VOLUME XII ISSUE 2 2018 _____________________ Archaeopress Journals

VOLUME XII ISSUE 2 2018 _____________________ ISSN 1829–1376 Archaeopress Journals AR AMA ZD ARMENIAN JOURNAL OF NEAR EASTERN STUDIES VOLUME XII ISSUE 2 2018 ASSOCIATION FOR NEAR EASTERN AND CAUCASIAN STUDIES, YEREVAN OXFORD 2018 ²ð²Ø²¼¸ غðÒ²ìàð²ðºìºÈÚ²Ü àôêàôØܲêÆðàôÂÚàôÜܺðÆ Ð²ÚÎ²Î²Ü Ð²Ü¸ºê вîàð XII, вزð 2 2018 ²è²æ²ìàð²êÆ²Î²Ü ºì ÎàìβêÚ²Ü Ðºî²¼àîàôÂÚàôÜܺðÆ ²êàòƲòƲ, ºðºì²Ü ՕՔՍՖՈՐԴ 2018 Association for Near Eastern and Caucasian Studies in collaboration with the Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography (National Academy of Sciences of Armenia) ARAMAZD ARMENIAN JOURNAL OF NEAR EASTERN STUDIES (AJNES) Editor–in–Chief: Vice–Editors: Aram Kosyan Arsen Bobokhyan, Yervand Grekyan and Armen Petrosyan Associate Editors: Kristine Martirosyan-Olshansky, Nshan Thomas Kesecker and Linda Anderson Editorial Board: Levon Abrahamian, Gregory Areshian, Pavel Avetisyan, Raffaele Biscione, Elizabeth Fagan, Andrew George, Hrach Martirosyan, Mirjo Salvini, Ursula Seidl, Adam Smith, Aram Topchyan, Vardan Voskanyan, Ilya Yakubovich Communications for the editors, manuscripts, and books for review should be addressed to the Editor–in–Chief or Vice-Editors. Editorial Office: Marshal Baghramyan Ave. 24/4, 375019, Yerevan, Armenia Tel. (374 10) 58 33 82 Fax: (374 10) 52 50 91 E–mail: ancs@freenet.am, armenianjournal@yahoo.com http://www.ancs.am ISSN 1829–1376 ISBN 978-1-78969-041-5 © Association for Near Eastern and Caucasian Studies, Yerevan 2018. All rights reserved. Typeset and published by Archaeopress Publishing Ltd, Oxford, UK Subscriptions to Aramazd should be sent to Archaeopress Publishing Ltd, Summertown Pavilion, 18-24 Middle Way, Oxford OX2 7LG, UK Tel +44-(0)1865-311914 Fax +44(0)1865-512231 e-mail info@archaeopress.com http://www.archaeopress.com All back volumes are available from Archaeopress website Table of Contents ‘Landscape of Memory’: the case of Bronze and Iron Age Armenia �������������������������������� 1 Hayk Avetisyan, Artak Gnuni and Arsen Bobokhyan Early Bronze Age burial mounds in Avan ��������������������������������������������������������������������������� 15 Firdus Muradyan† Excavations at Late Bronze Age tombs of Lori Berd ��������������������������������������������������������� 27 Seda Devedjyan and Suren Hobosyan Varietal veridicy in Hittite s-etyma ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 46 Jaan Puhvel Iškūz(a) ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 49 Ran Zadok The rock-cut archaeological complex of Yelpin-1, Vayots Dzor Province, Armenia ��� 59 Roberto Dan, Boris Gasparyan, Priscilla Vitolo, Artur Petrosyan, Tommaso Saccone, Samvel Nahapetyan, Ani Adigyozalyan, Ghasem Moradi and Chiara Zecchi Some analyses of pigments from Erebuni �������������������������������������������������������������������������� 83 Yeghis Keheyan, Miqayel Badalyan and Roberto Dan An Urartian stele base from Beydamarı, Turkey �������������������������������������������������������������� 97 Roberto Dan The Early Iron Age settlement of Artashat and problems of chrono-topography of the site (pre-Classical period) �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 105 Mkrtich H. Zardaryan The golden statue of the goddess Anahit in the context of the artistic culture of ancient Armenia ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 146 Hasmik Margaryan Newly found tombs at the north-eastern outskirts of Artashat����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 161 Hayk Gyulamiryan Stamped pottery from Tigranakert in Artsakh ��������������������������������������������������������������� 172 Armine Gabrielyan A Sasanian coin of Khosrow I and an Abbasid coin of Al-Manṣur from the Areni-1 Cave, Armenia ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 182 Armine Zohrabyan, Boris Gasparyan and Roberto Dan A newly discovered building inscription ������������������������������������������������������������������������� 187 Gagik Sargsyan In Memoriam Vyacheslav Vs. Ivanov (1929-2017) ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 208 Brent Vine and Ilya Yakubovich From Aegean, over Euphrates, to Indus: the life and the work of Harald Hauptmann �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 220 Arsen Bobokhyan Summaries Ամփոփումներ �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 224 Abbreviations������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 238 The golden statue of the goddess Anahit in the context of the artistic culture of ancient Armenia Hasmik Margaryan Many narratives on the temples and cult centres of ancient Armenia, particularly on the temples in the Euphrates and Aratsani river valleys are preserved in the Classical and Armenian early medieval written sources� One of the most significant temples was the temple of the goddess Anahit, located in the settlement Erez of the province of Acilisene� Acilisene’s land properties and political weight was so great that Pliny the Elder and Dio Cassius named this province after the temple Anaetica.1 This religious centre occupied one of the most important places among famous temples of Asia Minor, such as the temple of Anahit in Zela (in Comana Pontica) and the temple of Enyo-Ma in Comana Cappadocia.2 Firstly, we owe Strabo the data about the Anahit temple of Acilisene: ‘Now the sacred rites of the Persians, one and all, are held in honour by both the Medes and the Armenians; but those of Anaïtis are held in exceptional honour by the Armenians, who have built temples in her honour in different places, and especially in Acilisenê� Here they dedicate to her service male and female slaves� This, indeed, is not a remarkable thing; but the most illustrious men of the tribe consecrate to her their virgin daughters; and it is the custom for these first to be prostituted in the temple of the goddess for a long time and after this to be married off’� Plutarch also mentioned the temple community: ‘Heifers pasture there which are sacred to Persia Artemis, a goddess whom the Barbarians on the further side of the Euphrates hold in the highest honour� These heifers are used only for sacrifice, and at other times are left to roam about the country at large, with brands upon them in the shape of the torch of the goddess’�3 Undoubtedly, the temple of Acilisene won such fame due to the golden statue of Anahit described by Pliny the Elder: ‘The first statue of solid gold, without any hollowness within, and anterior to any of those statues of bronze even, which are known as ‘holosphyratæ,’ is said to have been erected in the Temple of the goddess Anaïtis� To what particular region this name belongs, we have already stated, it being that of a divinity held in the highest veneration by the nations in that part of the world� This Agathangełos, 53, 59, 68, 127; Plin., V, 83; Dio., 36, 48, 52. Strabo, XI, XIV, 16; Perikhanyan 1959: 46-48. 3 Strabo, XII, 3, 32-37; Plut., Luc., XXIV. 1 2 AJNES XII/2 2018: 146–160 The golden statue of the goddess Anahit in the context of the artistic culture of ancient Armenia statue was carried off during the wars of Antonius with the people of Parthia; and a witty saying is told, with reference to it, of one of the veterans of the Roman army, a native of Bononia�4 Entertaining on one occasion the late Emperor Augustus at dinner, he was asked by that prince whether he was aware that the person, who was the first to commit this violence upon the statue, had been struck with blindness and paralysis, and then expired� To this he made answer, that at that very moment Augustus was making his dinner off of one of her legs (shin – note A. M.), for that he himself was the very man, and to that bit of plunder he had been indebted for all his fortune� As regards statues of human beings, Gorgias of Leontini was the first to erect a solid statue of gold, in the Temple at Delphi, in honour of himself, about the seventieth Olympiad’� ‘Aurea statua prima omnium nulla inanitate et antequam ex aere aliqua modo fieret, quam vocant holosphyraton, in templo Anaetidis posita dicitur quo situ terrarum nomen hoc signavimus, numine gentibus illis sacratissimo. direpta ea est Antonii Parthicis rebus, scitumque narratur veteranorum unius Bononiae hospitali divi Augusti cena, cum interrogatus esset, sciretne eum, qui primus violasset id numen, oculis membrisque captum exspirasse; respondit enim cum maxime Augustum e crure eius cenare seque illum esse totumque sibi censum ex ea rapina. hominum primus et auream statuam et solidam LXX circiter olympiade Gorgias Leontinus Delphis in templo posuit sibi’�5 Pliny’s description and characteristics of the golden statue of Anahit are unique sources for the artistic-historical ‘reconstruction’ of the monument� No less interesting data is preserved in the Armenian early medieval historiography, in particular, in the ‘History of Armenia’ by Agathangełos, in which the happenings connected with the spread of Christianity and missionary activities of Gregory the Illuminator in Armenia at the beginning of the 4th century are described� The unified text consists of several parts, in preparation of which the 5th century author used the data from various sources of the 4th century, written in Greek and Syriac languages� The statue of Anahit is first mentioned by Agathangełos in the second part of the The Life and History of Saint Gregory: ‘…the king ordered Gregory to present to the altar of Anahit’s statue offerings of crowns and thick branches of trees’. Agathangełos described her as a golden statue for the second time already in the third part of the abovementioned book, in connection with the destruction of the temple in a village of Erez: ‘…After this he came to the neighbouring province of Ekełeats. Here the demons appeared in the places of worship of the most important shrines of the Armenians kings, in the temple of Anahit in the town of Erez� … Gregory, the king … broke into pieces the golden image of the female deity Anahit, and they completely destroyed and pillaged the place, seizing the gold and silver’�6 When comparing these data with the Pliny’s narrative a question arises: which statue the witness saw in the temple of Acilisene in the beginning of the 4th century, given that the golden statue had been stolen several centuries earlier? Perhaps after the plunder in the 1st century BC, another cult statue was raised at its place� However, neither Strabo, nor other authors, who described the Flavius Josephus, 18, 5� Plin�, book XXXIII, 24� 6 Agathangełos, 49, 786. 4 5 147 Hasmik Margaryan renowned temple of Anaitida in such detail, mentioned anything about her� The second statue, probably, did not gain much attention of the contemporaries, as it was similar to the sculptures of Hellenistic style by its artistic design� This suggestion can be to some degree confirmed with Movses Khorenatsi’s narrative stating that Tigran the Great erected the gilded bronze statue of Artemis in the temple of Anahit in Acilisene that was previously brought from Greece and Asia Minor by Artashes I�7 Returning to the data of Agathangełos, it is important to note that narratives about the golden statue this time appear in the paragraph about the arrival of Gregory to the other large temple complex Vahevanyan in Ashtishat, on the Euphrates river bank, where three sanctuaries were located� The first one with the altar of Vahagn himself and: ‘…the second temple that of the Golden-Mother, the Golden-born goddess, and the altar was called after her golden-built of the Golden-mother goddess…�8 Without naming the deity’s name, Agathangełos only mentions her epithets (titles) – The Golden Mother� Born of Gold, The Golden-Built� It becomes clear that it is referred to the goddess Anahit, whose character was directly associated with an image and iconography of the golden statue from Acilisene�9 Contradiction and dissimilarity of data on the statue, the language and ‘authentic’ style of narration with the list of names, epithets of the pagan gods, cultic and honorable names of statues by the Christian author, in the form of extracts and ‘citations’ from the originals, point to the earlier written tradition�10 One of these sources could be the temple archives, existing within each major cult centre, where memorable notes, copies of inscriptions,11 lists of kings, legends and histories about the temple building and other data were kept�12 According to Movses Khorenatsi, a rich temple archive functioned within the major temple of Aramazd in the fortress of Ani (Daranałi province). Movses Khorenatsi relied on the ‘Temple History’ written by the temple’s chief priest Olympios (1st-2nd centuries AD) for his story of the struggle between Ervand and Artashes. A Syrian Christian missionary, a famous gnostic Bardaisan from Edessa (154222), had settled in the temple, worked in the same archive. He translated Olympios’s work from Greek to Syriac, supplementing it with description of the events of his period�13 The temple of Acilisene had also its own archive with the records about its establishment and history of treasures it possessed� 7 Movses Khorentatsi II, 13,14� It can be assumed that Movses Khorenatsi, for whom the work of Agathangełos was one of the main sources, used unknown variant of this work, in which that bronze statue of Artemis in Eriza was mentioned� 8 Agathangełos, 809. 9 It is possible that the author had at hand another original, in which the statue from Ashtishat was called golden� Furthermore, another version is also possible� It is possible that the usage of epithets of Acilisene sculpture when referring to the sculpture in Ashtishat is a mistake of the author, who used various sources, as well as a result of later editions and supplementation� Abeghian 1975: 102-103� 10 The witness of events in Armenia in the early 4th century, probably, saw the second golden statue in the temple erected much later, since the first, according to Pliny and indirect evidences of Flavius Josephus, was stolen in 34 BC. 11 About inscriptions and decrees of the temples of Asia Minor see in: Perikhanyan 1953: 14ff� 12 Saprykin 2009: 248� 13 Movses Khorenatsi, II, 48; The accuracy of Movses Khorenatsi’s data is confirmed by numerous narrations of other sources. See Sargsyan 1966: 79-144, 172-173, 213 etc.; Arutyunova-Fidanyan 2007: 8. 148 The golden statue of the goddess Anahit in the context of the artistic culture of ancient Armenia Returning to the Pliny’s text about the statue, it is important to note that the author, while characterising its technical qualities by the Greek term ‘holosphyraton’, emphasised the archaic nature of the sculpture, made of forged plates� He compares it also with the golden statue of Gorgias of Leontini (famous philosopher-sophist, 5th century BC) and indicates that the latter was molded/cast ‘auream statuam et solidam’� The Greek word όλοσφυράτος (accus. όλοσφυράτον) is formed by two roots – όλος (‘whole, entire, complete’) and σφυρα (‘hammer’, i.e. cast). In the Latin texts, it can be seen for a second time in a satiric epigram of the Roman poet Gaius Lucillius (180-103 BC), where the statue of Adonis forged of pure gold is described.14 In the earlier Greek sources the term σφυρήλάτος is used, formed with term σφυρα – a hammer and ήλάτος –stretched, elongated, i�e� worked with hammer, forged�15 When describing the huge golden statues and artistic objects, adorning the palace of the Assyrian king Ninus and Semiramis in Babylon, Diodorus Siculus used the term ̓ άκρας της αναβάσεως ̓ ̓ σφυρήλατα: ‘… επ̓ τρία κατεσκεύασεν αγαλμα χρυσα σφυρήλατα ͑ ͑ Διός, Ηρας, Ρεας. . . τού τοις δέ πασι κοινή παρέκειτο τραπεζα χρυσή σφυρήλατος’�16 According to the testimony of Herodotus, the Persian king Darius I (522-486 BC) erected a golden statue of wrought gold ‘έικω χρυσέήν σφυρήλατων’�17 Strabo described the huge golden statue of Zeus that the Corinthian tyrant Cypselus dedicated to the sanctuary in Olympia (the second half of the 7th century BC) – ‘σφυρήλάτος χρυσους ανδράς’ and ‘ό χρυσους σφυρήλάτος Ζεύς’�18 Plato mentions the same statue of Zeus in Olympia by a term ‘σφυρήλάτος’ in one of his ‘Dialogues’�19 Pausanias writes: ‘On the right of the sanctuary of Athena of the Brazen House is an image of Supreme Zeus, which is the oldest bronze image in existence� For it is not made in one piece, but the parts have been hammered separately, then fitted to each other, and fastened with nails to keep them together’� He also mentioned the statue of Dionysus in Thebes of solid bronze made by craftsman Onasimedes�20 In the dictionary of the ancient Greek language, its author, 9th century Byzantine grammarian Photios interprets the term σφυρήλάτος as σφυραϊς εληλαμένος (‘forged with hammer’).21 The technique of making of forged statues σφυρήλάτον, consisted of the following steps. Pieces of bronze or other metal (gold or silver) were beaten out, forged with a hammer, and, as a result, plates of particular sizes were created� Metallic sheets were processed by means of beating for creating the ornamented part, i�e� these were beaten with special hammers as well as convex and spherical strikers on the figured The Greek Anthology, vol� IV, 1916: 56-157� Corresponds to the modern term ‘rolling-out’ which means a technical method of plate deformation by increasing longitudinal and decreasing its transversal size, which was used in the production of hollow objects� 16 (‘… she (Semiramis) raised three statues of Zeus, Hera and Rhea of wrought gold on the very top… the table of offerings of all three statues was also made of wrought gold…’) Diod. II, 9,5,7. 17 Herod�, VII, 69� 18 Strabo, VIII, III, 30; VIII, VI, 20. 19 Plato, Phaedrus, 236b� 20 Paus., III, 17, 6; IX, 12,4; IX, 12, 4. 21 Photii 1864: 193� 14 15 149 Hasmik Margaryan hard anvils� The front side was additionally refined,22 and then, the separate plates were joined to each other with metallic clinches, nails, wire, and their edges were separately pegged�23 According to Greek authors, a wooden armature of huge statues was covered by forged metallic sheets� It is well known that the ancient technique of forged statues infiltrated into Greece from Egypt and countries of the Near East – Assyria, Northern Syria and Urartu, through the Crete, in the 9th-8th centuries BC, as a result of the revival of trading and cultural relations between the west and east�24 The Eastern technique of sculpture from forged and chased sheet was later borrowed in Greece of archaic period by Cretan jewelers from traveling northern Syrian craftsmen. During the 7th6th centuries BC it was widely used in making monumental statues, the style of which was strongly influenced by the Eastern small statuary, especially Syrian�25 This can be seen in the found samples� These are small, half-size figures of Apollo, Artemis and Leto from the temple of Apollo in Dreros on Crete (around 700 BC).26 Fragments of the bigger statues of orientalising style were discovered within the territory of Olympia and Heraion of Samos�27 In large Pan-Hellenic temple centres (Samos, Olympia, Delphi, Argos), where the valuable objects were accumulated in the form of offerings from the Greek cities, a significant number of the Eastern bronze items was found (8th-7th centuries BC), including the items of Urartian origins: statues of deities, caldron decorations in form of sirens, protomеs of gryphon, bull heads, lions, bells etc. The Urartian ritual caldrons and small statuettes adorning them are also discovered in the tombs of Asia Minor (Gordium) and Etruria.28 There are examples made of forged plates among these objects� These are gryphon protoms from Olympia (early 8th century BC), some of which are 65-80 cm high. There are also items made in mixed technique, i�e� with the cast head and forged neck29 that illustrate transition from forging technique to lost wax model technique� Traces of bituminous filler with various supplements from tre sap, clay, earth, sand, potter’s clay, lime and chalk were 22 For more on the methods and terminology of artistic treatment of sheet metal see in: Minasyan 2016: 279-292; idem 2010: 180-195� 23 Blümner 1886: B. IV,41; Charbonneaux 1962: 23-25; Carpenter 1971: 66-75; Spivey 2013: 75-76. 24 Burkert 1992: 14-25, 163; Morris 1992: 163-164; Stewart 1990: 106-109; Borell und D. Ritting 1998: 193194� In the future, with appearance of a new, more efficient widespread technique of casting, the ancient tradition of hammered statues in Greece will not lose its importance completely. Pausanias, III, 12, 10; VIII, 14, 8; X, 38, 10; IX,4, 11; Plin., XXXIV, 83, XXXV, 152; Guralnick 2000: 38. 25 Boardman 1980: 2-3; idem 1988: 58,60; Mattusch 1980: 36; Szefer 2012: 47. 26 Boardman 1961: 137, Figures 52; Demargne 1964: 349-351, Figures 452-455; Borell, Ritting 1998: 161, 191; Cellini 1980: 99-100. 27 Mallwitz, Herrmann 1980: No. 95; Borell, Ritting 1998: Taf. 45, 48-53; Kyrieleis 1990: 15-20, Figures 2-4; Guralnick 2004: 209-212. This is the figure of winged Siren (height around 54 cm), fragments of three female figurines (height 120 and 160 cm) and some others. The lower parts of the dresses ‘core’ (like an apron), are made of various sheets which were primarily used for making artworks in Northern Syrian workshops, as well as Greek plates of ‘orientalising’ style� 28 Amandry 1958: 35, 73-106; Maxwell-Hyslop 1956: 150-167; Muscarella 1962: 317-329; idem 1983: 61-72; Smith 1942: 87� 29 Jantzen 1955: 45-46; 65-69, 119; Varoufakis 1983: 122 150 The golden statue of the goddess Anahit in the context of the artistic culture of ancient Armenia found in some forged lion and gryphon protomеs.30 Plastic and firm bitumen was used in pure state and in combination with other materials in architecture and building, as well as artistic craft of Eastern countries from the earliest times� It is well known that the territory of Armenia in the period of the Urartian state became one of the largest Near Eastern centres of metalworking� Art of bronze processing was one of the leading crafts, which is evidenced by numerous bronze, silver art objects and examples of small statuary found in Armenia and Mediterranean countries�31 This is also demonstrated iy the data of Assyrian annals (‘Louvre tablet’) about the campaign of Sargon II against Urartu in 714 BC and the plunder of Urzana’s palace and temple of Haldi in Ardini-Musasir�32 Nevertheless, in Armenia, like in other countries of the East, massive sculptures of bronze both cast and forged have not been discovered� The major partion of the discovered Urartian statuettes were made using lost wax cast models�33 Among these statuettes, however, are examples that constitute a separate group of objects made in mixed technique� These are six lion protomes with elongated necks, attached to the body of the caldron from Etrurian tomb of RegoliniGalassi� Analogous protome was found at Karmir Blur with an inscription of the king Sarduri, son of Argishti� The cast lion heads were joined to the forged, tubular necks, ornamented with engraving� Adornments of the ritual caldrons in form of molded ‘sirens’, bull and lion heads are made in mixed technique� These adornments are attached to the caldron body by a large T-shaped forged plaque in the form of bird wings and a tail with engraved feathering�34 Urartian conical shields with the central animal head are made through the same mixed technique� Such a bronze forged shield with the cast lion head was found from the excavations of Ayanis fortress�35 Similar golden shields showing dog heads with grinned chap were recorded in the annals of the Assyrian king Sargon II, who had captured those during his military campaign from the Urartian religious centre and temple of Haldi in Ardini-Musasir in 714 BC. These shields are also depicted on the pilasters of Musasir temple, a relief image of which was found in the palace of Sargon in Khorsabad�36 It is noteworthy that among numerous eastern objects of votive character discovered in the temple of Zeus in Dictaean cave in Crete, are Urartian conical shields with forged lion heads�37 The most interesting data about the methods of manufacturing monumental bronze sculptures can be found in the annals of Sargon� In this text, eight statues and sculpture groups are listed, standing in the temple of Haldi in Ardini-Musasir: ‘Four Mattusch 1990: 556-558; idem 1988: 36; Amandry 1958: 85; Kyrieleis 1990: 22, Figure 4; Rolley et al� 20042005: 55-65� 31 Merhav 1991; Wartke 2012: 414-415. 32 Mayer 2013: 137-139 (Kol. IV, 350-406). 33 Piotrovsky 1962: 52� 34 Jantzen 1972: Taf. 9/3; Piotrovsky 1962: 56-66, Figures 36-37. 35 Çilingiroğlu 2012: 296-307. 36 Piotrovsky 1962: 36; Mayer 2013: 137-139 (Kol. IV, 370-371); Botta, Flandin 1850, Plates 139-147. 37 Batmaz 2012: 244; Boardman 1980: 72. 30 151 Hasmik Margaryan bronze statues (deiform) of guards of the main gates, doorkeepers of (temple) gates, about 4 cubits/elbows, pedestals are of cast bronze, 1 statue in praying position on the royal raised platform of Sarduri, son of Ishpuini, king of Urartu, his pedestal of cast bronze, one bull (and) one cow with a calf, offering of Sarduhi, the son of Ishpuini to the Haldi’s temple, with his inscription on them, one statue of Argishti, king of Urartu, similar to his divinity, crowned with tiara with stars, with a blessing right hand, with his repository, weighting 60 talents, one image of (king) Rusa with his two horses and charioteer, with their pedestal from cast bronze, on which is written his own praise ‘with my horses and a charioteer, my arm captured the Kingdom of Urartu’�38 Six among the listed eight statues and sculpture groups had pedestals, which, as it is noted in the text, were cast of bronze� These are pedestals of four doorkeeper statues at the entrance of temple (around 2 m high), statues of Sarduri on an elevation and a sculptural group, representing king Rusa on the chariot with two horses and a charioteer� Thus, the cast bronze statue pedestals are in fact opposed to the statues, which evidently were not cast, but forged� It is obvious that relatively light statues of forged plates were erected on ponderous, massive cast pedestals� A bas-relief from the Sargon’s palace in Khorsabad depicts three Assyrian soldiers hewing to pieces a statue of a man with a helmet on his head�39 Above the statue’s head are images of two hands, accurately cut off the forearm� All even fracture lines of the attachment seams are visible� When comparing the sizes of soldier figures with statues, it becomes evident that this statue is full-size� According to V� Mayer, it is the statue of Rusa from the sculptural group with horses and a charioteer, and the whole composition illustrates the scene of the Urartian king Rusa’s outrage, committed by the Assyrians�40 It can be concluded that forged monumental sculpture existed in Urartu (σφυρήλάτων in Classical sources), which was later replaced by the more efficient technique of cast sculpture� The archaic sculpture technique, however, had been preserved in Armenia for a long period� That is evidenced by various metallic items of Achaemenid period� It is well-known that after Armenia was incorporated into the Achaemenid empire, the preserved Urartian artistic workshops delivered their production to the capital along with the centres of Lydia and Ionia:41 tableware and Mayer 2013: 138-139 (Kol. IV, 399-404). Botta, Flandin 1850, Plate 139-147� 40 Mayer 2013: 91, Figure 6� 41 In the 6th-5th centuries BC in the workshops of Lydia and Ionia σφυρήλάτον technique was widely practiced� Fragments of a full-size bull silver statue with traces of gilding were found in Delphi� Those fragments were made of separate sheets and joint with silver plated nails� Inside the statue the armature made of bronze bands is preserved, which wrapped the wooden core (Amandry 1977: 273-293; Lapatin 2015, Plate 60). The statue of bull could have been among those golden and silver items, offered to the temples of Delphi and Ephesus by the Lydian king Croesus (560-546 BC), about which narrates Herodotus. Herodotus mentioned a three-cubit high golden statue of a woman among the goods, dedicated to the Delphi temple (Herod., I, 50-51, 92. ). It is noteworthy that the statue of bull from Delphi finds stylistic similarities with the abovementioned figure of a cow with calf on the Assyrian relief with an image of the Musasir temple� 38 39 152 The golden statue of the goddess Anahit in the context of the artistic culture of ancient Armenia ritual inventory, furniture parts etc. in Achaemenid court style (rhytha with sculpture protomes, relief-decorated cups and goblets).42 On the relief depiction in Persepolis the Armenian tributary presented a large amphora-shaped vessel with figure-handles�43 Xenophon mentioned that the Greeks took an expensive tent, a bed with silver legs and expensive goblets when they attacked the camp of Tiribazes, satrap of the Western Armenia�44 The objects that survived to our days were exclusively made in forging technique� For example, the silver rhython from Erebuni with a protome in form of a rider, which has no direct analogies among the artifacts of Achaemenid period (first half of the 4th century BC). Human figure riding a horse with bent legs finds stylistic parallels in Urartian wax molded bronze figurines of gods, standing on the animals�45 Art workshops of Armenia that preserved rich traditions of Urartian toreutics, adopted the style and taste of the Achaemenid imperial art, hence making a valuable contribution to the formation of a new, ‘international’ style�46 It is noteworthy that the major part of Achaemenid-style art works found in other parts of the Empire was also made of hammered chased plates� Series of human figurines of bronze, silver and gold that refer to the Achaemenid period can support the data of written sources about the technique of monumental statues σφυρήλάτον in Achaemenid Iran�47 In this context a golden model of a chariot with a team of four horses and figurines of a charioteer and a nobleman from the Oxus treasure (5th-4th centuries BC) is particularly illustrative. It is made of relief plates, joint to each other with clinches and wire�48 King Artaxerxes II Mnemon of Persia (404-359 BC) laid the foundations of a religious reform that was continued by his successor Artaxerxes III Ochus (359-338 BC). As a result, the cult of ancient gods was revived, including the cult of Anahita, Mithra, Tir and others to whom the statue were erected� Berossus mentioned that under Artaxerxes III Ochus altars and statues of goddess Anahita were erected in the main cities and satrap centres of the Empire, i�e� Babylon, Susa, Persepolis, Ecbatana, Bactria, Sardes and Damascus� Religious reform and introduction of an official cult of ancient Iranian gods49 were spread within the whole territory of the Empire, in particular, in the satrapies of the Asia Minor and in Armenia that were ruled by the Iranian satrap dynasties� The founder of the Armenian dynasty of Eruandids was an Achaemenid satrap Orontes (5th-4th centuries BC), who was married to the daughter of Artaxerxes Mnemon. During the period of Artaxerxes III, the satrap of Armenia was Codomanus, who later became the last Achaemenid king as Darius III (336-330 BC).50 In result of religious Tiratsyan 1969: 87-106; Arakelyan 1976: 41- 48, 52-55. Schmidt 1953: 95-86; Walser 1966: 42n.; 68n. 44 Xenophon, IV, 4, 21� 45 Khachatryan, Markaryan 2003: 115-116, 121� 46 Melikian-Shirvani 1993: 111-130; Simpson 2005: 108. 47 Herod., VII, 69; Burstein 1978: 29. 48 Dalton 1964: 78-79, Plates IV, XII; Mongiatti et al� 2010: 35-37� 49 Herodotus, I, 131; Plutarch, Artaxerxes, 27, Polybius, X, 27, 12; Plin., VI, 135. Waters 2014: 183, Figure 101; Razmjou 2005: Figure 210. 50 Sargsyan 1966: 30-31, 71, 116, 126� 42 43 153 Hasmik Margaryan reforms many local deities were identified with Iranian deities that had similar functions� The Mother goddess of Asia Minor was identified with the Persian Anahita and often appeared under this name� That fact is evidenced by the narratives of the ancient Greek authors, numerous inscriptions and decrees from the territories of the cult centres of Asia Minor etc�51 The temple of Anahit in Sardes, administrative centre of Lydia, was especially famous. The religious reform carried out in the 4th century BC, was also relevant to Armenia to a significant extent� It is obvious that the official state pantheon of Armenia was formed in that period when the local traditional deities appeared under Iranian names�52 It is no coincidence that the gods of Armenian Hellenised pantheon (2nd-1st centuries BC), were mentioned under the Persian names in the ancient Greek and early medieval sources�53 The supreme triad of the official Armenian royal pantheon (Aramazd, Anahit and Mihr) was distinguished among the gods of the pantheon in the 4th century BC. It was identical to the Iranian triad, commemorated in the official inscriptions of Artaxerxes II�54 Therein, Anahita is mentioned with her father Ahuramazda and fellow Mithra� These gods are mentioned by Agathangełos in the same interconnection and order. According to Agathangełos, Pavstos Buzand and Movses Khorenatsi, the family tombs of the Armenian kings were located within the territory of the temple centre with the main temple of Aramazd in Ani-Kamakh in the province of Daranałi. Anahit’s temple in the province of Ekełeats according to Agathangełos was the native and main sanctuary of the Armenian kings, where King Tiridates came in the first year of his reign to worship her�55 Describing the temple of Anahit in Acilisene, Strabo and Plutarch named Anahit a Persian goddess that was worshipped by many people� Strabo named Anahit’s temple in Zela (Comana Pontica) the temple of Persian gods. ‘… As for Zelitis, it has a city Zela, fortified on a mound of Semiramis, with the temple of Anaïtis, who is also revered by the Armenians… for in early times the kings governed Zela, not as a city, but as a sacred precinct of the Persian gods’. A. Perikhanyan pointed out rightly that the elements borrowed from the foreign cult often concerned the surface of the cult, without disturbing its essence� The ancient, pre-Persian tradition of her cult is evidenced by the fact that Zela temple dedicated to the Great goddess, the goddess of fertility and motherhood, was established on a mound of Semiramis, honored in Armenia as Shamiram�56 Based on the Strabo’s narrative, numerous foreign merchants flocked on the roads from/to Armenia during the feast of ‘epiphany of the Perikhanyan 1959: 46-47� The second phase of syncretising of different local and Hellenistic gods results from the religious reform carried out by Artashes I (189-160 BC) and led to the Hellenization of the Armenian countrywide pantheon� Margaryan 2018: 295-296� 53 The goddess Astghik was the only exception, as her name sounded like an epiclesis of the goddess of the morning star� Margaryan 2018: 296� 54 Brosius 1998: 27-28; Waters 2014: 183, Figure 101; Razmjou 2005: 150, Figure 210; Agathangełos, 53, 127, 790� 55 Agathangełos, 48, 785; Pavstos Buzand 1968: IV, 24. 56 Strabo, XII, 3, 37; Perikhanyan 1959: 43, n. 163. 51 52 154 The golden statue of the goddess Anahit in the context of the artistic culture of ancient Armenia goddess’ in Comana,57 another large religious centre of Pontus with the cult of EnyoMa, the goddess of fertility and motherhood (identified with Anahit).58 Armenian merchants took part in those religious feasts during their stay in Comana, as adepts of the Great Mother’s cult, universal for the region. Against the background of these written and other sources of cultural-historical character, the golden statue of Anahit in Acilisene can be dated to the 5th-4th centuries BC. The statue’s type belonged to the series of Anahit depictions of Artaxerxes II and Artaxerxes III period� On a cylindrical stamp of Artaxerxes II, Anahita is depicted in a long dress, standing on a lion, with a shawl on her head and surrounded by shining steams of sun, similar to the Babylonian Ishtar (Figure 1/5). Artaxerxes II is standing in front of her with outstretched arms in the praying position�59 On the other stamp from de Clerk’s collection is depicted a scene of adoration of Anahita�60 Anahita is sitting on the throne, rests her feet on a small footstool, wears an ankle-length dress, with a long shawl on her head, embroidered with metallic (golden and silver) disks along the edges. In one hand, she holds a branch, and with the other she accepts a gift, a pigeon from a maidservant� Behind the maidservant’s figure is depicted a cassolette and the main worshiper, probably a queen, in a long dress and wearing a jagged crown on her head (Figures 1/4,6). This character of the Achaemenid Anahita traces its origin to the Urartian art tradition. On the golden medallion from Van (Toprakkale) is depicted the chief goddess of Urartian pantheon Arubani - Bagbartu, sitting on the throne with a footstool under her feet, a branch in one hand and a bowl in other� A worshiper stands in front of her, dressed in a long royal dress with outstretched arms in praying position� Below a line, marking the earth line, are depicted flowerbuds, the symbols of the goddess� An analogous scene is depicted on two other silver pendants: a circular medallion and lunula from Karmir Blur and Toprakkale, on which a goat is sacrificed� On the lunula the composition is flanked from both sides with trees, symbols of fertility and vegetation goddess, and on the medallion, just above the goddess’s head are images of her other symbols – the sun and the moon, which were inherited by Anahit and were characteristic of Assyrian-Babylonian Ishtar-Astarte (Figures 1/1-2). The famous bronze statuette of a sitting goddess Arubani from Van is in the same position and has the same iconography� She wears a long dress with a long shawl shuffled on her head and back� The right arm with an open palm is outstretched, while the left one is clenched with a through hole for an object, evidently for a branch� Strabo, XII, 3, 36� It is referred to the feast of ‘epiphany of the goddess’, when the portable statue of the goddess designed for solemn procession and ceremonies was taken out of the temple� The cultic sculpture, standing inside the temple, and in front of which rituals were carried out, remained inside the temple� The golden statue of Anahit, probably, was a temple statue� 58 Two roads from Armenia met in Comana: the northern (Artashat- Araxes river valley – Upper Euphrates - Lycus) and the southern, the ancient ‘royal road’ (Tigranakert-Tomisa-Euphrates- Halys). 59 Waters 2014: Figure 10/1� 60 Dalton 1964: 45, Figure 25� Female figurines with a flower, bowl and goblet on the stamps of the GrecoRoman style are stylistically related to these images of Anahita. Similar to those are male and female figurines with a flower in their hand, depicted on the lid of the cylindrical silver box from the territory of Erznka/Erzincan (the territory of the temple area of Acilisene mentioned in the written sources). 57 155 Hasmik Margaryan The dress and shawl are embroidered with square metallic disks with rosettes inside them, similar to the image on the medallions�61 She has a richly adorned necklace on her chest with a pendant in the form of a little dagger with a figurine of lying lion, her symbol and attribute, as in the case of Babylonian Ishtar�62 This bronze statuette along with another similar bronze statuette of standing goddess (Munich museum) are separate parts of a sculptural group, reproducing the composition with adoration scene on the mentioned medallions (Figure 1/3).63 Later Hellenistic variants of this statuary type can be seen on several coins of Asia Minor of the Roman period. On the obverse of a bronze coin from Zela Pontica is depicted Trajan’s head, while on the reverse of coin is a sitting statue of Anaeitis, facing to the left, with a moon crescent on her head, ears in the outstretched right hand and an inscription ΘΕΑ АΝΑΕΙΤΙΣ ΖΗΛΕΙΤΩΝ�64 Her dignified ceremonial pose and an inscription ‘Anaeitis, the goddess of Zeletians’ point to the fact that the goddess acts as the patroness of the city� On the reverse of the coin of Philadelphia of Lydia Anahit is depicted in the image of Cybele sitting on the throne with a star, between two lions and resting on a deer with her right hand (Figures 1/7-9).65 The coins of temple cities Anisa and Morima dated to the earlier period are preserved in Cappadocia. On the obverse of the coin is depicted the head of the governor-priest wearing the hat of the satrap, while on the reverse - standing goddess Ma-Astarte holding a flower in her right raised hand�66 According to the aforementioned data, statuary type of the golden figurine of Anahit of Acilisene can be reconstructed based on the widespread in early Hellenistic period image of dignified mother-goddess, sitting on the throne, the goddess of natural powers and vegetation with her main attribute - a branch, a flower or ears in her right hand� The composite statue was easily dismantled into separate parts, and the amount of gold of her shin covered the expenses of crowded feast of the Roman veterans� Inside the statue there was a core or matrix made of a strong material� In Greece and regions of Asia Minor wood with metallic carcass was widely used, as it was in case of the bull from Delphi, as well as various types of resins with gypsum, lime etc� In the countries of the East, as it was mentioned above, bitumen or other types of resins were widespread�67 According to Pliny, in ancient times the statues were decorated with bitumen, which then became the foundation on which the golden plates were attached�68 Ṣare 2011: Figure 2. 2. Piotrovsky 1962: 82, 84, 85, Figures 47-50� 63 Analogous scenes of adoration and ritual feast with an image of goddess sitting on the throne are depicted on the Urartian bronze blets� Seidl 2004: 128-129, Abb� 98, 102� It is safe to say about the strong influence and contribution of the Urartian artistic style, iconographic principles and, in particular, cultic attributes to formation of statuary plastic arts of the Achaemenid period� 64 https://www.acsearch.info/search.html?id=1168736 (acceded in 15.08.2017). 65 https://www.acsearch.info/search.html?id=2224854 (acceded in 06.10.2017) 66 Regling 1932-1935: 1-23, Taf. I. 67 Minasyan 2010: 195� 68 Plin., XXXIV, IX, 15; Muscarella 1988: 331ff., Plates 224-226. 61 62 156 The golden statue of the goddess Anahit in the context of the artistic culture of ancient Armenia Characteristics and names of the Golden Mother, Born from Gold,69 Hewn of Gold are formed from the root ‘gold’ and clearly indicate its technical qualities and specifics� The name Hewn of Gold is particularly indicative, consisting of root ‘gold’ and ‘hewn’ (Arm. hatvac, divide in parts, carve, cut, divided into pieces etc.).70 Thus, the epithets Golden Mother, Golden Born, Hewn of Gold used by Agathangełos are identical to the Pliny’s expression ‘аurea statua holosphyraton’� Hasmik Margaryan Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography, NAS RA Charents Str. 15, 0025 Yerevan, Armenia asmik.markaryan@mail.ru Bibliography Primary sources Agathangelos� History of the Armenians, trans. and comment. by R.W. Thomson. Albany, 1976. 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