 — The earlier vaulted churches have no clerestory. c. Openings. In the south, narrow openings with wide splays to admit light sufficed, while in the north a commencement in grouping was made, more especially in the direction of filling in the vault spandrels of the clerestory with arrangements of three and five light openings. The ante-chapels at the Church at Vezelay (1130) are generally referred to as having the earliest pointed Irnposing western entrances are characteristic vaults in France. of this period. — In the treatment was a tunnel vault half tunnels over the aisles, often in two stories, thus not admitting of a clerestory. The pointed section was sometimes used, doubtless to lessen the thrust upon the walls, and in order that the roofing slabs of stone might be carried direct upon the extrados of the vault. In the north, clerestories of increased height were obtained by means of the intersecting nave vaults (No. 100), with groin ribs (introduced in the twelfth century), whose thrust was taken by buttress arches concealed in the aisle roofs a step towards the later flying buttresses. The vault in the southern examples frequently supports the roofing slabs direct, while in the northern examples above the stone vault were constructed wooden roofs, which supported the covering independent of the vault. In nave arcades, either square piers, recessed E. Columns. in planes, and having upon their faces half round shafts carried., up to the vaulting ribs (No. 103 m-p), were employed, or columns, circular or octagonal, and reminiscent of Roman times, were used, and then the vaulting shafts start awkwardly from the abacus of their huge capitals (No. 103 d, e), imitated from the Corinthian order. The carrying up of the, vaulting shafts emphasizes the division of the nave into bays. F. Mouldings. In the south, the elegance due to classic tradition contrasts with the rough axed decoration cut upon the structural features of the Norman work. In the latter, arched jarnbs are formed in recessed planes (No. 102), with nook shafts plainly fluted, or cut with zigzags. Capitals are cubical blocks, either plain or carved with copies of acanthus leaves from old D. Roofs. south, the early to the nave, buttressed by — — — Roman examples (No. 103). Corbel tables, supported by plain blocks or grotesque heads, form the cornices of the walls (No. 103 B, G, j). G. Ornament.; Painted glass was not favoured in southern examples, small, clear-glazed openings being employed to set off the opaque color decoration of the walls. Stained glass favouring large openings was. gradually developed in the north. The diaper work so common in the spandrels of arches, in"" northern work is supposed to have arisen from the imitation, in carving, of the color pattern work, or draperies that originally occupied the — FRENCH ROMANESQUE-ORNAMENT. 3TR4UL~"TO0I5~CHIATE^UX. 103. FRENCH ROMANESQUE. same 257 Figure sculpture was more frequently employed southern buildings (No. 102). The West Fronts of the churches of the Charente District in Aquitania were elaborately treated with carved ornament representing foliage or figures of men and animals. On the ground story the capitals so treated were often continued as a rich, broad positions. in the frieze. REFERENCE BOOKS. 5. McGibbon 8vo. (D.). — " The Architecture of Provence and the Riviera." 1888. Pugin (A.W.) and La Keux. 4to. 1828. Ram^efD.^. R^voil (H.). — " Architectural Antiquities of Normandy." — de I'Architecture." a — "" Histoire Architecture Romane du Midi de vols., 8vo. la Paris, 1864-1873. Ruprich- Robert (V.). " L'Architecture Normaiide aux siecles." 2 vols., folio. Paris, 1885-1887. folio. — Paris, 1879. 3 vols., France." Xle Sharpe fEdmund). — "The Domed Churches of Charente.'" et 4to. Xlle 1882. Spiers (R. Phen^).— " Saint Front of Perigueux and the Domed Churches of Perigord and La Charente.'' R.I.B.A. Journal, February zo, i8g6. ThioUier (N. and F.). — " L'architecture religieuse a I'^poque dans I'ancien diocese du Puy." Folio. Le Puy, igoo. Verneilh (F. de). " L'Architecture Byzantin en France." — 1851. VioUet-le-Duc. — " Dictionnaire romane 4to. Paris, de I'Architecture." 10 vols., 8vo. translation of the article " Construction '' has been published under the title of " Rational Building," by G. M. Huss. 8vo, New York, 1895, Yonge (C. M.). " Richard the Fearless " (Historical Novel). Paris, 1859. A — — GERMAN ROMANESQUE. "Both And the Castell and the Toure eke the hall and every boure Without peeces or joynings, But many subtle compassings As babeuries and pinnacles Imageries and tabernacles I saw, and eke full of windows As flakes fallen in great snowes." I. Chaucer. INFLUENCES. — On the banks of the Rhine, and in the i. Geographical. south, cities have been established during the Roman occupation, and it was in these parts that Christianity took root, while, in the north and east, paganism still existed. ii. Geological. The existence of stone in the Rhine valley facilitated the erection in this material of churches, rendered permanent and fireproof by the early introduction of vaulting. No stone being found on the sandy plains of Northern Germany, brick was there employed, and the style of that district is consequently varied from that of the Rhine valley. The average temperature of Central Germany iii. Clirnate. may be said to be the same as Southern England, but with wider extremes, as the heat in the summer is ten degrees higher, and in the winter correspondingly lower, so that carriages in Berlin are converted into sledges. iv. Religion. In the early period the Germans looked much to Rome, and Charlemagne, being a strong supporter of Christianity, forced the people of Saxony to embrace that religion. The plan of a typical church of this period is peculiar in having eastern and western apses. There are also a number of important circular churches, built as tombs, or more especially as baptisteries, the conversion of the tribes giving great importance to that ceremony. Germany united under CharleV. Social and Political. magne afterwards split up into small principalities, whereas France, originally divided into many distinct nationalities, became fused into an absolute monarchy and has remained, in — — — — GERMAN ROMANESQUE. 259 most united of continental powers. In the later portion of this period, Germany was troubled by the dissensions of the two rival parties, the Guelphs and Ghibellines, the one supporting the Church and municipal rights, and the other representing the Imperial authority, but the conflict between the two took place mainly in North Italy (page 405). vi. Historical. Charlemagne (a.d. 768-814), the first Frankish king who became Roman Emperor, was crowned by the Pope at Rome, and ruled over the Iknd of the Franks, which included all Central Germany and Northern Gaul. In addition he established the Frankish dominion over '"Southern Gaul and Northern Italy (No. go). In a great measure, he restored the arts and civilization to Western Europe, resulting in the erection of many important buildings in his dominions. spite of all changes, the — On Charlemagne's death in a.d. 814 this empire crumbled to pieces through internal wars, and in the unsettled state of the country, the German princes pushed themselves into prominence by demanding the right to elect their own sovereign Conrad the First, reigning as King of Germany at the beginning of the tenth century. His successor, Otho, extending the boundary of the German Empire southwards into Lombardy, was crowned Emperor of the West at Rome, an event which shows the leading position of the Frankish emperors at the period, and was not without its influence on the architecture of these regions. The political relations of the Hohenstaufen (or Swabian) Emperors (a.d. 1 138-1273) with Lombardy, is evidenced in the similarity The house of Hapsburg of the architecture of the two countries. succeeded the Hohenstaufen dynasty in 1273, when French Gothic architecture was introduced, and henceforth copied. — 2. ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER. The style bears a strong resemblance to North Italian Romanesque, due to certain influences dealt with previously (page 234 and above). The Rhine districts possess the most fully- developed Romanesque architecture, and the style has fewer local varieties than that of France. The plans of the churches are peculiar in having western and eastern apses, and no great western entrance as in France. The general architectural character is rich in the multiplication of circular and octagonal turrets, in conjunction with polygonal domes, and the use of arcaded galleries under the eaves. The most richly ornamented parts are the doorways and capitals, which are bold and effective in execution. Vaulting appears to have been first adopted in the Rhenish churches some fifty years after its general adoption in France. s 2 GERMAN ROMANESQUE. 104. Church of the Apostles, Cologne. View of Apse. GERMAN ROMANESQUE. The Germans may claim 261 to be the inventors of the Lombardian their round arched style lasted North ItaUan Romanesque, and or till about 1268. 3. EXAMPLES. Saxony and the Rhine valley are specially rich in Romanesque examples, and few works of importance were erected elsewhere till the Gothic period. Gernrode Abbey Church (958-1050), and S. Godehard, Hildesheim (1133), are of the basilican type with triple eastern apses. The Monastery of S. Gall (circa a.d. 820) in Switzerland (page 276), of which a complete plan was found in the seventeenth is an interesting and typical example of a German Benedictine monastery of the period. It appears to have been prepared by Eginhard, Charlemagne's architect, and consisted of a double-apse church and cloister, abbot's lodging, school, refectory, dormitory, guest-house, dispensary, infirrriary, orchard, cemetery, granaries, and bakehouses. The Church of the Apostles, Cologne (a.d. 1220-1250) is one of a series in that city which possesses characteristic features (Nos. 104 and 105 a, b, c). In plan it consists of a broad nave, and of aisles half the width of the nave. The eastern portion has three apses, opening from three sides of the central space, crowned by a low octagonal tower, giving richness and importance to this portion of the church. The grouping externally is effective, the face of the wall being divided up by arcading, and crowned with the characteristic row of small arches under the eaves of the roof. The bold dignity of this church may be compared with the confused effect of the French chevet, as S. Etienne, Caen (No. loi). S. Maria im Capitol (ninth century), S. Martin (a.d. 1150II 70), and S. Cunibert, are other examples of triapsal churches for which the city of Cologne is famous. Cathedral (1110-1200) (Nos. 105 and 106) vies with those of Mayence (a.d. 1036), Treves (a.d. 1047), and Spires (a.d. 1030), as the representative cathedral of this period. As usual (Nos. 105 d, e, f, g),^ the vaulting of one bay of the nave corresponds with two of the aisles, both being covered with cross vaults. Twin circular towers flank the eastern and western apses, and the crossing of the nave and transept is covered with a low octagonal tower, having a pointed roof. The entrances were placed at the side, a position which found favour in Germany as well as in England. The facades have semicircular headed windows, framed in with flat pilaster strips as buttresses. Aix-la-Chapelle Cathedrar(No. 83 e, f), built a.d. 768-814 by the Emperor Charlemagne as a royal tomb-house for himself, Ravenna is interesting as resembling S. Vitale, century, Worms . GERMAN ROMANESQUE EXAMPLES. TMMSEPTS ^nn Emf§.UH P0ETIION TBMP3^LI1INI PL19N THEBS IS ^ %9Um£ WlliTEM TO^N^fElSE '5iCiri!©H ia@© ^M, •EflSr^WWBTilNlBS I f EJMT!2?S' ?..., 105. iP g° y -«> -.- f l?n SCALE? PMdS w H K H S O COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 264 a (No. 83 c, d). short description is given on No. 83. The building has been much altered since the time of Charlemagne, for the Gothic choir was added in 1353 to 1413, and the gables and roof of -the octagon are of the thirteenth and seventeenth centurieg. The chapels surrounding the structure are of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, and the western tower has been added in recent years. The building is of interest, historically, as the crowning place of the Western Emperors. Laach Abbey Church (a.d. 1093-1156) is a Benedictine completely in this style. On either side of the western apse, which is used as a tomb-house, are the principal entrances from the western atrium, and there are three eastern apses. The vaulting-bays of the nave and aisles are of similar example built width. Lubeck Cathedral peculiar to added till ; 1335 (page 398). a.d. Germany a type of brick architecture but the choir and aisles were not (a.d. 1173), is North Germany remarkable for a series of double or two-storied churches, generally attached to castles, as at Nuremberg, Landsberg, and Steinfurt. In these it is held that the upper chapel was used by the Prince and his personal retinue, and the lower by his retainers, but in some instances the upper church would appear to have been provided in case of floods. is 4. COMPARATIVE. — A. Plans. The naves and aisles are vaulted in square bays, one vaulting bay of the nave being equal to two of the aisles, as in the plan of Worms Cathedral (No. 105 g), and the Church of the Apostles, Cologne (No. 105 c). The choir is always apsidal, and often raised, as in Lombardy, to admit of crypts beneath. Western as well as eastern transepts occur, contrasting in this respect with Italian examples, and over the crossing a tower, sometimes octagonal (No. 106), is generally found. Western apses are frequent (No. 105 g), as at Trfeves and the Abbey Church at Laach, and aps'es also occur at the ends of transepts, as in the Church of the Apostles at Cologne (No. 105 c). Numerous towers, either square, circular, or polygonal, pro- ducing a rich and varied outline, were employed, two being usually at the east end flanking the apse, and two at the west end, connected by a gallery (Nos. 106 and 107 g). The towers rise in successive stories, and a characteristic finish consists of four gables and a steep roof, a hip rafter rising from each gable top (No. 107 g). B. Walls. The blank walls are cut up by flat pilaster strips, connected horizontally by ranges of small arches springing from — GERMAN ROMANESQUE ORNAMENT. 107. COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 266 Owing to the smallness of scale be considered as a string course or corbels (Nos. 105 d and 107 e). this favourite feature may cornice. Open arcades, the origin of which have already been dealt with (page 237), occur under the eaves of roofs, especially round the apses (Nos. 104 and 106). The churches have sometimes a triforium and always a clerestory. c. Openings. No tendency towards tracery is found. The windows are usually single, being rarely grouped (No. 106). The doorways (Nos. 105 and 107 n) are placed at the side, rarely in the west front or transept ends. D. Roofs. In the Rhine district a central semicircular barrel vault was supported by half-barrel vaults over the aisles, a system which led by degrees to complete Gothic vaulting. Timber roofs — — were also employed for large spans. Tower roofs, and spires of curious form, are a special feature of the style. A gable on each tower face, with high pitched intersecting roofs (No. 107 g), is common, the latter being formed by the intersections of the planes between the adjacent sides of adjoining gables forming a pyramid, being a step in the evolution of spire growth. The nave arcades were generally constructed of E. Columns. square piers, with half columns attached, and the alternation of piers and columns is a favourite German feature. The capitals (No. 107 c, D, F, h), though bold in execution, are well designed, being superior to the later Gothic examples. F. Mouldings (see Walls). These are as a rule of indifferent design, but the capitals and bases take a distinctive form, leading from Roman through Romanesque to Gothic. Internally the flat plain surfaces were occaG. Ornament. sionally decorated in fresco, and the traditions and examples of the early Christian and Byzantine, mosaic decorations, were carried on in color. In the north colored bricks were used, and were unsuitable for rich decoration, thus accounting for the absence of sculptured foliage. — — — 5. Bpisserde (S.). Munich, 1844. Moller(G.). REFERENCE BOOKS. — " Denkmale der Baukunst am Nieder-Rhein." — " Denkmaeler der Deutschen Baukunst." Folio. Leipzig. 1852. Hardy Folio. (A. S.).— " Passe Rose" (Historical Novel). nmm D™ CENTURY io8. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE. GENERAL INTRODUCTION.! I. INFLUENCES. — The nations of Western Europe had come Germany was the centre of the Western Empire and the Kingdoms of France, Italy and Spain were also becoming strong united states. Russia, Sweden and Norway had little to 1. Geographical. into existence. do with Western Europe. England had become thoroughly united under the Norman Kings. The map (No. io8) gives the general distribution of the various countries in the thirteenth century. ii. Geological. Refer to each country. iii. Climate. Refer to each country. It has been pointed out that the sun, in Northern Europe, is more suitable for Gothic than Classic Architecture, for it is a sun wheeling somewhat low on an average round the sky, and shadows are better caught by outstanding buttresses and the flying lateral members of a Gothic — — ' Before treating of the development of the style peculiar to each country, a general outline sketch is given. COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 268 fa9ade, than by the level lines of the heavy horizontal Classic cornices, which are more effective under the Grecian or Italian sun, which moves higher in the firmament. Snow and inclement weather were responsible for the high pitched Gothic roof of Northern Europe. iv. Religion. Introductory remarks and a description of the various orders of monks are given on page 218. The immense power of the Popes, which was probably at its height in the thirteenth century, was evidenced in the way they made and unmade Emperors and Kings and disposed of their dominions. The clergy, in consequence of their learning, also took a prominent part in temporal affairs, and by so doing attracted wealth and power to their orders. In Germany, many of the Abbots and Bishops were princes of the Empire, and the Archbishops of Cologne, Treves, and Mayence were among the Electors of the Emperor. The worship of relics, and of local saints (as S. Hugh at Lincoln, S. Thomas at Canterbury, S. Swithun at Winchester), the periodical pilgrimages, the adoration of the Virgin Mary and other forms of ritual, also had their influence on the monuments. Mariolatry was responsible for the addition of lady chapels either laterally, as at Ely (No. 117 a), or at the eastern extremity, as at Salisbury (No. 117 e). The demand for chapels dedicated to particular saints, for an ambulatory to be used for processional purposes, and the foundation of chantry chapels where masses for the dead could be repeated, also affected the general plan of — many buildings. — Social and Political. Refer to each country. The growth of towns which developed into important cities brought about an increase of riches and the erection of magnificent buildings owing to municipal rivalries. In Italy, the country was V. divided into different portions belonging to the larger towns, which afterwards became principalities, whereas in Germany, towns joined together for mutual defence, amongst the most famous being those forming the Hanseatic league. vi. Historical. 2. — Refer to each country. ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER. The principles and character of Gothic architecture we're similar throughout Western Europe,'and are indicated on No. 109. The fully-developed Gothic art of the thirteenth century was the style which had been slowly developing itself throughout Europe as a necessary sequence of Romanesque art, and is mainly recognized because of the introduction and use in door and window openings, arcades, vaulting and ornamentation of the pointed arch GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE. 269 which, indeed, is so characteristic as to give a suggestion of height coinciding with the aspiring tendency of the style and its connection with the religious enthusiasm of the period. In the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries the Gothic masons carried to the utmost the use of stone as a building material, heaping it up in towers that rose on open archways through the lofty roofs of the naves and transepts, and tapered away in shell-like spires embroidered in all the fretwork of laceThey hung it aloft in ponderous vaults treated by like tracery. art to seem the gossamer web of nature, scarce capable of bearing the stalactite pendants in which the fancy of the fifteenth century found its expression, and eventually pushing their practice to the furthest boundaries, they cut the granular stone to the thin- / ness of fibrous wood or iron, and revelled in tricks of construction and marvels of workmanship. The Gothic architects, developing still further the principles of Romanesque architecture (page 221), had to employ the materials at hand according to their nature, and to seek for those laws of elasticity and equilibrium which were substituted for those of This inert stability as practised by the Greeks and Romans. elasticity was obtained by the employment of stone laid in narrow courses with tolerably thick mortar joints. / Every vertical support in Gothic architecture depended for its /stability on being stayed by a buttress, which in its turn was weighted by a pinnacle and every arch-thrust met another which counteracted it. In the case of the nave vaults, the collected pressures of the vaulting and roof were counteracted by arches, called flying buttresses, leaning against the nave wall and supported at some distance by massive piers, weighted with tall pinnacles (Nos. 109 a, 141 f, g, h, and 153 a). Walls became mere enclosures, and the entire structure consisted of a framework of piers, buttresses, arches, and ribbed vaulting held in equilibrium by the combination of oblique forces neutralizing each other (No. 141). Even the walls themselves were occupied principally by glazed windows, divided by stone mullions, having their upper parts designed with combinations of curves of great variety. No such system of construction, it is evident, could have been developed without the employment of such a material as stone, laid in tolerably small courses with mortar joints, which gave the necessary elasticity to the various pressures. These principles led to the introduction of much novelty in mouldings, capitals and piers, -for the numerous vaulting ribs being collected at intervals were supported on capitals of a shape formed to fit them, and these were provided with shafts, sometimes carried on corbels and sometimes continued to the ground, influencing very largely the form of the nave piers. Further, the comparative scarcity of materials taught the Gothic ; - ' PRINCIPLE? or (aOT/lIC COn^TBOCTION. WJIST If! Tffi mnWfflMT fiF MIWB CISO» V^JHS «f w»2 nsHcnsN » c®iiki ij MBpCMTWEm fffiJpiRJ M« TOS) KIWMte) i,?i)TmL .WlMS PLAN AMD 5ET TIMGOOTOFMNCeUFXTES WEI WE BBS, log. • M cmJWTBSeTIB ED Vault with ™HSVER5E,DlfiG0N; GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE. 27I architects to practise economy in their use, the characteristic mouldings of the Mediaeval period exhibiting much less waste of material than those common in Classic times. In the Middle Ages it was the constructional features themselves to which an attractive form was given, and in this particular, the architecture of this period stands in close relation to Greek art. The same changed, and was upheld, but the form had was no longer the self-contained Greek temple, principle of truth it reposeful in the severity of horizontal lines, but a complex, restless structure whose aspiring tendencies found expression in vertical grouping, unity being obtained by the exact and necessary correlation between all the parts. Although many, if not most, of the architectural features were founded primarily on structural necessity, yet others were the expression of artistic invention and of aesthetic requirements. Form, in the best types of architecture, is not the result of caprice, but is only the expression of the structural necessities. If the column is a real support and has an expanded capital it is if the mouldings for the purpose of supporting a particular load and ornaments have particular developments it is because they are necessary, and if the vaults are divided by ribs it is because they are so many sinews performing a necessary function. The ; spire was evolved from no utilitarian requirements, but was a sign of the communal spirit and an indication of municipal prosperity, of which it formed an outward and visible expression. The architecture was adapted to a structure of small stones with thick mortar joints, and was a compromise between the concrete walling and the jointed stones (without mortar) of the Romans. The military organization, which had helped to mould the Roman style, was wanting in the Gothic period, stone having to be sought in various quarries from different proprietors and transported by voluntary aid, or by workmen who were forced labourers, doing as little as possible, and taken away, ever and anon, to fight in their owners' battles. As to the material at hand, the Gothic architects of Western Europe possessed stone which was strong and hard, and could be split into thin pieces, but had not at their disposal either the marble of Pentelicus or the blocks of granite which the Romans procured from Corsica, the Alps, and the East thus they were absolutely compelled to erect considerab'e buildings with thin courses of stone, whereas the Greeks erected small buildings with enormous blocks of marble, conditions naturally influencing the forms of each style of architecture. Romanesque architecture consisted of walling formed of a rubble core between two faces of stonework, but at the beginning of the thirteenth century, loftier and — ; COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 272 edifices being built, a new method was gradually In seeking to diminish the size of the piers and thickevolved. ness of the walls, it was necessary for the architects of this period to find a mode of construction more homogeneous and more capable of resistance, and to avoid the expense of labour which the carrying of material of large size involved. The walls, therefore, became of secondary importance, their place being occupied by stained glass windows, and the support of the structure was effected entirely by means of buttresses or short walls placed so as best to resist the thrust of the vaulting. Vaulting. The method was an extension of the Romanesque system, which was evolved from that of the Romans (page 224) and consisted of a framework of indepeiident ribs, which were first constructed and which supported thin panels of stone. The difficulties of vaulting oblong compartments were now overcome by the introduction of the pointed arch, which was used to cover the shorter spans, while the semicircular arch was The ribs became still used for some time for the diagonal ribs. permanent centres on which the panels or " infilling " of thin stone could rest, and enabled the building to be erected all at once or in parts without disadvantage to the solidity of the edifice. As indicated on Nos. 109 and 141, the pressures of the vaults were transmitted to the angles of each compartment by the diagonal ribs. Such pressures are of two kinds outwards by the nature of the arch, and downwards by the weight of the material, the resultant of the two being in an oblique direction. The increase of the number and variety of ribs and the consequent form of the vaults (No. 11 1 d) during the three centuries of Gothic architecture is one of the most fascinating studies of the more extensive — : style. The invention of painted glass was an important factor in the development of the style, for traceried windows came to be looked upon merely as frames in which to exhibit painted transparent pictures displaying the incidents of Bible History. Neither the painted sculpture and hieroglyphics of the Egyptian temples, the colored and sculptured slabs of the Assyrian palaces, the paintings of the Greek temples, nor the mosaics and frescoes of the Byzantine and Romanesque periods produced color effects that can be compared with the brilliancy and the many-tinted splendours of the transparent walls of a Gothic cathedral. In the north and west of Europe, where painted glass was the principal mode of decoration, the walls were kept internally as flat as possible, so as to allow the windows to be seen internally in every direction, all the mechanical expedients of buttresses and pinnacles being placed externally. Further, when by the grouping of windows and the subsequent formation of mullions and tracery, the entire screen wall between GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE. 273 the piers came to be occupied by bright colored windows, these of necessity took the pointed form of the vault, originally adopted for constructive reasons arising from the progress of the art of vaulting, which was further influenced by the desire for lofty windows to act as frames for the glass. 3. EXAMPLES. BUILDINGS ERECTED DURING THE MIDDLE AGES. CATHEDRALS AND CHURCHES. The construction of these buildings, many of which were founded in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, was carried on from generation to generation. The place in the national life which the mediaeval cathedrals ^occupied was an important one, and must be realized in order to understand how they were regarded. Cathedrals were erected and decorated partly as a means of popular education, and they were the history books of the period, taking the place in the social state since occupied, to a large extent, by such modern institutions as the Board School, Free Library, Museum, Picture Gallery and Concert Hall. The sculpture and the painted glass reflected the incidents of Bible History from the creation to the redemption of mankind, the sculptured forms and brilliant coloring being easily understood by the people. The virtues and vices, with their symbols, were there displayed, either in glass or statuary, along with their reward or punishment saints and angels told of the better life, and the various handicrafts, both of peace and war were mirrored in imperishable stone or colored glass. Architecture then as now was also the grand chronicle of secular history, past and present, in which Kings, Nobles and Knights were represented. The plans in all parts of Europe, as may be seen on referring to those of England (Nos. 117, 118, 119, 120 and 127), France (Nos. 155 and 159), Belgium (No. 167), Germany (Nos. 170 and 172), and Italy (Nos. 176 and 179), are'i^nerally in the form of a Latin cross, the short arms, north and south, forming the transepts. The cruciform ground plan is considered by some as a development from the early Christian basilicas, such as Old S. Peter, Rome (page 182), and by others, as evolved from the cruciform buildings erected for sepulchral purposes as early as the period of Constantine. A tower, sometimes crowned with a spire, was generally erected over the crossing or at the west end. As a rule the nave is the portion to the westward, and the choir, . ; F.A. T J < « Q a X h < U < h Z m z h z o > > < A < s O u GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE. 275 is that to the eastward of the crossing. Each of these divisions is further divided into a central nave and side aisles, separated by columns or piers. The principal entrance, often richly ornamented, is at the west end, or by a porch on the south or north sides. The columns or piers support arches (the nave arcade), which carry the main walls, rising above the aisle roof (Nos. 109 a and 141 g). Above this arcade are a series of small arches, opening into a dark space caused by the height of the sloping roof of the aisle; this is called the triforium, or "blind story." Above the triforium is a range of windows in the main wall, admitting light into the upper part of the nave this division is called the clerestory, or " clear story," probably derived from containing the bishop and clergy, ; the French word cluir, light being admitted by the windows in The head of these windows is this portion of the nave wall. generally the level of the ridge of the stone vault of the nave, which is covered by a high pitched wooden roof. The east ends or choirs, usually square-ended in England (Nos. 117, 118, 119 and 120) are generally richer than the remainder of the church, and the floor is raised above the nave level by The steps. Norwich (No. 118 d), Gloucester (No. 118 c), (No. 120 j), and Canterbury (No. ii8b), all of Norman origin, were circular, while Westminster Abbey has a ring of chapels or chevet (No. 127). The lady-chapel is placed beyond the choir at the extreme east end, as at Norwich, Peterborough, and Salisbury (No. 117 e), or on one side, as at Ely (No. 117 a). The cloisters attached to so many of the English cathedrals, forming part of the original monastic buildings, were probably derived from the atrium of the Early Christian period (page 180). / They are generally, but not invariably, south and west of the transept, in the warmest and most sheltered position, forming the centre of the secular affairs of the monastery, and a means of east ends of Peterborough (No. 117 d), Lichfield communication between different parts of the Abbey. the general distribution of the parts of a cathedral or large church, from which, naturally, there are many deviations, such as, for instance, the position and number of transepts (Nos. 117, 118, 119, 120, 155, 159, 167 and 187). Great length, and central towers (see Chichester, Durham, Worcester, Rochester, Oxford, York, Chester, Gloucester and western towers also Wells), are features of English cathedrals occur in many examples, as at Lichfield (with spires), Durham, Canterbury, York, Wells, Lincoln and Ripon. Compared with such long, low, and highly grouped examples. Continental cathedrals seem short, high, and often shapeless, owing to the intricacy and profusion of their buttressing (Nos. 109, 153, 154). Such is ; T 2 — — ; ; COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 276 In churches, a single western tower is an English characteristic (No. 130). The interior of a Gothic Cathedral has been thus described " The tall shafts that mount in massy pride, : Their mingling branches shoot from side to side Where elfin sculptors with fantastic clue O'er the long roof their wild embroidery drew When superstition, with capricious hand, In many a maze, the wreathM window planned, With hues romantic tinged the gorgeous pane, To fill with holy light the wondrous fane, To aid the builder's model, richly rude, By no Vitruvian symmetry subdued." ; The English Cathedrals, as a general rule, owe much of their beauty to the fact that they are generally placed in a large open space called the Close, as at Canterbury, Lincoln (No. 125) and Salisbury (No. 121) " The ranged ramparts bright From level meadow-bases of deep grass Suddenly sealed the light " or are situated picturesquely on the banks of a river, Worcester, or Durham, described by Scott as, " or, as Grand and vast that stands above the Milton so descriptively has it, Wear as at " ; are " Bosom'd high 'mid tufted trees." The French Cathedrals, on the other hand, are often completely surrounded by houses and shops (page 368), which in many cases were actually built against the wall of the church itself (No. 162). For comparison of English and French Cathedrals, t see page 378. MONASTERIES. These were amongst the most important structures erected in the middle ages, and were important factors in the development of mediasval architecture. They were erected by the various religious orders already referred to (page 218). The monks according to their several orders favoured different pursuits. The Benedictine was the chronicler and most learned of monks, and his dress was adopted by University students the Augustinian favoured preaching and disputations the Cistercian was the recluse, the friend of the poor, interested in agriculture and industrial pursuits the Cluniac was the student and artist the Carthusian the ascetic and the Friars the missionary preachers of the period. A complete monastery, of which S. Gall (page 261) and Westminster Abbey (No. 127) are good examples, included ; ; ; ; — GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE. 277 beside the church (a.) A Cloister Court, off which were placed the ChapterJHouse, with the Sacristy between it and the church, and the dormitory adjoining the church, approached by a separate staircase. The cellarage for beer, wine and oil, was often placed under the dormitory. On the opposite side to the church were the refectory (dining hall) and kitchens, thus placed to keep away noise and smell. The lavatory was usually placed in the south cloister walk as at Westminster, Wells, Chester, Peterborough and Gloucester, (b.) An Inner Court, with infirmary, guest house, kitchen, servants' hall, library and scriptorium (the writing and illuminating room for making copies of books). : (c.) A Common Court, with double gateway for carts, surrounded stables, store rooms, servants' rooms, prison, abbot's lodging, and barn, (d.') The Church, by granaries, bakehouses, tribunal, Court or Close, open to the public. («.) Mills, workshops, gardens, orchards, and fishponds. Monasteries answered the purpose of inns in little frequented places, as is the case to this day on the continent. SECULAR ARCHITECTURE. Examples of secular work, such as castles and residences of the nobles, the dwellings of the people, hospitals, and other civil and domestic work are referred to under each country. 4. COMPARATIVE. The comparative analysis of each country is given separately, and a comparative table of the underlying differences between the Gothic and Renaissance styles is given on page 442. 5. REFERENCE BOOKS. Lists are given with each country. ENGLISH ARCHITECTURE. ANGLO-SAXON, ROMANESQUE (NORMAN), AND GOTHIC. " Diffused in every part, through forms of human art, Faith had her arch, her arch when winds blew loud, Into the consciousness of safety thrill'd And Love her towers of dread foundation, laid Under the grave of things. Hope had her spire WORDSWORTH. Star high, and pointing still to something higher. " Spirit divine — ; — I. i. Geographical. INFLUENCES. — The position of England may well be considered unique. ***** " England, bound Whose rocky in with the triumphant sea. shore beats back the envious siege. This fortress built by nature for herself Against infection and the hand of war This happy breed of men, this little world, This precious stone set in the silver sea, Which serves it in the office of a wall, Or as a moat, defensive to a house. Against the envy of less happier lands." ; Shakespeare, Richard II. England being an island with natural harbours, and lying opposite the rich and populous plains of Europe, owed much of her development to the intercourse effected by her ships. Isolation by the sea has had two alternating influences, for it has assisted in the development of purely national characteristics, and by giving rise to an incurable habit of travelling, has led to the importation of continental ideas in architecture. The geology of the country is, in some way, ii. Geological. responsible for the special character of the buildings in different parts of England, thus the transport of stone by sea was an — ENGLISH ARCHITECTURE. 279 important reason for its use in some districts, but in the Fen districts, in the absence of good roads, material was conveyed on horseback. The granites of Cornwall and Devonshire, the limestones of Portland, and the oolitic formations, such as the Bath stones, have all affected the districts in which they are found, although, of course, as transport became easier, there was a tendency for these Even in the Middle Ages local distinctions to disappear. stone was brought from a distance, Caen stone from Normandy being used in the erection of Canterbury Cathedral and other churches. of modern type came into general use in England 1300, after being comparatively unused since the departure of the Romans, Little Wenham Hall (a.d. 1260), in Suffolk, being probably the earliest brick building existing in Brickwork about A.D. England. During the reigns of William and Mary and Queen Anne, brickwork was largely used in house construction by Sir ChristoHampton Court contains good examples pher Wren and others. of sixteenth and seventeenth century brickwork. In chalk districts the characteristic _;?«^ work of Norfolk, Suffolk, and parts of the south coast, gives a special character to the architecture of these districts. Terra-cotta was also employed, as at Layer Marney Towers, Essex (1500-1525), and in parts of Hampton Court Palace. Where forests afforded abundant material, as in Lancashire, Cheshire and elsewhere, half-timbered houses were erected, chiefly during the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries (Nos. 132 j, 150, and 247). Climate. iii. — The climate is cool, temperate, mild, and moist, adapted for almost continuous work, during every season, but cold, damp, and high winds with much rain necessitate conThe deep stant forethought in building to exclude the weather. porches and small entrances of English cathedrals are in contrast with continental entrances, and are directly influenced by the and is climate. iv. Religion. — The conversion King ^thelbert was effected by S. to Christianity of the Kentish Augustine in a.d. 597. By the end of the tenth century the greater part of Europe had embraced The power of the papacy had steadily grown, and Christianity. at its height from the eleventh to the thirteenth century, during which period several popes succeeded in overruling the civil power. In England, attempts at the assertion of national independence were continuous, but not pushed to extremes until a later date. The distinction between the regular and secular clergy was fully established, and the different orders of monks had come into was — COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 28o existence, their buildings exhibiting characteristic points of differThe Crusades, indicating the religious zeal of the period, are referred to on pages 218, 283, 363. John WyclifFe (d. 1384) asserted the freedom of religious ence (page 218). thought, and protested against the dogmas of the papacy. Many of the cathedrals formed part of monastic foundations (page 294), which accounts for peculiarities of plan differentiating them from French Examples. The dissolution of the monasteries in the reign of Henry VIII. provided funds for the erection of new mansions. Britain, as a Roman colony, was V. Social and Political. divided into five provinces, and progress was made in agriculture, building, and mining, the Roman dress and language being adopted by the British higher classes. The Roman settlements in this country were, many of them, provided with basilicas or halls of justice, baths, markets, temples, and villas as at Bath, Bignor in Sussex, Darenth in Kent, and Fifehead-Neville in Dorset. The remains of this epoch consist chiefly of castles, such as those at Colchester, York, Lincoln, Richborough, and Burgh — Castle (near Yarmouth). The word " Chester," as an affix, is derived from the Latin castra camp, and signifies a Roman settlement in this country, as at Winchester, Leicester, Silchester, and Chester. The excavations at Silchester revealed the remains of a very = word fine basilica. civilizing power of the Roman roads was of importance opening out the country. The four great roads in England were (a.) Watling Street, London to Wroxeter, near Shrewsbury. (&.) Ermine Street, London to Lincoln via Colchester and Cambridge. (c.) Fosse Way, Cornwall to Lincoln. The in : \i.) Ichnield Street, Bury St. Edmunds to Salisbury and Southampton. Agricola built his forts from the Clyde to the Forth. Hadrian's wall built from the Tyne to the Solway. A.D. 210. The Emperor Severus strengthened Agricola's forts. After the departure of the Romans in a.d. 420, the remains of Roman work were largely destroyed by the barbarians who succeeded them, but the influence of their architecture continued for a considerable period. A.D. 449-547. The arrival of the Angles and Saxons did not improve matters, as they were especially ignorant in all matters of art. are indebted to the Venerable Bede (a.d. 731) for most of the information regarding this period, and from him is learnt that a stone church was a rarity, a.d. 650 seems to be A.D. 81. A.D. 120. We 281 ENGLISH ARCHITECTURE. about the date at which stone churches were first built, and in some of these it has been suggested that the timber forms of the earlier ones were executed in stone (No. 134). A.D. 603. See of London revived. A.D. 604. See of Rochester founded. A.D. 656. Monastery of Peterborough founded. A.D. 681. Benedict Biscop flourished as a church-builder. A.D. 871-901. King Alfred erected, or rebuilt, many of the ruined cities or monasteries, but most of these appear to have been built of wood, and covered with thatch. A.D. 1017-1035. King Cnut founded Bury St. Edmunds monastery. A.D. 1061. Harold's Collegiate Church at Waltham conse- crated. Edward the Confessor's religious enthusiasm, Abbey (consecrated 1065). England by the Normans, and the building operations of Bishop Gundulf, at Rochester Castle, the Tower of London, and elsewhere, influenced the construction of strongholds, by which the invaders secured their position in the newly-conquered country. A.D. 1 174. William of Sens built the choir of Canterbury Cathedral. The boroughs led the way in self-government, free speech, and justice and the formation of towns, around the abbeys or castles, took place, though the process was slow and difficult. A.D. 1154-1216. During this period the fusion of the native English and Norman settlers was effected, in order to withstand the strangers whom the Angevin kings were constantly bringing A.D. 1042-1066. his work at Westminster A.D. io65. The conquest of and ; into England. The Association of Freemasons, founded early in the thirteenth century, assisted materially in forwarding the technical progress of the new buildings. A.D. 1215. The Magna Charta freed the Church, and remedied abuses. A.D. 1265. Leicester's Parliament, to which burgesses were first summoned from cities and boroughs, was called. 1265-1284. The conquest of Wales led to further development in the planning and design of castles. Edward L abandoned his foreign dominions, A.D. 1272-1307. and attempted to consolidate Great Britain. The framework of modern political institutions began to develop, and peace and prosperity in commerce gave importance to a middle class. A.D. 1362. The English language was ordered to be used in the law courts. A.D. 1349-1381. The rise of the farmer class and free labourer, A.D. COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 282 owing to the Black Death, which swept away half the population of England. The poet Chaucer (1340- 1400) fought in the army of Edward III. against France, his employment on diplomatic services, in Italy and Flanders, exercising a marked influence on his writings. William of Wykeham (d. 1404), one of the greatest Gothic builders, carried out a large number of building operations at Winchester, including the college and refacing of the cathedral, and many other buildings. The Wars of the Roses, between the rival York and Lancaster, distracted England at this period. A.D. 1476. The introduction of printing by Caxton, a press being established by him in the Almonry at Westminster. A.D. 1485. Accession of Henry VII. united the Houses of York and Lancaster, when a great impulse was given to the A.D. . 1455-1471. Houses of The Lady Margaret, development of political institutions. Countess of Richmond, as the foundress of colleges, developed education, and influenced art. The condition of the English people, which can hardly be considered apart from the architecture which they produced, is well treated in " A Short History of the English People," by J. R. Green, LL.D.; and should be referred to by the student. vi. Historical. B.C. 55. Julius Caesar's first expedition into Britain. A.D. 43. Expedition of the Emperor Claudius into Britain. A.D. 84. Final conquest of Britain by Agricola, the General of Domitian. A.D. 420. The A.D. 449-547. Roman troops withdrawn from Britain. The English (the Low Dutch tribes Angles, Saxons and Jutes) conquest of Britain. A.D. 450-550. Destruction of British churches known as by heathen invaders. A.D. 597-681. Augustine landed in England and the conversion to Christianity commenced. A.D. 802-837. Egbert (a friend of West Saxons, the Welsh Charlemagne), King of the gradually brought the other English kingdoms and into subjection. King Edward received the homage of all Britain. The conquest of England by the Normans caused a social and political revolution, the manners and government of the English being transformed, and the military organization of feudalism introduced. French traders at the same time came to reside in London and the large towns, thus bringing over A.D. 924. A.D. 1066. Continental ideas. ENGLISH GOTHIC. 1095-1254. A.D. of East and universities, which tact The Crusades, which brought about the conWest, aided in the formation of the great had a direct influence on feudalism and the Church. A.D. 1338-1453. The wars with France, Years' A.D. 283 known as the "Hundred War." 1360. Edward the Black Prince ruled at Bordeaux, as Prince of Aquitaine. A.D. 1431. Henry VI. of England crowned King of France at Paris. The introduction of gunpowder ruined feudalism, which were impregnable against the bow of the yeoman and retainer, crumbling before the new artillery which lay at the entire disposal of King Henry VH. Houses were c. A.D. 1500. fortresses henceforward constructed, not as castles or places of defence, but as residences, and from this period modern ideas of domestic economy gradually transformed house planning. Sutton Place (a.d. 1521-1527), near Guildford, is one of the earliest examples of a non-castellated domestic residence (page 322). A.D. 1520. Henry VHI. visited the French King, Francis I., on the Field of the Cloth of Gold the King and the many knights who followed in his train returning imbued with the newly introduced Renaissance style as practised in France. Girolamo da Trevigi, an Italian, was appointed Court Architect, and Henry VIII. encouraged other foreign artists, amongst whom was Hans Holbein, an accomplished painter of portraits and designer of ; work and woodwork. These and various other causes led to the great Renaissance movement, which is referred to on page 547. goldsmiths' 2. ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER. The architectural character of Gothic architecture in Europe has already been referred to on page 268. The development of mediaeval architecture in England from the departure of the Romans till the sixteenth century, has a more complete sequence of style than in other countries. It is usually divided into periods having special characteristics and known as Anglo-Saxon (page 327), Norman (page 328), Early English (page 335), Decorated (page 341), Perpendicular (page 349), and Tudor (page 356), and a comparative table showing the approximate period covered by each is given on page 327. Gothic Vaulting in England. The problems of vaulting during the Romanesque period have been already explained on page 224, where the essential differences between Roman and Mediaeval vaulting are compared. The first ^SKETCH- 3&+To1WCETHE501Lffi3ai4i TMECQMWRWEnT Smi-CRCOUR. WmLIS OF CQOflL CQW HEIGHT' ^ —SQMRE- WD 5Te?llSHT ON fLSM UME Of ORPIN -TRSl 15 WflKIMS THE OBlONOCtyWIiTrtCKT RSffM-QKUUR VAULTS Op ONEQIfflLSPW THE LESSER VSOIT SHLTED MaiOH6 LIHEoFOeoiHVflVIMS' KlffllSfflMCE aPS% V»LTo»L=MG lYaHTIMl aejaiSHMCE lOHES' w. PflRIMENKINTCKECTING VflUUS oT OHEQOa SPAN BOTEqOflL HEI6flTo6iaWtO«Y03EofOIU)IWrE5-a°INUIC5Tm5HToHPlflN- • ENGLISH GOTHIC EXAMPLES. JtPlWlifKLIfFE. 112. — I. ( .-J»' raw WULTIWi.SUUCIJTER C^HEBSfiL.(g) COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 286 consisted entirely in the design of the vaulting planes or surfaces without reference to their meeting lines or groins, whereas mediaeval vaulting consisted in profiling the groins which were erected first and supporting the vaulting surfaces which were made adapt themselves to them. for the mediasval architects was to vault, in stone, the nave of a church of the basilican type, and at the same time to provide for the lighting of the building by means of clerestory windows in the nave walls above the aisle roofs. The church wa5 thus crowned with a fire-resisting covering over which a wooden roof was placed in order to protect it from the weather. The evolution of vaulting in England, as on the Continent, involved the solution of a group of constructive problems which have been already hinted at on page 272. Thus it was in "connection with the necessity for counteracting the thrust of the nave vaults brought down on piers that the greater part of the evolution of the constructive side of the style took place. The following may be taken as the main features of vaulting in each period, and are indicated in Nos. iii and 112. Norman. The Roman system was in vogue up to the twelfth century, but the introduction of transverse and diagonal ribs in this period rendered temporary centering necessary for these. In England the raising of the diagonal rib, which produced the domical vault employed on the Continent, seems to have been but little used, and the method was either (a) to make diagonal ribs segmental, as in the aisles at Peterborough Cathedral (No. 112 D, g) or (h) to make the diagonal ribs semicircular and A stilt the springing of the transverse and longitudinal ribs. great advance was made by the introduction of the pointed arch, which was used firstly for the transverse and wall ribs only, the diagonal ribs [i.e., those with the longest span) remaining semi- to The problem — . ; circular. Norman vaulting was either (a) cylindrical or barrel vaultmg, as at the Tower of London (No. 135) (6) groined cross vaulting in square bays (No. H2 a) {c) other shapes in which the narrower vaulting arches were stilted (No. 112 b, c), or, in {d) Sexpartite (six part) vaulting the later period, were pointed as in the choir at Canterbury Cathedral, rebuilt by William of Sens in a.d. 1174. Two views of this type of vaulting at the ; ; ; Abbaye^aux-Hommesat Caen are shown in No. 112 e, f. Early English (Thirteenth Century). The pointed arch became permanently established, surmounting all the difficulties of — difference in span, and enabling vaults of varying sizes to intersect without stilting or other contrivances, as shown in Nos. in d and 112 The J, L. cells, also known as " severies '' or " infilling " were quite subordinate to the ribs and were of clunch or light stone in thin beds, These severies were of arched resting upon the back of the ribs. ENGLISH GOTHIC. 287 orm, but often had winding surfaces, and were constructed so that was directed towards the piers and not the wall rib. The "ploughshare twist," so called from its resemblance to a ploughshare, was produced by stilting or raising the springing of the wall rib, when forming the window arch bordering on a vaulting compartment, above that of the diagonal and transverse ribs (No. 109 a). This was a common arrangement, and was necessary in order to obtain greater height for the clerestory windows. The geometry of the Gothic system was a rough use of mathematical truths in which beauty was sought for, and not a strict regard for the exactitude of scientific demonstration. The curvature of the ribs was obtained from arcs struck from one or more centres, and designed without reference to the curvature of adjoining ones, as is seen in the setting out of Gothic vaulting compartment (No. in d). In this lies the whole difference between the Roman and mediaeval systems, for in the former the vaulting surface is everywhere level in a direction parallel to the axis of the vault, and any horizontal section of a spandrel or meeting of two cross vaults would be a rectangle. In the ribbed Gothic vault, however, the plan thus formed would have as many angles as ribs, varying according to the curve of the latter. The plain four-part (quadripartite) ribbed vault, primarily constructed as a skeleton framework of diagonal and transverse ribs, was chiefly used in this period, as in the naves of Durham, Salisbury (No. 112 j, l), and Gloucester, and the aisles of Peterborough. Later in the century intermediate ribs, known as tiercerons, were introduced between the transverse and diagonal ribs as in the vaulting of the nave of Westminster Abbey (No. 112 k, m), and were especially needed to strengthen the vaulting surfaces by decreasing the space between the ribs. In such cases ridge ribs were introduced in order to take the thrust of the tierceronse which abut at their summit at an angle, and would have a tendency to fall towards the centre of the compartment unless resisted by the ridge rib. In Continental examples the ridge rib is often not continuous, but only extends to the last pair of arches which abut their pressure against it obliquely. Ridge ribs are generally horizontal in England and arched on the Continent, the " infilling " or " severy " having its courses meeting at the ridge in zigzag lines as in the nave of Westminster Abbey (No. 127 c), and the naves and choirs of Lincoln, Exeter and Lichfield Cathedrals, and as found in the churches of South- West A France. a "formeret," because forming a boundary for each compartment, was also introduced. wall-rib, called Decorated (Fourteenth there was an increase — Century). During this period and elaboration of intermediate ribs 288 COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. (tiercerons), ridge ribs, and a new set of ribs known as Lierne ribs, from the French lien to bind or hold. The name " lierne " is applied to any rib, except a ridge rib, not springing from an abacus. In the early plain-ribbed vaulting each rib marked a groin, i.e., a change in the direction of the vaulting surface, but lierne ribs were merely ribs lying in a vaulting surface, their form being determined independently of such surface, which, however, — regulated their curvature. These Hemes, by their number and disposition, often give an elaborate or intricate appearance to a really simple vault (No. 112 N, o, P, q), and in consequence of the star-shaped pattern produced by the plan of such vaults, it is often called " Stellar " vaulting (No. Examples of this type exists in the choirs of Gloucester 112 q). (a.d. 1337-1377), Wells, Ely (No. 137 f), Tewkesbury Abbey nave, Bristol (No. 112 n, o), and the vaulting of Winchester Cathedral (No. 124 e, f), as carried out (a.d. 1390) by William of Wykeham. The vaulting of this period therefore consisted of transverse, diagonal, intermediate, ridge and lierne ribs in fact, a vault of numerous ribs, and of panels which became smaller and smaller until a single stone frequently spanned the space from rib to rib, known as " rib and panel " vaulting, / Perpendicular (Fifteenth — — Century). The complicated vaulting of the late fourteenth and early fifteenth centuries (No. 112 p, q) led, by a succession of trials and phases, to a peculiarly English type of vaulting in this century known as fan, palm or conoidal vaulting, in which the main ribs, forming equal angles with each other and being all the same curvature, are formed on the surface of an inverted concave cone, and connected at different heights by horizontal lierne ribs. The development was somewhat as follows In the thirteenth century the form of an inverted four-sided hollow rectangular pyramid was the shape given to the vault. In the fourteenth century the masons converted this shape, by the introduction of more ribs, into a polygonal (hexagonal) pyramid, as in S. Sepulchre, Holborn, and elsewhere. In the fifteenth century the setting out of the vault was much simplified by the introduction of what is generally known as " Fan " vaulting, described above (No. 112 R, s). Owing to the reduction of the size of panels, due to the increase in the number of the ribs, a return was made to the Roman method of vault construction, for in fan vaulting the whole vault was often constructed in jointed masonry, the panels being sunk in the soffit of the stone forming the vault instead of .being separate stones resting on the backs of the ribs. The solid method seems to have been adopted first in the crown of the vaults where the ribs were In some "perpendicular" vaults the two most numerous. y*'stellar " : — ; ENGLISH GOTHIC. 289 systems are found, as at King's College Chapel, Cambridge in others, as Henry VII. 's Chapel, Westminster, the whole vault is of jointed masonry. The difSculty of supporting the flat lozenge-shaped space in the top portion of the vault surrounded by the upper boundaries of the hollow cones was comparatively easy in the cloisters, where this type of vaulting was first introduced, because the vaulting spaces to be roofed were square or nearly so, but when it was attempted to apply it to the bays of the nave, which were generally twice as long transversely as longitudinally, difficultiesoccurred. In King's College Chapel (a.d. 1513) the conoid was continued to the centre, but the sides were cut off, thus forming an awkward junction transversely. In the nave of Henry VII. 's Chapel pendants supported by internal arches were placed away from the walls and the conoids supported on these, thus reducing the size of the flat central space, and changing it from an oblong to a square on plan. At Oxford Cathedral a somewhat similar method was adopted, the pendants also placed some distance from the wall, being supported on an upper arch, and a polygonal form of ribs adhered to. Fan vaulting is confined to England, and other examples beyond those already mentioned are in the Divinity Schools, Oxford; Trinity Church, Ely; Gloucester Cathedral (No. 112 R, s) the retro-choir, PeterS. George's Chapel, Windsor borough, and elsewhere. The depressed fouv-oentyed arch (No. 299 m) is typical of the architecture of the Tudor period, although it seems to have been used in the vaulting of earlier churches (No. in d). It is not found out of England, and appears to have been first used largely in fan vaulting, to which the reason for its adoption is held to be due. For example, if the diagonal rib is to be a pointed twocentred arch, each portion must obviously be less than a quadrant, and the transverse and wall ribs, being shorter, must be considerably less than quadrants, especially if the compartment is oblong, and this would make the window arch in the nave wall of acute lancet form but the window arch was made equilateral or even less in height compared to its span in this period, and so the segments of a diagonal arch of two centres preserving the same curvature would not meet at their summit without becoming horizontal or possibly bending downwards to each other. To obviate this the transverse and diagonal ribs in an oblong compartment were sometimes made as four-centred arches, all the ribs starting with the same curvature; but at a certain height the portions above this level were drawn with a longer radius in order that they might meet the ribs from the opposite side of the vault at the required height. These four-centred arches were afterwards applied to other parts of the buildings in England, as in arches to ; ; ; 7.h. u — COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 2g0 doors and windows, and tracery work in panelling, possibly with a desire to harmonize with the important superstructure of vaulting. The special forms of vault used in Chapter Houses are referred on page 299. "Pendant" vaulting is a later form often used in connection with fan vaulting, in which pendants as elongated voussoirs are dropped from a constructive pointed arch, concealed above the vaulting, and form abutments to support the pendant conoids. Henry Vn.'s Chapel and Oxford Cathedral are examples of this method: to of vaulting. Examples of " pendant " but not of " fan " vaulting are frequent the Flamboyant period (fifteenth century) in France, as at Caudebec, and other places. Bosses. The bosses, or ornamental keystones, which form such in — decorative features in Gothic vaulting, were a constructive necessity, primarily used to cover the awkward junction of the various ribs meeting at all angles, in order that the awkward mitres of the rib mouldings might be hidden behind the ornament of the boss. Open Timber Roofs of the Middle Ages. The open timber roofs of the Middle Ages are a special English feature and may be classed in the following five divisions, being illustrated on No. 113: (i.) (2.) (3.) Tie-beam Roofs. Trussed rafter or single-framed Roofs. Hammer-beam Roofs of various forms. Collar-braced Roofs, including arch-braced roofs. Aisle Roofs of several forms, The "Tie-beam Roof" is the earliest form of which there is any record, and the simplest in construction, being merely two rafters pitching one against another with the tiebeam inserted, holding their lower portions to counteract the outward thrust on the walls. This was probably the only, form known at the Norman period, and it was never entirely discarded (4.) (5.) (i.) by mediaeval builders, being used in every succeeding style (No. 113 A, b). In the early examples, the beam is merely pinned to the wall-plate at either end and unconnected with the rafters. Various methods were afterwards adopted in order to make the truss harmonize well with other features. The tie beam was rarely straight, being cambered or curved in the later examples this camber governed the pitch of the roof, the purlins resting immediately on it, as at Wellingborough Church. Curved braces were often inserted, connecting the tie-beam with wall-pieces (No. 113 b), the whole being framed together and ; 29I ENGLISH GOTHIC. In giving the favourite form of the arch, as at Outwell Church. roofs of steeper pitch the open space above the tie-beam was filled in with perpendicular strutting or carved open work, as at Outwell Church, Norfolk. A pillar or king-post and struts were often supported on the tie-beam to strengthen the rafters, which gave a pleasing effect, as at Swardstone Church and also as shown in No. 131 a, b. This is an inversion of the use of king-post and tie-beam as adopted in modern roofs, in which the former acts A timber arch was sometimes introduced, as a suspending piece. springing from a wall-piece below the tie-beam, but as the tie-beam always intersected this the result, as seen at Morton Church, Lincolnshire, and elsewhere, was not satisfactory. " Trussed Rafter or Single-framed Roof," of (2.) The which there are many examples, was probably chosen in order to form a space for the pointed vaults, and having once been used the superiority of its construction and appearance led to In roofs of its being largely substituted for the tie-beam form. rafter had a collar stiffened by braces, which were sometimes passed through the collar, as at Lympenhoe Church, Norfolk, and sometimes stopped on the underside, This type of as at Stowe Bardolph Church (No. 113 a). roof was often boarded on its underside, forming a pentagonal ceiling ornamented with ribs and bosses, as at S. Mary, The timbers are halved and held Wimbotsham, Norfolk. As the rafters pitched on the together with wooden pins. outside of the wall a ledge was left on the inside, and to remove this hollow and unsightly appearance an upright strut was introduced, forming a triangular foot (No. 113 a). This greatly added to the stability of the roof, and is held to be the The arched form origin of the hammer-beam roof (No. 113 j). was obtained by the use of curved braces fixed to the rafters and collar, as g,t Solihull Church. large span each (3.) The "Hammer-beam Roof" is, as stated, considered to be a natural evolution of the triangular framing adopted at the foot of the trussed rafter roof (No. 113 a), and consists hammer-beam, struts, collars and curved braces, as No. 113 d, e. h, j. The hammer-beam is merely the lengthening and thickening of the "sole-piece" at the foot of the trussed rafter (No. 113 j), the principal rafter being strutted, and the weight of the roof carried lower down the wall by means of a curved brace tenoned into the hammer-beam and wall-piece. Being thus strengthened, it forms a truss which, repeated at intervals of 10 feet or more, supports the intermediate rafters of generally of shown in the bay. It has been supposed by some that the hammer-beam arose from the cutting away of the tie-beam in the centre when a curved brace is used beneath the tie-beam. It is improbable ENGLISH GOTHIC EXAMPLES. 11. lairaMLOPEM WTERS WERE ^ THEOFTEN BOWED BETWEEN .a'flCE WFTEK) 9 THEflmnjE-lt /nroDTc vnf . I TCP f»oj LY bL60E5 ED THE CWTHEUItPt T DE Fcfi 1 ^ PQIT1j"lfflL B 1 BLIIu BEW1 iBdlTED LINEb 5H0WOafl51ONflL Kflfl 5llP[bRTlMGPlLinRg,5TtuT5- 5T0WE EflRlT BflffiOLPH fWI UiED CHURCH N°RFoLK To 06T/1IN HEflOWY TTJIIITTCHflPaaRENCESTER' Tfflb FoRW UStO 5TMflRrMflQ[VlLENPULH»ANQR.F0LK ROOPIS^ aMPLFICflTOMoTHflWlKBE*! mR=0QHO0TnitlDl£fi(iES THIS VflLL 113. BY.CUSVED BRncc •• — ENGLISH GOTHIC. 2g3 however, that this was the origin, and there is little more resemblance between a hammer-beam roof and a tie-beam roof than consists in their both being double framed, i.e., both having principals or trusses placed at regular intervals, as opposed to the Moreover, the tietrussed rafter type, which has no principal. beam was used in all types of roof, even in conjunction with the hammer-beam itself, as at Outwell, where the intermediate this is a late principals are supplied with hammer-beams example, and was probably constructed after the hammer-beam Hammer-beams were not contype had attained perfection. structed until the end of the fourteenth century, and were not in general use until the fifteenth century. Westminster Hall is the earliest recorded example, a.d. 1399 (No. 113 h). There are many varieties of this form of roof (a.) Those with hammer-beams, struts, collars and curved (i.) Those in braces, as Little Welnetham Church, Suffolk, which the collar-beam is omitted and curved braces carried to the ridge, the apex being framed into a wedge-shaped strut, as at Trunch Church, Norfolk (No. 113 d). (c.) Those with collarbeams arid no struts but curved braces, in which a shorter hammerbeam is used, as at Capel S. Mary, Suffolk, {d.) Those with no collars and no struts, curved braces only being used from ridge to hammer-beam, as at Palgrave Church, Suffolk. The archbraced roof is the outcome of this latter form, [e.) Those with a main arched fib springing from wall-piece and reaching to a collar, forming a rigid chief support, as at Westminster (No. 113 h) and Eltham. Double hammer-beam roofs have two ranges of hammerbeams, as at S. Margaret, Ipswich, and Middle Temple Hall (No. 113 e), the object of the second range being to further stiffen the principals and convey the weight on to the first range and thence to the wall. They usually occur when the pitch is flatter, but the effect is more complicated and less pleasing. These are the main divisions, but there are various minor ; : modifications of the type. " Collar-braced Roofs " are a simplification of the (4.) hammer-beam form, and include arch-braced roofs, so called when the collar is omitted and the arched brace carried up to the This form is very like that constructed nearly a century Tunstead Church, but with the important difference that at Tunstead the braces are of the same thickness as and appear to form part of the principal rafters, whereas the collarbraced kind are not more than 4 inches thick, while the principals may be about 10 inches. Pulham Church, Norfolk (No. 113 c), is an example of this collar-braced form. Brinton Church is another example of the arch-braced type. The curved braces answer the double purpose of strengthening the principals ridge. earlier, as at — 294 , COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. and carrying the weight lower down the wall, which they also help to steady. (5.) 'Aisle Roofs in the early period were merely a continuation of the rafters of the nave. At North Walsham, Norfolk (a tie-beam roof), the tie-beam of the aisle is carried through the wall, forming a corbel for the wall-piece of the nave roof, thus biiiding the whole together. Aisle roofs were usually simple, intermediate trusses being introduced to strengthen the purlins. they were gabled they were usually of low pitch, and the hammer-beam was rarely introduced for these. Walsingham When New Church (No. 113 g) and Ixworth Church (No. 113 f) are good types of aisle roofs. 3. EXAMPLES. The student is referred to Gothic Architecture in Europe (page 273) for the different types of buildings erected during the Middle Ages which are here further enlarged upon. As mentioned in architectural character (page 283), these buildings were mostly erected in the styles known as Norman, Early English, Decorated, and Perpendicular. . Refer to the (page 273). CATHEDRALS. General Gothic Architecture Introduction to The constitution and foundation of English Cathedrals is important and is largely responsible for their monastic character and general arrangement. They rtiay be divided into three classes (a.) Cathedrals of the Old Foundation. (6.) Cathedrals of the Monastic Foundation. (c.) Cathedrals of the New Foundation. (a.) The Cathedrals of the old foundation are those which, being served by secular clergy, were not affected by the reforms of Henry VHI. The following is a list :—The Cathedrals of York, Lichfield, Wells, Exeter, Salisbury, Chichester, Lincoln, Hereford, S. Paul, London, and the Welsh Cathedrals of Llandaff, Bangor, S. David's, and S. Asaph. (b.) The Cathedrals of the monastic foundation are those which were originally served by regular clergy or monks, and which were reconstituted at the dissolution of the monasteries as chapters of secular canons. The following is a list The Cathedrals of Canterbury, Durham, Rochester, Winchester, Worcester, Norwich, Ely, Carlisle, Peterborough, Gloucester, Chester, Oxford, and Bristol. Westminster Abbey was a Cathedral Church from A.D. 1540-1545. When the change in these monastic establishments was : , : — ENGLISH GOTHIC. ^^^^^^H]>^IH ENGLISH GOTHIC. E. G. Chester. York. B. Peterborough. D. Exeter. Winchester. F. Hereford. Wells. h. Gloucester. Comparative Views of Models of English Cathedrals. 115- ENGLISH GOTHIC. Salisbury. Lincoln. Canterbury. RiPON. D. F. Norwich. Lichfield. Comparative Views of Models of English Cathedrals. ii6. — COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 298 made the abbot became the monks became canons and bishop, the prior the dean, and the choristers the personnel generally ; remaining the same. (c.) The Cathedrals of the new foundation are those to which bishops have been appointed, viz., Ripon and Southwell, which are old Collegiate Churches, and the following Parochial Churches S. Albans, Newcastle, Wakefield, Manchester, and Truro'. Diversity of style in each building was caused by the fact that with the single exception of Salisbury (page 309) many were erected in all periods, thus presenting a complete history of the evolution of Gothic Architecture. Most of the English Cathedrals were founded or remodelled after the Conquest, including many which formerly served as churches of the great monastic institutions of the period. The character which each Cathedral possesses generally indi: cates its original purpose. Monastic Cathedrals are almost Germany. peculiar to England and In these countries a large proportion of the Cathedral Churches formed part of monastic establishments in which are found cloisters, refectories, dormitories, chapter houses, scriptorium, library, guest hall, infirmary, prison, wine cellars, mills, workshops, and gardens {of. Monastery of S. Gall, page 261). Cloisters were required in monastic establishments from necessity, as they formed a covered way for the use of monks, round which the various buildings enumerated above were grouped. They were also frequently planned as an ornamental adjunct to cathedrals of the old foundation which were not part of monastic establishments, but were served by secular clergy, as at Salisbury and Wells. The Collegiate Churches of Lichfield, Ripon, Southwell, York and Manchester, and the Irish, Scotch and Welsh Cathedrals (S. Davids excepted) have no cloisters. The French Cathedrals were mostly erected in the thirteenth century by funds provided by the laity, and therefore do not form part of monastic establishments, differing in not being provided with the buildings enumerated above. The English Cathedrals are thus peculiar in retaining many of the conventual features. The plans are long and narrow, and the choir is often of nearly the same length as the nave. The extreme length is often as much as six times, whereas in France it is seldom more than four times the width. The absence of double side aisles (Chichester and Manchester excepted) and side chapels tends to show that worship was more congregational in form than on the Continent, especially in France, where they are frequently found. The buildings founded by the Norman prelates, as Norwich, Canterbury, and others, were provided with the apsidal eastern ENGLISH GOTHIC. 299 termination, sometimes developed into a chevH, but the English type evolved through Durham to Lincoln had square eastern terminations from the Saxon prototype (page 327), which produced a very different external effect. The transepts project considerably, and there are occasionally secondary transepts, as at Salisbury, Canterbury, Lincoln, Wells and Worcester. The Chapel of the Nine Altars at Durham (a.d. 1242-1290) is in reality an eastern transept. The main entrance was frequently by a south-western porch, acting as a screen against the cold winds, and in contrast to the large western porches of the French Cathedrals. The English Cathedrals, in striking contrast with the French examples, owe their internal effect to their enormous length, which is further emphasized by the comparative lowness of the nave vault. The exteriors are in direct contrast to Continental examples, for the buildings, being mostly situated in a quiet " close " " far from the madding crowd," and seen in conjunction with cloisters, refectory and outbuildings, form a part only of the entire composition (page 276). The characteristic high central tower, as at Lincoln, York, Ely, Gloucester, Canterbury and Durham, is rendered very effective in contrast with the low nave. The central tower is generally accompanied by two western towers, and is sometimes crowned with a high tapering spire, as at Salisbury and Norwich, while at Lichfield (No. 116) all three towers are crowned with spires. Flying buttresses are not nearly so common as in France, owing to the comparative lowness of the nave vault. In France the flying buttresses to the chevet end of the building produce a confused, restless effect {cf. No. loi) absent in the English buildings. Chapter houses were required for the transaction of business by the chapter or bishop's council. They were originally square in plan, as at Bristol (a.d. 1142-1170), but the example at Durham (a.d. 1093-1140) is apsidal, and that at Worcester (a.d. 1084II 60) is circular internally. The normal type is octagonal with a central pillar to support the vaulting, as at Lincoln (1225), Westminster (1250), Salisbury (1250), and Wells (1292) (No. 70 k), all of which have vaults supported by a central pillar and the surrounding walls. York (1280-1330) is also octagonal, but has no central pillar, being covered with a sham wooden vault 57 feet in diameter. — Note. See Nos. 114, 115 and 116 for comparative views of of the Cathedrals, and Nos-. 1 17-120 for the plans. The models characteristics peculiar to the leading cathedrals are here indicated, and for the sake of brevity the Early English, Decorated, and Perpendicular ENGLISH GOTHIC EXAMPLES. ©SALISWIY f: 117. Ill 0LIMC@LN ENGLISH GOTHIC EXAMPLES. [©MPArariYE PL1N3 f EMQLffl IV. mmw5 CHOIR of emiRBUItr RtsEHBLts Sens with TiiE CouriCD ROUKD PIERS. 6EXIMTITE VAULTIdO urn pmms akches. ENGLISH GOTHIC EXAMPLES. mPAMTIYE 119. PLfflS f EMM ENGLISH GOTHIC EXAMPLES. ifamTK PHM3 f^NCLisH VI. Gmm COMPARATIVE ARCHITECTURE. 304 styles are denoted E.E., Dec, and Perp. the churches of Benedictine monasteries an asterisk *. 1. Bangor (No. 119 d). Perp., but suffered Scott. Those which were respectively. {page 218) are distinguished by — Repeatedly destroyed. much in the civil Present church is Dec. and In 1866 thoroughly restored by Sir G. wars. — Bristol (Nos. 114 H, 120 K). An Augustinian monastery. Rectangular vaulted chapter -house. "Elder Lady Chapel." Dec. choir, E.E. AD. 1306-1332, and modern nave in imitation thereof, by Street. Peculiar in having nave and aisles of nearly equal height, with lofty aisle windows, as in some German churches {rf. No. 172). There is thus an absence of the usual triforium and clerestory. Remarkable canopied wall recesses for monuments. A" choir of singular interest, erected by 3. 'Canterbury (Nos. 116 c, 118 B). William of Sens, in a style after French models, on the destruction of Anselm's Norman choir in 11 70. On his death the work proceeded under William the Englishman. The singular contraction of the width of the choir, in order to preserve two ancient Norman chapels, is worthy of notice. In plan this choir resembled that of the Cathedral at Sens. At the extreme east is the curious chapel called " Becket's Crown.'' Extensive There are double transepts, the original crypts are under all the eastern portion. Norman work being of singular interest. The splendid central tower, 229 feet The nave, also late, is of lesser interest, and high, is in the Late Perp. style. the west front and towers are unimportant, except in the general picturesqueness The chapter house is oblong, with fine wooden ceiling. The of the group. Perp. clwsters, on the north side, are of great beauty. A large number of side chapels resembling Continental Cathedrals. An Augustinian Abbey. The east end a fine 4. Carlisle (No;'.ll4 G, 120 b). composition, containing the most perfect of tracery windows. Oiiginally the church of the Benedictine 5. 'Chester (Nos. 115 B, 120 f). Built of red snndstone. Perp. central and lower portion order of S. Werburgh. Cloisters on the north. Lady chapel at the east end. of south-western towers. 6. Chichester (No. The chief example of double aisles, 114 a, 119 g). really caused by the formation of lateral chagfels. Fine central spire. Norman The Bell Tower is the only example of its kind belonging to an English nave. 2. Norman — — — — Cathedral. — Norman work (1096-1133). An eastern 7. 'Durham (No. 114 B, 118 e). transept called the "Chapel of the Nine Altars," in massive E. E. (12421290), and a central Perp. tower, 216 feet in height, help to form a group which for strength of outline and dignity have few, if any, rivals. Internally, the special point is the massive arcade of the Norman nave, A.D. 1099-1128, the finest in England, the pillars about the same width as the openings, and quaintly The nave was vaulted in channelled with characteristic spirals and ilutes. A.D. 1 133 an