CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE This chapter presents the various views, ideas, and perception of both local and foreign authors who have conducted researches related to this study. Kagan 2000 says that cooperative learning involves structured group activity with student. Using interviews/ listening techniques that have been modeled, one student interviews another about an announced topic. When time is up, students switch roles as interviewer and interviewee. Pairs then join to form groups of four. Students take turns introducing their pairs partners and sharing what the pair partners had to say. This structure can be used as team builder, and also for opinion questions, predicting, evaluating, sharing book reports and others. Lyman, 2001 reveals that cooperative learning involves discussion strategy between students and teachers. Students listen while a question is posed, think a response, discuss it with his seatmates and share their responses with the whole class. Time limits and transition cues help discussion smoothly. Students are able to rehears responses mentally and verbally, and all students have opportunity to talk. Both students and teachers have increased opportunities to think and become involve in group discussion. Johnson, Johnson & Holubc, 1994 say that in classrooms where collaboration is practiced,students pursue learning in groups of varying size: negotiating, initiating, planning, and evaluating together. Rather than working as individuals in competition with every other individual in the classroom, students are given the responsibility of creating a learning community where student. 6 A prerequisite for quality education is that respective teachers have strong subject knowledge.Good quality education also depends on giving teachers the best possible training, not only before they start teaching but also throughout their careers. Initial teacher education should prepare teachers to help students from a diverse array of backgrounds, including those with multiple disadvantages, especially in the early grades. Effective teacher training goes beyond the theory of teaching to include practical classroom experience. It also lays the foundation for helping teachers adapt to new teaching and learning methods. Trainers themselves also need on going education.(2015 Education Summit, Oslo) Lewin and Stuart, 2003 point out that all teachers require continuing support to enable them to reflect on teaching practices, to foster motivation and to help them adapt to change, such as using a new curriculum. Teachers who have received some in-service training are generally found to teach better than those who have not, although it depends on the purpose an d quality of the training received. 0ngoing training plays a key role in improving learning outcomes by providing teachers with new ideas throughout their career about how to support weak learners. It needs to be well articulated with initial content. Hardman, 2012 believes that an under-investment in in-service professional development opportunities has been associated with poor results from the implementation of key education reforms at classroom level. For example, many poorer countries are trying to move away from teaching that relies heavily on traditional approaches such as lecturing, rote learning and repetition, and towards the use of learner-centered methods, emphasizing critical thinking, dialogue, group work and reflection. Without ongoing training , teachers can find the shift to learner-centered pedagogy demanding. 7 Collaborative learning shifts the responsibility for learning to the student, in the role of “researcher” and self-directed learner. In order to work towards a collaborative learning approach, the teacher must fully understand their students preferred learning styles and their own conceptions of learning. This can help the teacher decide where and how to start an online cooperative/collaborative project. According to proponents of collaborative learning, the fact that students are actively exchanging, debating and negotiating ideas within their groups increases students’ interest in learning.Importantly, by engaging in discussion and taking responsibility for their learning, students are encouraged to become critical thinkers (Totten, sills , Dighoy& Russ, 1989). Many researchers have reported that students working in small groups tend to learn more of what is being taught .Moreover , they retainthe information longer and also appear more satisfied with their classes (B eckman ,1990; Chickering & Gamson , 1991;Goodsell,et al 1992).For collaborative learning to be effective , there should be both “group goals “and individual accountability” (Slavin1989).This means that the collaborative learning task must ensure that every group member to be responsible for some concept necessary to complete the task . This implies that every group member will learn their assigned concept and will be responsible for explaining/ teaching this to other members of the group. As most teacher have discovered , we usually learn more by teaching than ever learn as” learners “! Indeed this sentiment is backed up by research –it has been consistently found that students who learn most are those who give and receive elaborated explanation about what they are learning and how they are learning it (Webb,1985) 8 Cooperative learning promotes collaborative situation rather than working individually. Let’s also add to this theory the fact that group diversity can contribute positively to the learning process. This is because students are faced with different interpretations explanations or answers about what they are studying and this forces them to “ re- think” their own viewpoints.I t now seems clear that incorporating network-based learning into the process of collaborative learning can be very beneficial in terms of knowledge and experience students will be working with a diverse student group and this interaction may bring them to re- formulate some of their ideas (Bruner,1985). Cooperative learning has been found to be a successful teaching strategy at all levels, from pre-school to post secondary. The developmental characteristics of middle school students make cooperative learning a good fit of teaching strategy for the needs of the students. Young adolescents need to socialize , be part of a group, share feelings, receive emotional support, and learn to see things from other perspectives. Cooperative learning groups do not separate students on the basis of class, race, or gender and the goals of middle schools are consistent with the goals of cooperative learning theories. Cooperative learning approach is a per-centered pedagogy that promotes academic achievement and builds positive social relationships (Sapon-Shevin,).Social studiesclasses lend themselves to cooperative learning methods due to skills and values within the curriculum . Students may use their thinking , communication, and information-sharing skills to increase their content knowledge as well as their interpersonal skills. Several suggestions where given by Kames. 9 Found positive results. In search for studies that specially explored Kagan’s Stuctures of Cooperative Learning and/ or the use of cooperative learning in social classes only a few were located. One study (Maheady, Mallette,Harper ,& Sacca, 1991) compared the effects of Numbered Heads together to a whole –group questioning strategy on social studies tests scores with third graders. Students always performed better when Numbered Heads Together was use and on –task rates were approximately twice as high using this structure. The purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of Kagan’s cooperative learning structures as a teaching method to increase students achievement in social studies classes with sixth graders. Cooperative learning should be seen as a key part of each lesson, but not the whole lesson. Effective class lesson might also include teacher instruction , media-or computer- based activities, and individual assessments of various .Informal cooperative – learning activities such as random reporter or think- pair- share may also be used, but this shouldn’t be the only cooperative activity. The best way to use cooperative learning is to replace individual work, which in traditional lesson cycles happens after lessons and before assessments. Individual, isolated practice is boring and ineffective for most students, especially if they struggle. Cooperative learning makes practicing to mastery engaging and social and gives all students” study buddies ”to help them when they run into difficulties. Sometimes team activities may come before teacher instruction, as when teams are conducting experiments in a discovery learning format. But at some point, a teacher needs explain the essential objectives and give students parameters and guidance for their group work so they can move forward. Cooperative learning is one of the best researched of all teaching strategies. The results show that students who have opportunities to work collaboratively, learn faster and more 10 Cooperative learning is one of the best researched of all teaching strategies. The results show that student who have opportunities to work collaboratively, learn faster and more efficiently , have greater retention, and feel more positive about the learning experience. Needless to say, this is not to say that students can just be put into a group and assigned a project to complete. There are very specific methods to assure the success of group work, and it is essential that both teachers and students are aware of them. Recently there has been criticism of this process largely as a result of its misuse .To be perfectly clear, this is not away for teachers to” get off the hook” as students work in group while the teacher corrects papers! It is not a way for teachers to address the needs of “ gifted” students by continually putting them in charge of learning groups. It is a way for students to learn essential interpersonal life –skills and to develop the ability to work collaboratively –as skill now greatly in demand in the workplace. It is a way for students to take turns with different roles such as facilitator, reporter , recorder, etc. In a cooperative group, every students has specific task, everyone must be involve in the learning or project ,and no one can “ piggyback.” The success of the group depends on the successful work of every individual. A number of researchers have developed programs in this area, and we will be adding to this section. Students interaction makes cooperative learning powerful . To accomplish their group’s task, students must exchange ideas , make plans and propose solutions. Thinking to an though an idea and presenting it in a way that can be understood by others is intellectual work and will promote intellectual growth. The exchange of alternative ideas and viewpoints enhances that growth and stimulates broader thinking. It is the teacher’s job to encourage such exchanges and structure the student’s work so their communication is on – task and productive. In addition intellectual growth, cooperative learning enhances student’s social and personal development. 11 Group members can learn to work together in classroom that reflect the complexity and diversity of the world. Students’ lives are full of interactions with friends, family members and strangers and their futures will find them in jobs that require cooperation. The skills that are essential for productive group work and laboratory science is a perfect setting for cooperative learning. The science lab has long been the place students could become active participants. Use these lab periods to encourage the interdependence and cross – students support of cooperative learning. Try structuring the lesson so each team member has an assigned task or question to research and then have group members compile the results and order to complete the overall task. Younger science students can work cooperatively, too, studies, have provided evidence that cooperative methods are particularly effective in grades 2-9. Fewer studies have examined grades 10-12. The earlier and more often students participate in cooperative groups, the more comfortable and skillful they become in theme. All team members can share leadership responsibilities; each can have a job to do. The individual teacher’s style and the characteristic of a particular class will influence the cooperative learning works. Don’t be discouraged if your efforts don’t achieve the desired results immediately. It takes time for new methods to evolve, and it is very difficult to do it alone. Find at least one other colleague who I interested in cooperative learning and find out more about the ways to use cooperative groups together. Attend some professionals development activities that will broaden your understanding of how to use small groups effectively. With the support and help of fellow teachers and other colleagues, you will see the benefits of cooperative learning in your classroom. The classrooms are relevant for today and the future. 12 Education system. In a two-year study of students at nine high schools in the Midwest, Coleman develop what he called a “ climate of values” for the “ adolescent society” he studied. Based on his findings, Coleman suggests that instead of encouraging competition in the academic setting,” which effectively impedes process of education ,” schools should introduce a more collaborative approach to teaching. Building on the work James Coleman, Robert Slavin (1994) conducted research on a form of cooperative learning he described as Student Team Learning. Slavin defines cooperative learning as “ instructional programs in which students work in small groups to help one another master academic content .” Slavin suggests that cooperative learning has the potential to capitalize on “ the developmental characteristics of adolescents in order to harness their peer orientation, enthusiasm, activity, and craving for independence within a safe structure.” Daniel Holt, Barbara Chips, and Diane Wallace(1991) recognize the possible benefits of cooperative learning in linguistically and culturally diverse classrooms Holt, Chips, and Wallace suggest that English Language Learners (ELL) need “the maximum amount of time possible for comprehending and using the English language in a low-risk environment in order to approach the language proficiency of their peers. “By utilizing cooperative learning groups, teachers offer ELLs the opportunity to interact with students who are proficient in English language skills. Furthermore, because ELLs are not usually provided with content- area classes taught in their primary language, they often struggle with the difficult academic material. Cooperative learning groups enable them to work in a team with other students who have already gained proficiency with the language. 13