GEOLOGICAL JOURNAL
Geol. J. (2012)
Published online in Wiley Online Library
(wileyonlinelibrary.com). DOI: 10.1002/gj.1347
Basin stratigraphy, sea-level fluctuations and their global tectonic connections—
evidence from the Proterozoic Cuddapah Basin
SARBANI PATRANABIS-DEB*, DILIP SAHA and VIKASH TRIPATHY
Geological Studies Unit, Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata, India
The Cuddapah Supergroup succession can be divided into four unconformity-bound sequences, namely, the Papaghni, Chitravati, Srisailam
and Kurnool groups and formation representing four major cycles of sedimentation. The oldest sequence, the Papaghni Group is represented
by fan-delta, prodelta and shallow shelf deposits. The rifting stage of the basin evolution is attested by the immature delta succession deposited as
a major fault-controlled basin evolution, and was followed by the early subsidence stage. Basement uplift and a hiatus in deposition follows the
first cycle of sedimentation. The Chitravati Group, representing the second cycle of sedimentation, consists of mature sandstones separated by a
heterogeneous shale–sandstone–dolomite interval. The third cycle starts with the deposition of widespread coastal fluvial to shallow marine
sandstone of the Srisailam Formation, and the fourth cycle is represented by the Kurnool Group consisting of conglomerates, feldspathic
sandstones, supermature quartzarenites, minor shale and carbonates. Each cycle represents a rifting phase followed by a stable subsidence stage
when the basin evolved into a large epicontinental sea. The supermature Gandikota Quartzite of the Chitravati Group and the Paniam Quartzite of
the Kurnool Group represent relative sea-level fall and forced regression. The siliciclastics in each of the sequences display signatures of
macrotidal sedimentation pointing to open ocean connection. The sequences further display signatures of passive margin sedimentation with
multiple events of carbonate-shale rhythmite deposition. Mafic flows and dykes in the Papaghni and Chitravati groups reflect thermal anomalies
associated with phased crustal extension; successive extensional phases were punctuated by basin inversion. Extensive and pulsed development
of epicontinental seas as recorded in the Cuddapah sequences in the south Indian craton, possibly reflect global sea-level changes associated with
supercontinent (eg. Columbia in the Palaeoproterozoic) break-up and assembly. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Received 21 March 2011; accepted 23 September 2011
KEY WORDS
Proterozoic; Cuddapah Basin; stratigraphic evolution; sea-level fluctuations; global tectonics; India
1. INTRODUCTION
The Purana basins of Peninsular India covering a time span
from the late Palaeoproterozoic to the Neoproterozoic developed in different parts of the Indian craton (Figure 1). These
basins host thick successions of generally unmetamorphosed
and mildly deformed sedimentary successions, deposited
primarily in tide- and storm-dominated shallow shelves,
closely comparable with the Proterozoic cratonic successions
in several other continents. It has been suggested that the
Purana basins developed as cratonic rifts (Naqvi and Rogers,
1987; Chaudhuri et al., 2002; Rogers and Santosh, 2004) along
weak zones within the assembled Archaean protocontinents or
along the joins between them. Stratigraphic reconstructions
suggest that many of the basins are polyhistoric and comprise
multiple unconformity-bound sequences. The paucity of
geochronologic data has hindered interbasinal correlation of
*Correspondence to: S. Patranabis-Deb, Geological Studies Unit, Indian
Statistical Institute, 203, B.T. Road, Kolkata 700108, India.
E-mail: sarbani@isical.ac.in
the Purana successions across the Indian craton. Though these
basins are considered to be of vital importance in reconstructing
the history of Proterozoic supercontinent assembly (Rogers and
Santosh, 2004), putting the stratigraphic development of the
Purana basins in a global geodynamic context awaits more
refined and adequate geochronologic data apart from a
thorough basinal analysis.
In this paper we focus on an integrated analysis of the
stratigraphic evolution of the Cuddapah Basin, which consists
of stacked cycles of different orders organized in varying
styles of stratigraphic architecture. The cycles are interpreted
in terms of basin development events. The stratigraphic
architecture of the Cuddapah sequences has been studied in
detail, and the stratigraphic trends have been reviewed in
terms of basin tectonics.
2. GEOLOGIC BACKGROUND
The Cuddapah Basin was first mapped in the 19th century
(King, 1872; Ball, 1877), but gained significant attention
only during the mid-20th century. The majority of the studies
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Figure 1. (a) Generalized geological map of India showing Proterozoic basins of India and the location of the Cuddapah Basin (C); Khariar (K); Indravati (I);
Pranhita-Godavari Rift (PGR); Chattisgarh (Ch) and Vindhyan (V). (b) Geological map of the Cudddaph Basin showing the subbasins, boundary thrusts of NFB
(Nallamalai Fold Belt) and NSB (Nellore Schist Belt). Udaigiri and Vinjamuru groups represent two distinct domains within the NSB. In the western part of the
basin the lower Cuddapah rock groups, Papaghni, Kurnool, Srisailam and Palnad are exposed in between the Gani-Kalva Fault (GKF), Atmakur Fault (AF) and Kona
Fault (KF) (after Nagaraja Rao et al., 1987; Anand et al., 2003, Saha and Tripathy, 2012). This figure is available in colour online at wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/gj
were focused on the classification of the Cuddapah succession
and reconstruction of the stratigraphy (King, 1872; Sen and
Narasimha Rao, 1967; Rajurkar and Ramalingaswami,
1975; Meijerink et al., 1984; Nagaraja Rao et al., 1987;
Ramakrishnan and Vaidyanadhan, 2008; Saha et al., 2009)
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
(Table 1). The outcrops of the basin-fill successions cover
an area of about 45 000 km2 in the eastern part of the East
Dharwar Craton (Figure 1). Nagaraja Rao et al. (1987) suggested that the Cuddapah Basin is a composite of four subbasins, the Papaghni, Kurnool, Srisailam and Palnad.
Geol. J. (2012)
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Table 1. Comparative stratigraphic column of the Cudappah Supergroup by earlier authors
(Continues)
CUDAPAH BASIN STRATIGRAPHY AND SEA-LEVEL FLUCTUATIONS
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Table 1. (Continued)
(Continues)
s. patranabis-deb ET
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CUDAPAH BASIN STRATIGRAPHY AND SEA-LEVEL FLUCTUATIONS
Table 1. (Continued)
(Continues)
The Papaghni subbasin has an arcuate western boundary
which is primarily depositional and is bordered on the south
and the west by granites and gneisses of the basement
complex (Peninsular Gneiss), which includes slivers of
Archaean greenstone belts. The subbasin is represented by the
Papaghni Group and the Chitravati Group, separated by an unconformity (Lakshminarayana et al., 2001; Chaudhuri et al.,
2002, Saha and Tripathy, 2012). The age of sedimentation for
the Papaghni rocks is at least older than 1900 Ma (Bhaskar
Rao et al., 1995; Anand et al., 2003). The intensely deformed
Nallamalai succession has long been considered to be a part
of the Cuddapah Supergroup (King, 1872; Narayanswami,
1966; Meijerink et al., 1984; Lakshminarayana et al., 2001;
Anand et al., 2003). However, recent studies indicate that a
major thrust at the base of the Nallamalai succession has
brought up the Nallamali Fold Belt (NFB) in its present
position, juxtaposed against the Kurnool succession or in
places against the Papaghni-Chitravati succession (Saha and
Chakraborty, 2003; Chakraborti and Saha, 2009; Saha et al.,
2010). A major intracontinental thrust, the Maidukuru Thrust
(cf. Rudravaram line, Saha et al., 2010), in the western part
of the Nallamalai Fold Belt (NFB) suggests that the
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Nallamalai succession may be allochthonous. The complexity
of the lithostratigraphy is reflected in widely divergent
stratigraphic classifications that have been proposed so far
(King, 1872; Sen and Narasimha Rao, 1967; Rajurkar and
Ramalingaswami, 1975; Meijerink et al., 1984; Nagaraja Rao
et al., 1987; Ramakrishnan and Vaidyanadhan, 2008; Saha
et al., 2010). We have followed the stratigraphic classification
by Saha and Tripathy, 2012, where the Nallamalai Group has
been considered as an allochthonous unit, and thus has been
excluded from our discussion.
3. AGE OF THE CUDDAPAH BASIN
Radiometric dating by Ar/Ar method of mafic dykes/
sills within the Tadpatri Formation or U–Pb ages of
Baddeleyite from the same horizon, suggests that
sedimentation was initiated before 1.9 Ga (Anand et al.,
2003; French et al., 2008). Widespread Proterozoic alkaline
potassic–ultrapotassic magmatism comprising kimberlites,
lamproites and lamprophyres is centred within and around
the Cuddapah Basin (Madhavan et al., 1995; Chalapathi
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Table 1. (Continued)
Rao et al., 2008; Chalapathi Rao and Srivastava, 2009).
The Chelima lamproites, which intrude into the Cumbum
Formation, the upper formation of the Nallamalai Group,
gives a 1.38 Ga age (Chalapathi Rao et al., 1999). The
upper limit of the sedimentation in the Kurnool Group is
inferred to be >1.1 Ga, based on the carbonate and limestone xenoliths that were presumably derived from these
horizons and hosted the 1.1 Ga Siddanpalle kimberlites of
the Raichur kimberlite Field (Chalapathi Rao et al., 2010).
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
The assemblages of algal stromatolites in different formations of the Supergroup indicate a middle to upper Riphean
age. However, the reports of diamonds in the basal conglomerates of the Banganapalle Quartzite (Kurnool Group),
apparently derived from 1050 Ma kimberlites west of the
Cuddapah Basin, or reports of a 980 Ma dolerite intruding
the Kurnool rocks, keep the debate open that the Kurnool
Group could be Neoproterozoic (e.g. Ramakrishnan and
Vaidyanadhan, 2008).
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CUDAPAH BASIN STRATIGRAPHY AND SEA-LEVEL FLUCTUATIONS
Table 2. Stratigraphic column of the Cudappah Supergroup as adopted for the stratigraphic analysis
CHITRAVATI
GROUP
4975 m
PAPAGHNI
GROUP
2110 m
CUDDAPAH SUPERGROUP
KURNOOL
GROUP
(c. 500+ m)
Group
Formation
Lithology
Nandyal Shale
Koilkuntala Limestone
Paniam Quartzite
Owk Shale
Shale, siltstone
Limestone, marly limestone
Quartz arenite
Shale, siltstone and minor quartz
arenite
Narji Limestone
Micritic limestone
Banganapalli Quartzite
Conglomerate, arkosic and
feldspathic sandstone
~~~~~~~ Unconformity ~~~~~~
Srisailam
Pebbly grit, quartzite,
Quartzite
heterolithic shales and sandstone
~~~~~~~ Unconformity ~~~~~
Gandikota
quartzite, pebble beds
Quartzite
Tadpatri Formation
Shale, ash fall tuffs, quartzite,
Stromatolitic dolomite with mafic
flows, sills and dykes
Pulivendla Quartzite
Conglomerate and
quartzite
~~~~ Unconformity ~~~~
Vempalle
Stromatolitic dolomite, shale, basic
Formation
flows and intrusives
Gulcheru Quartzite
Conglomerate, feldspathic
sandstone and quartzite
Depositional
Environment
Outer shelf
Carbonate platform
Shelf bar-interbar
Outer shelf
Carbonate platform
Fandelta to shallow
shelf
Fluvial to shallow
marine
Shelf bar-interbar
(intertidal to subtidal)
Shallow shelf
Fluvial to shallow
marine transition
Rimmed carbonate
platform (intertidal to
subtidal)
Fan delta-prodelta
~~~~ Unconformity ~~~~
Archaean granite, gneiss and greenstones
4. LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY OF THE CUDDAPAH
SUPERGROUP SUCCESSION
The stratigraphic succession of the Cuddapah Supergroup
comprises four unconformity-bound sequences, namely the
Papaghni Group, the Chitravati Group, the Srisailam Formation
and the Kurnool Group (Table 2). The Nallamalai Fold Belt is
excluded from stratigraphic analysis because of the tectonic
nature of its boundary with other rock groups.
4.1. Papaghni Group
Best exposed in the Parnapalle area and Tandrapadu area the
Papaghni Group unconformably overlies the Archaean gneiss
and greenstones of the Dharwar Craton. It is unconformably
overlain by the Chitravati Group. The maximum preserved
thickness of the group is 2110 m.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
4.1.1. Gulcheru Quartzite
The Gulcheru Formation consists of a basal conglomerate,
feldspathic sandstone and sand–mud heterolithic rocks, deposited in alluvial to shallow marine shelf environments.
The present description is based on two well-exposed
sections, one near Tandrapadu village near Kurnool town
and the other near Parnapalli village.
The basal conglomerate beds range in thickness from
10 cm to 65 cm and are mostly massive or normally graded.
Plane parallel or cross-stratified beds are also present in
minor proportion. Pebble size varies from 2–25 cm, outsized
clasts with long axis about 50–60 cm are also present. In the
Tandrapadu section, the majority of the clasts are of quartz,
whereas in the Parnapalli section clasts are mostly of banded
hematite quartzite or red jasper (Figure 2a). Clasts of granite,
quartzite, pegmatite, black and grey chert are also common.
Smaller clasts are mostly angular to sub-rounded, while the
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Figure 2. (a) Massive bedded conglomerate with clasts of jasper and quartz (vertical section). Note the sandstone layers which are partially eroded out. (b) Trough
cross-stratified medium-grained sandstone with coarse-grained ripples (arrow head) (vertical section). (c) Planar parallel-stratified, very coarse-grained sandstone. (d)
Ripples on shallow scour pools. Hammer placed along the margin of the scour. Scale for a, c and d: length of hammer 28 cm. This figure is available in colour online at
wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/gj
larger clasts are very well-rounded. The coarse sandy to gritty
matrix consists of quartz and fresh, angular grains of white and
pink feldspar. The matrix is locally highly ferruginous. The
presence of fresh angular grains of feldspar indicates rapid
uplift of the fresh bedrock, arid climatic conditions and rapid
transfer of the detritus to the depositional site. Fluid escape
structures are commonly seen in at the lower part of the
succession within coarse-grained sandstone.
The basal conglomerate passes into pebbly and gritty
feldspathic sandstone. These coarse-grained sandstones are
poorly sorted, are frequently trough cross-stratified (Figure 2b),
mostly with unimodal palaeocurrent towards the east with a
wide dispersal representing fluvial deposits in an alluvial fan
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
setting. The trough cross-stratified units alternate with planar
cross-stratified units which in many instances exhibit poorly
developed planar cross-stratification in the upper part
representing sheetflood deposit (Figure 2c). The immature
coarse-grained deposit finally passes upward into moderately
well sorted medium-grained trough cross-stratified glauconitic
sandstone with bifurcate or straight-crested wave ripples on
top of the beds, often with different types of interference
patterns. The trough cross-strata show bipolar, bimodal
palaeocurrent patterns pointing to a tidal origin of the deposit.
The overall facies association suggests a tectonically controlled
alluvial fan system with multiple cycles of basement uplift and
erosion during the basin opening stage. The massive, ungraded
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Figure 3. Representative photographs of the sedimentary structures showing the facies of the Vempalle Formation: (a) tepee structure (vertical section) (Scale: coin
diameter 2 cm). (b) salt pseudomorphs, bedding-plane view (Scale: coin diameter 2 cm). (c) algal laminites, vertical section (width of the photograph 55 cm) (d) and
plan view of circular type stromatolite structure (Scale: length of pencil 15 cm). This figure is available in colour online at wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/gj
conglomerate beds represent debris-flow deposits and dominate
the lower part of the section. The gradational passage from
debris flow to sheet flood and fluvial facies indicate peneplanation of the source. Interlaminated sandstone–siltstone and
mudstone represents the prodelta phase and the passage to
shelf bar–interbar deposits. The shallow scour pools mantled
with ripple marks of diverse morphology (Figure 2d) suggest
development of intertidal flats at the upper part of the
Gulcheru Quartzite.
4.1.2. Vempalle Formation
The Vempalle Formation constitutes the lowermost carbonate dominant unit of the Cuddapah Supergroup, and overlies
'the Gulcheru Quartzite with a gradational contact. Thin
beds of splintery red mudstone alternate with siliciclasticand calcarenite beds in the basal part of the formation.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Sandstone beds are almost always cross-stratified, and
often with herringbone arrangement. Tepee structure
(Figure 3a), desiccation cracks filled with lime mud or
sand, molar-tooth structure and rhombic halite casts
(Figure 3b) are common in the lower Vempalle Formation.
The upper part is dominated by bedded dolomite with
variable bed thickness ranging from 10 cm to 90 cm. They
occur as lens-shaped bodies, slightly convex upward, and
which slope away in all directions from the crest region,
resembling shoaling-up bars. Algal laminites (Figure 3c)
dominate in the lower part and stromatolites (Figure 3d)
with isolated stacked hemispheroids (SH) to laterally linked
hemispheroidal forms (LLH) (cf. Logan et al., 1964) are
abundant in the upper part of the carbonate succession.
Bar–interbar dolomite, stromatolites and mudstones suggests intertidal to subtidal origin for the carbonates of the
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Vempalle Formation with multiple cycles of sea-level
changes. The laminated shales with well-developed halite
casts point to shallow sabkha sedimentation in an arid climate. The Vempalle Formation ends with deposition of
thick brown shale with laterally persistent beds of chert.
The common occurrence of up to a metre-thick sills and
thinner dykes of basalt and/or dolerite with chilled margins
within brown shale and dolomite at the upper part of the
Vempalle succession points to tectonic perturbations. The
shale–dolomite and the volcanic assemblages are followed
by a major unconformity. The conglomerates and the
pebbly sandstone above this unconformity consists of clasts
of chert with stromatolite, vein quartz, chert, jasper and volcanics derived from the lower stratigraphic successions
(King, 1872, Meijerink et al., 1984; Dasgupta and Biswas,
2006).
4.2. Chitravati Group
The Chitravati Group unconformably overlying the
Papaghni Group has a maximum preserved thickness of
4975 m (Meijerink et al., 1984; Nagaraja Rao et al., 1987).
The constituent formations are the Pulivendla Quartzite,
the Tadpatri Formation and the Gandikota Quartzite in
ascending order. The succession is marked by the occurrence of mafic sills and dykes at various stratigraphic levels,
mostly restricted to the Tadpatri Formation.
4.2.1. Pulivendla Quartzite
The Pulivendla Quartzite (average thickness ~90 m) crops out
around the northwest of Yagantipalli village, and unconformably overlies the Vempalle Formation with a ~10 m-thick zone
of pebbly sandstone and conglomerate. The conglomerate
occurs as small lenses within coarse-grained sandstone, and
makes up only a small proportion of the whole section. The
clasts are 2–8 cm in length and are mostly of quartzite, chert,
jasper and volcanic rocks in a coarse-grained sandy matrix.
The conglomerate beds are 10–15 cm thick and are usually
massive, ungraded to normally graded. Several beds exhibit
crudely developed planar cross-stratification in the upper part,
whereas a few are planar stratified throughout the bed thickness with small trough cross-strata on top. The coarse-grained
sandstone beds are mostly with trough and planar cross-strata
(Figure 4a) and plane parallel strata. The conglomerate
quickly passes upwards to well-sorted quartz arenite, deposited as shoaling-up bars with slight pinch-and-swell geometry.
Poorly sorted fine-grained sandstone and siltstone fill up the
lows between the shoal-bars forming inter-bars. Shallow
scours with lag pebbles are common within this facies. Bars
are internally profusely trough- and planar cross-stratified,
mostly with small mud clasts aligned along the foresets. Reactivation surfaces and backflow ripples are commonly seen.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Locally, deformed cross-strata are also present. Stringers of
very well rounded, very coarse sand and granules mantle the
bedding plane surfaces in places. The upper surfaces of the
beds are sculptured with symmetric to slightly asymmetric,
sinuous to straight-crested ripples (Figure 4b), pointing to
wave–tide dominated setting of deposition. Desiccation cracks
are common on the upper surfaces of many beds. Palaeo-flow
is towards the north and west.
The high maturity of the sandstone indicates that the
sediment accumulation was in critical balance, and deposition was at or very close to the mean sea-level. The mature
sediments may be a likely indication of extensive sedimentary recycling.
4.2.2. Tadpatri Formation
The Pulivendla Formation grades upward into a thick shale
succession of the Tadpatri Formation, characterized by a
lithologic assemblage dominated by sandstone, shale and
dolomite (Figure 5a). The shale overlies sandstones of the
Pulivendla Quartzite with a sharp contact and contains minor
amounts of fine-grained sandstone (< 10%) deposited as
thin layers or stringers. The shale with fine sandstone layers
is inferred as a major storm succession (Howard and
Reineck, 1981), deposited in an outer shelf environment
below normal wave-base. The shale-dominated succession
grades up into sandstone–mudstone heterolithics, intercalated
with several sheet-like or sheet-lenticular beds of feldspathic
sandstone and dolomite at different stratigraphic levels forming coarsening- and thickening-up succession. Sandstone and
dolomite beds range in thickness from 15 to 50 cm and are
mostly with planar- and wavy-parallel lamination, and lowangle hummocky- and swaley cross-stratification. They often
exhibit different types of sole marks at the base, and waveformed symmetric to asymmetric ripples and combined-flow
ripples on the upper surfaces. The dolomitic units commonly
show algal laminites and stratiform stromatolites (Figure 5b).
Dolerite sills, up to about 4–5 m thick, are associated with dolomites and shale. The thicker sills have a lateral spread of several
hundreds of metres at Yagantipalli section. Chilled margins of
the dolerite and contact metamorphic effect in the host carbonates are commonly seen. Mafic dykes and rhyolitic tuffs are
also seen in the heterolithic sand–mud unit in the uppermost
part of the Tadpatri Formation.
The coarsening- and shallowing-up succession suggests
a relative sea-level fall and a major regression from
outer-shelf to inner-shelf environments, and deposition of
sandstones and dolomite in storm- and tide-dominated
environments.
4.2.3.
Gandikota Quartzite
The Gandikota Quartzite is major scarp-forming sandstone
in the region. It overlies the Tadpatri Formation with a
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Figure 4. (a) Trough cross-stratified medium- to coarse-grained sandstone, the Pulivendla Quartzite. Note the asymptotic foresets with mudstone drapes. Bed thickness
28 cm. (b) Plan-view of wave ripples with tuning fork bifurcations. Hammer head = 16 cm. This figure is available in colour online at wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/gj
Figure 5. (a) Couplets of fine-grained sandstone and mudstone in the Tadpatri Formation (pen cap = 4 cm.) (b) Stratiform stromatolites in the Tadpatri
Formation. (Scale: length of hammer 28 cm). This figure is available in colour online at wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/gj
gradational contact (Figure 6a, d). The transition between
the two is marked by the presence of thin-bedded sandstoneshale (Figure 6c) which passes up to relatively thicker bedded
quartzose sandstone and finally to the amalgamated bedded
scarp forming the sandstone of the Gandikota Quartzite
(Figure 6b) which could be traced laterally a few hundreds
of metres around Gandikota Gorge. It consists mostly of
medium- to coarse-grained, well sorted and well-rounded
quartz- and feldspathic arenite. The sandstones are marked
by a high degree of textural, compositional and structural
uniformity throughout its outcrops. The beds range in
thickness from 15 to 100 cm, and are mostly planar–tabular
and trough cross-stratified with set thickness ranging from
50–70 cm. Deformed cross-strata and 30 to 80 cm wide ballCopyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
and-pillow structures (Figure 6b) are common in the upper
part of the section. Ripple or climbing-ripple cross-lamination,
small-scale trough cross-stratification and wavy-parallel lamination may be locally abundant. Oppositely oriented crossstratified beds, HCS beds (Figure 6e) and massive beds with
local abundance of mud flakes occur throughout the succession. In the uppermost part of the interval, the sandstone exhibits a variety of wave ripples with straight or bifurcated crests
and different types of interference patterns which commonly
mantle shallow swash pools. Spindle-shaped linear and polygonal shrinkage cracks occur on the bedding surfaces on the upper part. The Gandikota Quartzite represents a transition from
inner shelf to intra-coastal tidal flat environments with frequent
emergence of the depositional interface. The sediments were
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Figure 6. (a) Cross-section showing transition of the Tadpatri Formation and the Gandikota Formation. Tunnel height is 5 m. (b) Thick-bedded scarp forming
Gandikota Quartzite with convolute laminae. Bed thickness 85 cm. (c) The transition zone between the Tadpatri Formation and the Gandikota Quartzite is
marked by an alternation of thin-bedded sandstone and shale. (d) Thin-bedded silty shale unit of the upper Tadpatri Formation. (e) Hummocky cross-stratified
sandstone bed, Gandikota Quartzite. (Scale: length of hammer 28 cm). This figure is available in colour online at wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/gj
deposited primarily as high-energy shallow wide bars and lowenergy interbars.
4.3. Srisailam Quartzite Formation
The Srisailam Quartzite (600+ m) unconformably overlies
the granite gneiss basement along its western contact and
is in thrust contact with the Nallamalai Group along its
southern boundary. It is composed mostly of well sorted,
medium-grained, purple subarkose to quartz arenite,
ferruginous and glauconitic in places. Individual beds range
in thickness from 5 cm to 50 cm, but often amalgamate to
4 m-thick units. Successive beds are separated by siltstone
and mudstone unit with beds ranging in thickness from 3
to 5 cm. The amalgamated beds occur as laterally persistent
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
sheet-like bodies with well-developed pinch-and-swell
structures and sharp boundaries. The thick sandstone beds
make up the spectacular Krishna Gorge section. The sandstones are texturally and compositionally very homogeneous
and consist of well-rounded to sub-rounded, well sorted
medium-grained quartz. The beds are profusely crossstratified, both trough and planar type, often with welldeveloped herringbone structures and backflow ripples.
Individual cross strata tend to be 2 m and the sets are usually
2–3 m thick and are inclined up to 250 in places (Figure 7).
The upper surfaces of the beds are sculptured with symmetric to slightly asymmetric, sinuous and straight-crested
ripples often mantled by very coarse sands and granules.
Desiccation cracks and wind ripples are observed on top of
many of the thicker beds. Trough cross-stratified, mediumGeol. J. (2012)
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CUDAPAH BASIN STRATIGRAPHY AND SEA-LEVEL FLUCTUATIONS
Figure 7. Planar cross-strata with asymptotic foresets. This figure is available in colour online at wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/gj
Figure 8. (a) Trough-cross stratified conglomerate and pebbly sandstone in the Banganapalli Formation. (b) Feldspathic sandstone under cross-polars. (c) Wave
ripples with tuning fork bifurcation on top of the sandstone beds. (d) Wave ripples in medium-grained sandstone, enclosed within fine-grained sandstonemudstone (pencil length = 12 cm). This figure is available in colour online at wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/gj
to coarse-grained immature channel-fill sandstones is
present at different levels. Very well sorted sandstone of
the Srisailam Formation with amalgamated cross-stratified
beds with mudstone drapes and interlaminated sandstone–
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
siltstone and mudstone are products of flows modified by
various tidal beats (Eriksson et al., 2006). Sands were
transported during the ebb and flood stages, and mudstone
accumulated during slack-water phases.
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4.4. Kurnool Group
The Kurnool Group overlies the Papaghni and Chitravati
groups and onlaps the gneissic basement with a major
unconformity that extends over the entire Papaghni subbasin
(Saha et al., 2009). The Palnad and Kunderu valley regions
are considered as an extension of the Kurnool Basin. The
Kurnool Group is more than 500 m thick, and is divided into
six formations, comprising two carbonate platform units and
two intervals of sandstones and shales.
4.4.1. Banganapalli Formation
Kurnool Group sedimentation started with the deposition of the
Banaganalpalli Formation conglomerate and coarse-grained
pebbly sandstone, which unconformably overlies the Chitravati
Group, Cumbum Shale and the basement granite and gneiss
(King, 1872; Dutt, 1962; Meijerink et al., 1984; Nagaraja Rao
et al., 1987, Saha et al., 2009). The conglomerates occur as
laterally impersistent sheets and grades up to coarse-grained
pebbly sandstone. The clasts are from 2 cm to 25 cm in size,
subangular to subrounded and are mostly of red, green, or buff
jasper, chert, dolomite, vein quartz, quartzite, phyllite and
granite (Figure 8a). Rarely, silicified stromatolitic limestone
clasts are also present. Conglomerate beds are massive,
normally or reverse graded or are internally crudely planar
parallel stratified. It grades up to multistorey bodies of trough
cross-stratified coarse-grained feldspathic sandstone (Figure 8b)
with sheet-like geometry. The cross-strata in these sandstones
exhibit very uniform unidirectional flow towards S-SW in the
Kurnool sub-basin and and S-SE in the Palnad sub-basin. It
passes up to medium-grained pebbly quartzose sandstone with
pinch-and-swell geometry. The sandstone beds are 50 to 80 cm
thick, and wavy to planar laminated, or trough- and planar
cross-stratified, often with asymptotic foresets. A few beds
have wave ripple (Figure 8c), parting lineation, and current
crescent on their upper surfaces. Several bedding surfaces
are mantled by single grain-thick layers of small pebbles, or
thin mud laminae. They are arranged in stacked fining-up,
decimetre- to metre-scale cycles with wave ripples enclosed
within fine-grained sandstone–mudstone heterolithics or mudstone (Figure 8d). Within a cycle, the abundance of mudstone
drapes increases upwards, which points to a transgression of
the shoreline during a rise in relative sea level. Beds exhibit intense soft-sediment deformation structures, such as overturned
cross-strata, and ball-and-pillow structures in the upper part of
the Banaganapalli succession. Fluidization often obliterates
bedding structures imparting a massive appearance.
The facies association in the lower part of the succession
represents alluvial fan and braid plain deposit. The overlying scour-bounded fining-upward units are inferred to
represent small shallow distributaries on top of braid
bars. It passes up to fairly well sorted, medium-grained,
subarkosic to quartzose sandstone forming small lenticular
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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shoaling-up bodies with bimodal–bidirectional palaeocurrents. The positive relief sandbodies were deposited as tidal
bars in a wave–tide dominated shallow coastal depositional
regime (Figure 9).
4.4.2. Narji Limestone
The Narji Limestone gradationally overlies the Banganapalli
Quartzite. The limestones are mostly micritic (Figure 10a),
grey and black often with profuse chert nodules (Figure 10b).
Beds are 5 to 50 cm thick, planar tabular to slightly wavy
type. Bed sets are laterally very persistent, and could be
traced about 50 metres laterally. The grey limestone dominates the lower part of the Narji succession and commonly
contains intercalated sandstone as discrete beds or as mixed
siliciclastic carbonate beds. The sandstones occur as thin
Figure 9. Lithologic log of the Banganapalli Formation showing facies
distribution.
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Figure 10. (a) Grey micritic limestone under cross polars. (b) Chert nodule within grey micritic Narji Limestone (lens cap = 6 cm). (c) Mass-flow conglomerate
comprising clasts of grey limestone floating in a matrix of micrite and very coarse grained sands within Narji Limestone. Limestone clasts were picked up by
storm currents from early-lithified beds, and are redeposited. clast size varies from 2 cm to 30 cm. (d) Limestone–marl rhythmite, black Narji Limestone. This
figure is available in colour online at wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/gj
stringers and discrete layers, 5–30 cm thick beds of mediumto fine-grained subarkosic glauconitic sandstone and
coarse, well-rounded sandstone with sharp and erosional
basal contact occurring at different levels. The interval
also contains small pockets or thin sheets of intraformational lime–clast conglomerates (Figure 10c). The grey limestone passes up to black limestone forming laterally extensive
sheet. Limestone bed thicknesses are very uniform ranging between 5–15 cm, and each and every bed is separated by
2–5 cm-thick layer of marl (Figure 10d). Pyrite occurs profusely in this unit. The black limestone grades upward to the
ochre yellow coloured Owk Shale which marks the end of
the platform development.
4.4.3. Owk Shale
The Owk Shale with a maximum preserved thickness of
about 100 m (Nagaraja Rao et al., 1987) overlies the Narji
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Limestone with a transitional contact. Coarse-grained
clastics are conspicuously absent in the shale, though fine
sandy/silty beds are present, mostly in the upper part of the
succession. Welded tuff and volcaniclastic sandstones are
present at certain stratigraphic levels within the Owk Shale.
The shale beds are planar tabular in nature and are internally
plane parallel-laminated or exhibit normal grading (Figure 11a).
In the upper part of any section, sandstones appear as 5–25 cm
tabular beds and passes up to the Paniam Quartzite with a fairly
sharp contact (Figure 11b). We interpret that the Owk Shale
formed in a muddy shelf over the black limestone as a result
of a sea-level fall which is of basin-wide scale.
4.4.4. Paniam Quartzite
The Paniam Quartzite overlies the Owk Shale with a sharp
contact but through a thin transitional zone where 2–10 cmthick sandstone beds alternate with 10–15 cm thick muddy
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Figure 11. (a) Plane parallel laminated ochre yellow coloured Owk Shale. (b) The contact between the Owk Shale and the Paniam Quartzite. Note the sharp
contact between the shale and the sandstone. Owk Shale is about 100 m thick at this point and almost always is capped by the Paniam Quartzite. Photo taken
near Belum cave. This figure is available in colour online at wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/gj
Figure 12. Micrite–marl rhythmite of the Koilkuntala Limestone. The beds are separated by 2–4 cm thick marl layers and the bed sets form laterally persistent
units. This figure is available in colour online at wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/gj
interval. It is characterized by medium-grained, well sorted
quartzarenite which occurs as a flat-topped mountain
(King’s Plateau Quartzite). The quartzite passes up to very
well sorted medium- to fine-grained quartz arenite (99%
quartz). The quartzite beds are all amalgamated to form
beds greater than a metre thick. Beds are wavy parallel or
lenticular in shape, internally mostly wavy parallel stratified
or planar and trough cross-stratified with large foresets. Very
well sorted sandstone with amalgamated cross-stratified
beds are interpreted to be the products of wave reworked bars
in an open environment.
4.4.5. Koilkuntala Limestone
Buff to mauve coloured argillaceous limestone, devoid of
any coarse clastics and stromatolites and mostly composed
of micrite and marls characterize the Koilkuntala Limestone.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
It overlies the Paniam Quartzite with a gradational contact
and in turn is overlain by the Nandyal Shale with a transitional zone of argillaceous limestone. Beds are 7–20 cm
thick, occur as laterally persistent bed sets which are about
2 m thick. Beds are planar tabular (Figure 12) or wavy
parallel, internally planar parallel laminated. The beds are
separated by 2–4 cm-thick marl layers and form well
developed micrite–marl rhythmite zones which could be
traced for a few hundred metres.
4.4.6. Nandyal Shale
The Nandyal Shale is dominated by brown colour laminated
shale, and overlies the argillaceous limestone of the
Koilkuntala Limestone through a transition zone of shale–
limestone heterolithics. It is characterized by 5 – 15 cm thick
beds, internally plane parallel laminated or with streaks of
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CUDAPAH BASIN STRATIGRAPHY AND SEA-LEVEL FLUCTUATIONS
Figure 13. Stratigraphic column of the Cudappah Supergroup, showing four major unconformity-bound tectono-stratigraphic sequences. Positions of
desiccation cracks, tepee, ripples, hummocky cross-stratifications and stromatolites are shown on the right side of the column.
fine sands and fading ripples. Thicker beds often exhibit
normal grading or Ta-b or Ta-c divisions of the Bouma sequence, or display a sequence of structure with a 2–5 cm-thick
basal zone of mudclast conglomerate floating within fine
sand matrix, and a 3 – 4 cm-thick upper zone with thin
planar lamination. Low-angle truncations between bed sets
are commonly observed.
The sand-deficient, mud-dominated very thick and widespread succession of Nandyal Shale is attributed to a major
transgression during periods of relative tectonic quiescence
in a wide shelf.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
5. STRATIGRAPHIC ARCHITECTURE AND
DEPOSITIONAL CYCLES
Analyses of sedimentary facies associations indicate that the
Cuddapah Supergroup succession can be divided into four
unconformity-bound sequences which were deposited
within an overall similar tectonic–climatic regime. Different
orders of cycles are recognized within each unconformitybound sequence, with a distinctive mode of deposition
pointing towards a changing tectonic state of the basin
(Figure 13).
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5.1. Papaghni cycle (Cycle I)
The Cuddapah Supergroup deposition started with the basal
Gulcheru Quartzite representing alluvial fans and fandelta
deposits. The succession from the base of the Gulcheru
Quartzite to the top of the Vempalle Formation is marked
by lateral and vertical facies variation, rapid changes in the
inferred rate of sediment influx and depositional
bathymetry. The western part of the basin received very
coarse detritus which points to rejuvenation of the hinterland
drainage system, rapid flux of coarse detritus via high
energy, high gradient streams, and multiple events of forced
regression directly linked to the extension margin. The type
section in south-eastern part, in contrast, is characterized by
sub-mature sandstone, and the paucity of conglomerates
point to slow subsidence. Unequal fault displacement in different sectors of the delta complex and intermittent uplift of
fault blocks were the major controls on fan development
(Patranabis-Deb and Chaudhuri, 2007, see also, Whipple and
Trayler, 1996; Gawthorpe and Leeder, 2000) within an invariant climate and source rock lithology. The fault-controlled sedimentation of the thick wedge of immature clastics represents
the syn-rift stage of basin evolution. The aggradation of the
delta was controlled by a fluctuating balance between the rate
of sediment supply, and creation of accommodation space at
the basin margin. Intermittent uplift of fault blocks exposed
fresh bed rock, generating a large amount of fresh feldspathic
detritus. The fan-delta succession is gradationally overlain by
stacked upward-fining, metre–scale cycles of dolomitic limestone and sandstone–mudstone heterolithics of the Vempalle
Formation. The dolomite is characterized by the presence of
algal laminites and stromatolites deposited in subtidal to intertidal environments with multiple fining-up and coarsening-up
cycles. The facies association of dolomitic and the red
mudstones, salt-pseudomorphs and mud-cracks attests to
the intertidal to supratidal origin of the facies belt. During
the Palaeoproterozoic time the Papaghni Group sediments
were deposited in an extensive shallow sea covering a stable
platform. The coarse clastics gave way to shelfal mud in the
upper part of the Vempalle Formation indicating a
maximum flooding event in the first cycle of sedimentation.
Development of stacked cyclothems of different orders
points to cyclic changes in the provenance that affected
the generation and supply of detritus, and their dispersal.
The presence of mafic flows on top of the cycle points to a
change in the thermal behaviour of the basin.
5.2. The Chitravati cycle (Cycle II)
The Chitravati Cycle consists of three lithostratigraphic units
of formation status. The stratigraphic architecture of the
sequence is best described as a cyclic occurrence of sandstone and mudstone-dominated intervals of different orders.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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The largest order cyclicity is manifested by the Pulivendla
Quartzite, followed by very thick heterogeneous shaledolomite dominated Tadpatri Formation and finally to the
Gandikota Quartzite (Table 2 and Figure 13). The secondorder cycle in the Pulivendla Quartzite is represented by
100–130 m-thick upward-fining succession that exhibits a
transition from fluvial to tide-influenced sedimentation.
Successive bar–interbar succession is also very prominent
within this sandstone which marks the fluctuations of the
sea-level curve in a higher order scale. The succession from
the base of the Tadpatri Formation to the top is marked by a
number of coarsening-up (CU) sequences, represented by
shale–sandstone or shale dolomite cycles which represents
parasequences and may be equivalent to the punctuated
aggradational cycles (PAC) of Goodwin and Anderson
(1985) and Miller et al. (1997). Successive parasequence
sets are arranged in retrogradational, progradational or
aggradational stacking pattern. The scale may vary from a
few centimetres to a few metres. However, very large order
CU and fining-up (FU) cycles, almost hundreds of metres in
scale, are also present within the Tadpatri succession. The
bounding surfaces of each cycle are distinctly sharp and in
most cases are erosional, pointing towards their development
in the coastal zones (Kreisa, 1991).
The unstable basin condition and depositional system are
reflected by the highly heterogeneous succession with a
number of coarsening-up and fining-up sequences or stacked
cyclothems of different orders. The alternation of sandstone,
siltstone, mudstone and dolostone points to cyclic changes
in the provenance that affected the generation and supply
of detritus, and their dispersal (Blair and Bilodeau, 1988).
The presence of an abrupt disruption in the depositional
motif of the Tadpatri Formation succession and changes in
the calibre of detritus is the manifestation of a tectonically unstable condition of the basin, where rapid subsidence was not
in balance with the rate of sediment supply and accumulation.
The unstable condition is also reflected by mafic igneous
activity represented by sills and dykes, as well as rhyolite flows
and tuffs. The changes affected the generation and supply of
detritus, emplacement of detritus in the basin, and their dispersal within the basin. The episodic or geologically instantaneous character of the cyclic changes is also reflected by sharp
and/or erosional bounding surfaces of the higher order cycles.
The tectonic stabilization is first reflected by mature quartz
arenites of the Gandikota Quartzite. This represents the topmost part of the Chitravati Group cycle. Strong textural and
mineralogical maturity of the Gandikota Sandstone points
to repeated reworking by waves and currents in a wave–tide
dominated sea. The absence of any coarse detritus further
points to tectonic stabilization and peneplanation of the
hinterland. Clean mature sands also indicate a balance
between subsidence, sediment supply and accumulation.
The development of extensive Gandikota sheet sandstones
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CUDAPAH BASIN STRATIGRAPHY AND SEA-LEVEL FLUCTUATIONS
further points to the development of a wide open shelf during
this period. Signatures of high-energy storm and tidal activity are noted throughout the succession. The coastal sands
were reworked during the slow subsidence stage resulting
in the development of a widespread Gandikota blanket
covering a large area beyond the active zone of syn-rift
subsidence.
Signatures of the tidal and storm activity are recorded
throughout the Gandikota succession. The large tidal bars,
with thick tidal bedding in the Gandikota Formation speak
for a macrotidal regime. Abundance of ball-and-pillow
structures in the upper part of the formation points to
transient instability and fluidization of sediments which were
possibly rapidly deposited. However, clean sands point to
tectonic stabilized condition.
absence of sand-sized clastics in the Narji and Owk successions indicates a high degree of peneplanation in the hinterland
and increasing tectonic quiescence. Sand-sized detritus in the
basal part of the limestone, constituting not more than 5% of
the member attests to the linkage between the hinterland and
the carbonate platform. The carbonate factory was terminated
by the sediment influx of the Owk Shale. The welded tuff and
volcaniclastic sandstones in the Owk Shale represent the basin
inversion stage. The cycle was terminated by forced regression, represented by the Paniam Formation. The Paniam
Formation comprising tidal sand-bodies with a number of
fluvial cycles represents a major shift in sea level forming a
forced regressive wedge and a sequence boundary. It gradationally passes up to the rhythmically deposited limestone–
marl sequence of the Koilkuntala Limestone, which marks
an episode of sea-level rise, with smaller order fluctuations.
The cycle ended with the deposition of the Nandyal Shale.
5.3. The Srisailam cycle (Cycle III)
The cyclicity in the Srisailam Formation is represented by
coarsening- and thickening-up successions on the scale of
a few tens of metres, from laminated fine-grained sandstone–
shale, to rippled and cross-stratified sandstone and rarely
conglomerate, mostly as channel lags. The large-scale cycles
comprise successive, fining-upward successions or show
cyclic alternation attributed to frequent shore zone regression
and transgression and complex interplay of fluvial and shallow
marine to aeolian environment (Biswas, 2005; Dasgupta and
Biswas, 2006). Positive relief sandbodies with wavy to
lenticular beds and wave ripples on top, locally with concentration of coarse sands and granules in the trough points
to development of shoal water bars. The positive relief
sandbodies, which accreted laterally and vertically and are
separated by heterolithics, represent a complex coastal system
which points to stable, passive tectonic margins with broad
shallow coastal regions (Prothero and Schwab, 1996).
5.4. The Kurnool cycle (Cycle IV)
The Kurnool Group cycle exhibits two major sub-cycles
within the large cycle. The higher order cycles represent a
deepening-up trend followed by a shallowing-up trend
respectively. The Banganapalli Quartzite represents alluvial
fan to fan-delta cycle, representing uplift of the basin margin
and rejuvenation of the hinterland drainage system during
the pre-Kurnool hiatus. Successive higher order CU sequences
developed within an overall FU sequence. Relative sea-level
rise caused overall transgression of the sea and the Narji
carbonate platform was established on top of the fan complex.
The carbonate–shale assemblage gradationally overlies the
Banaganaplle Quartzite and in turn is overlain by the Owk
Shale, attesting to continued subsidence and transformation
of the basin into a large epicontinental sea. A nearly complete
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
6. TECTONISM, BASIN CONFIGURATION AND
ORIGIN OF THE BASIN
The unconformity-bound sequences in the Cuddapah Basin
point to episodic uplift and subsidence of the basin floor
which dictated the advance and retreat of ancient sea-ways.
The scale of differential subsidence and/or uplift, removal
of an entire sequence beneath sequence boundaries, and
sequence architecture consisting of thick clastic wedges
provide the compelling evidence for tectonically-driven
sea-level changes and origin of the sequence bounding
unconformities (see also, Galloway, 1989; Emery, 1996;
Sloss, 1991; Miall, 1997; Bird and Dewey, 1970).
The Cuddapah Supergroup sedimentation started at ca.
1900 Ma with the deposition of the Papaghni cycle. The
Gulcheru Quartzite, the basal formation of the Papaghni
Group records a major episode of fault-controlled sedimentation and represents the rifting stage of the basin. A large
volume of quartzo-feldspathic detritus was generated from
the up-thrown blocks of the granite–gneiss basement which
resulted in the thick succession of conglomerates and arkosic
sandstones deposited as alluvial fans and delta-plain deposits.
It was followed by a marine incursion depositing shallow tidal
deposits over the braid plain succession. The presence of
cryptalgal-laminites and dolomites of the Vempalle Formation, with signatures of repetitive exposure and sabkha sedimentation marks the development of a stable platformal
basin.
The Pullivendla Quartzite provides the evidence for a
second cycle of rifting with braid-fluvial sedimentation.
The succession quickly passes on up to a wave- and tidedominated coastal deposit with high textural and compositional maturity. A slow rate of passive subsidence was in
balance with the rate of sediment influx, which maintained
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the base level of deposition within the shallow tidal range.
With continued passive subsidence, the basin evolved into
a large epicontinental sea with nearly complete cessation of
coarse clastic sedimentation and deposition of an extensive
shale–carbonate succession of the Tadpatri Formation. The
Srisailam Formation sedimentation indicates development
of wide shelf environment, with continuous wave activity
and frequent exposure. The paucity of conglomerate and
arkosic sandstones in the Srisailam Quartzite and high
textural and compositional maturity of the siliciclastics
indicate intense wave and wind action on the vegetation-free
surface. The cycle marks a tectonically quiescent period of
deposition in a stable cratonic shelf with slow rate of
subsidence. The Kurnool Group with its thick succession
of conglomerates, pebbly sandstones and arkosic sandstones
in the Banganapalli Quartzite record a major rift succession.
The rifting stage of the Kurnool Basin was rapidly followed
by re-establishment of a stable shelf regime when an extensive
carbonate platform of the Narji was developed. The close
association of tidally deposited cratonic sandstones, and high
quartz percentage in the Paniam Quartzite (ca. 89% quartz)
and rhythmite in limestone, suggest that the Kurnool sediments formed in a passive margin basin (Beukes, 1987).
Although data are meagre, particularly those relating to the
early Proterozoic, there is growing evidence for two events
of supercontinent assembly and break-up during the
Proterozoic, the Columbia and the Rodinia. The oldest
unconformity-bound sequence in the Cuddapah Basin
(Cycle I) thus appear to represent a phase of sea-level rise
prior to Columbia assembly. (Santosh, 2010). The event of
extension and rifting is evidenced by the presence of
conglomerate, arkose and the mafic dykes which intruded
the lower part of the succession. This event of extension
possibly may represent an initial phase of fragmentation of
Columbia and separation of the south Indian craton from
the North China craton (cf. Ravikant, 2010). The Cycles II
and III were possibly associated with higher order sea-level
fluctuations. The major basin-wide unconformity at the base
of the Kurnool Group (Cycle IV) could possibly be related to
a younger event of major rifting which may be related to fragmentation of Rodinia.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work on the stratigraphy and sedimentation of the
Cuddapah Basin was funded by the Indian Statistical Institute,
and is a part of the Proterozoic research programme of the
Institute. Sincere thanks to Prof. M. Santosh and Prof.
Somnath Dasgupta for inviting us to write the paper for this
volume. The manuscript was critically reviewed by Prof.
N. J. Beukes, Prof. S. Banerjee and an anonymous reviewer,
whose constructive comments are much appreciated.
Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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