JOHN, DUKE OF BEDFORD ohn J england’s forgotten warrior duke bedford of WORDS TOM GARNER Henry V’s younger brother continued the English conquest of France with stunning success, winning a huge battle in 1424. However, his greatest threat would come from a teenage peasant girl: Joan of Arc n the early 15th century, an outnumbered English army lined up against a superior enemy force in northern France. Some 9,600 men stood ready to ight and die for King Henry of England, during the crown’s ongoing struggle for control of France. With the help of longbows, the English won a resounding victory, against all the odds. However, at this point comparisons with the Battle of Agincourt end. The king in question was not Henry V, but his two-year-old son Henry VI and the year was not 1415, but 1424. The battleield itself was near a town called Verneuil, Normandy, and the English commander was Henry V’s younger brother John, Duke of Bedford. His tremendous victory at Verneuil was soon dubbed by contemporaries as ‘The Second Agincourt’. Bedford is an overlooked igure today, but he was a talented general and politician who successfully continued the English conquest of France during the latter part of the Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453) after the premature death of his older brother in 1422. That he should be forgotten today is something of a mystery as his military victories were some of the most important of the entire A pro-English Burgundian eyewitness, Jean de Waurin, wrote that during the Battle of Verneuil Bedford wore a blue gown and a surcoat depicting the dual kingdom. The white cross represented France while the red cross symbolised England. Additionally, as a Knight of Garter Bedford would have worn the Order’s badge to show his pre-eminence among his troops as well as the Garter itself on his left calf. The duke was recorded as using a two-handed axe during the battle and ‘killed many a man’ with it. 52 Illustration: Jean-Michel Girard – The Art Agency I “HIS TREMENDOUS VICTORY AT VERNEUIL WAS SOON DUBBED BY CONTEMPORARIES AS ‘THE SECOND AGINCOURT’” conlict, and his life was heavily inluenced by two of the most famous people of the period: Henry V and his arch-enemy Joan of Arc. A sea fight off Harfleur As the king’s brother, Bedford had been assigned the task of administering England in 1415, while Henry V pursued his campaign in France, culminating in the victory at Agincourt. The king’s spectacular success had been preceded by the capture of the strategic port of Harleur on the coast of Normandy, but the adventure had been costly in casualties. Henry’s overriding ambition was to complete the conquest of France that had been started by his great-grandfather Edward III. However, before 1415 the only English base on the northern French coast was Calais. Holding on to Harleur was vital if Henry were to have an extra springboard for a second campaign to subdue Normandy and dictate terms. The French knew this and started a naval blockade of Harleur in April 1416, with the assistance of Genoese ships. The English had lost the initiative for the irst time since Agincourt and a relief leet was not able to sail until August. Henry couldn’t take command, as he was negotiating an alliance with the visiting Holy Roman emperor, Sigismund I, and instead sent Bedford to relieve Harleur. Bedford was not an obvious choice for command, as he had little military experience, and he would be facing perhaps 150 French During the 1416 Battle of the Seine, Bedford fought aboard his lagship the ‘Holigost’. Its wreck was found in the River Hamble in England in 2015 JOHN, DUKE OF BEDFORD ight of ive or six hours, victory was yielded to the English.” The Battle of the Seine was hard-fought because neither side could afford defeat. The French, whose pride had been dented at Agincourt, were determined not to lose control of the English Channel and the English did not want to forfeit their foothold in Normandy. The English victory was resounding and strategically important. Although Agincourt had been a great tactical victory, it did not lead to immediate success in the war and Bedford’s victory cannot be overlooked. If Harleur had been recaptured, Henry would have had to restart his conquests from scratch, altering the course of history. The relief of Harleur enabled Henry to conquer Normandy in 1417, which in turn “THIS ACKNOWLEDGED HENRY AS THE HEIR TO THE FRENCH THRONE AND LAID THE FOUNDATIONS FOR A DUAL MONARCHY” led to the Treaty of Troyes in 1420. This acknowledged Henry as the heir to the French throne and laid the foundations for a dual monarchy, but none of this would have been possible without Bedford’s victory. His conduct during the ight was praised by contemporaries who said, “No one had borne himself more bravely in that battle.” Emperor Sigismund was moved to say to Henry, “Happy are those subjects that have such a king, but more is the king that has such subjects.” An unexpected regency In 1422 Charles VI of France died and Henry V should have succeeded to the throne as king of both England and France. However, in one of history’s most fateful ironies, the warrior king died of dysentery a few months before Charles, aged 36, leaving his son Henry VI to inherit the dual kingdom. Unfortunately the new king was only ninemonths old and the English administration The Battle of Verneuil IN AUGUST 1424, NORTHERN FRANCE WAS SECURED FOR THE ENGLISH IN A CLASH THAT CAME TO BE KNOWN AS THE ‘SECOND AGINCOURT’ Bedford had won a great naval battle in 1416 but he was still untested on a traditional ield of battle. By 1424, the war in France had reached a critical level. With Henry V dead and a toddler on two thrones it was up to Bedford to advance the English cause in France but he was up against formidable and unyielding opponents. French supporters of the Dauphin always outnumbered English troops and they were assisted by a Scottish army that was intent on ighting the Regent to the death. Bedford was about to face his greatest challenge. “BEDFORD HAD WON A GREAT NAVAL BATTLE IN 1416 BUT HE WAS UNTESTED ON A TRADITIONAL FIELD OF BATTLE” 01 BEDFORD APPROACHES At the crack of dawn on 17 August, Bedford draws up his army of 9,600 men on the road from Damville in the northeast of Normandy where it emerges from a forest onto a plain in front of the town of Verneuil. Joan of Arc’s military successes enabled the coronation of Charles VII in Reims Cathedral in direct deiance of Bedford’s English regime woods 05 2 Above: After the battle at Verneuil the road lay open to take Bourges, with this the whole of France could fall under English rule 03 THE FRENCH AND SCOTS PREPARE The Franco-Scottish army of 1416,000 men form in two divisions of men-at-arms linked by archers while cavalry protects their wings. Viscount d’Aumale commands the left while the Earls of Buchan and Douglas command 6,000 Scots on the right. archers 54 1/2 7 1 men-at-arms earl of salisbury men-at-arms archers 6 4 5 ITALIANS LOOT THE ENGLISH LAAGER On the English left Salisbury is engaged in ierce ighting with the Scots. Meanwhile, 600 Italian cavalry sweep past him to plunder the laager where they start to loot the baggage. The English reserve repels the French cavalrymen before rushing to beat off the Italians in the laager. 2 duke of bedford archers 06 1 2 french men-at-arms scottish men-at-arms caitalia 8 va n lry h nc ry fraeval 3 3 c 07 ENGLISH REASSEMBLE AND CHARGE The energised English reserve now charges to help Salisbury, careering into the Scottish lank with a loud yell. Meanwhile Bedford, who has managed to beat off the French left, reassembles his own division to charge at the Scottish rear, overwhelming them in the process. 7 THREATS, DECEIT AND AN ADVANCE The Scottish tell the English soldiers that they intend to give no quarter, but neither side makes to attack for hours in the sweltering sun. At approximately 4pm Bedford orders an advance. The English troops shout, “St George! Bedford!” and slowly march forward with the leet of archers hammering defensive stakes into the dusty ground. 0 6 5 04 Above: John, Duke of Bedford pictured kneeling in front of Saint George. As Regent of France Bedford continued his brother Henry V’s conquests with great success 6 baggage guard 02 CAVALRY CHARGE AND VICIOUS COMBAT French cavalrymen charge through archers on Bedford’s right lank, riding on before being stopped by the bowmen in reserve. Many of the Englishmen lee, but the rest of Bedford’s division smash into d’Aumale’s division in furious hand-tohand combat. Bedford is positioned in the thick of the ighting. english baggage laager 2 THE ENGLISH PREPARE Bedford places his dismounted men-at-arms in the centre of the battle, while he positions his archers on the wings. Bedford commands the right division, while the Earl of Salisbury commands the left. There are two reserves, 2,000 mounted archers and a separate square, laagered baggage train where horses are tethered amongst the wagons. Above: The Battle of Verneuil in 1424 was one of the most decisive clashes of the Hundred Years’ War and was known as ‘The Second Agincourt’ woods to d amv ille and Genoese carracks. Genoese ships in particular had a fearsome reputation, but despite this, Bedford sailed to meet them with a leet of about one hundred ships and on 15 August engaged in a ierce ight at the mouth of the River Seine. Medieval naval battles were capable of replicating land warfare. The opposing ships would use grappling hooks to join together and form a vast, loating, wooden battleield. The English had used their superiority with longbows to successfully ight at sea before and repeated this tactic in 1416. An anonymous English chronicler wrote: “Following an exchange of missiles… the fury of the combatants had reached boiling point. At last, after a long, drawn-out and most bitter ENGLAND’S FORGOTTEN WARRIOR 7 8 08 A VENGEFUL SLAUGHTER The Scots are killed almost to a man, including the Earls of Buchan, Douglas and Mar. The French lee the ield with the dead including the viscounts of Aumale and Narbonne. Marshal Lafayette and Jean II, Duke of Alençon are among the captured and the English are triumphant. city of verneuil 1 mile french english 55 JOHN, DUKE OF BEDFORD 1423 and Bedford then intended to build up his army for a decisive stroke against the Dauphin. His plan revolved around strengthening Normandy’s frontiers by occupying Picardy and driving French troops from key towns on the River Somme. To achieve this, Bedford laid siege to Ivry, a town 30 miles west of Paris, but the French immediately captured the Norman border town of Verneuil in August 1424. Ivry surrendered on 14 August and Bedford rushed his army to recapture Verneuil. The battle that would take place outside its walls would secure Bedford’s reputation. The ‘Second Agincourt’ On 17 August, Bedford’s army of approximately 9,600 men lined up across the north road out of . He arranged his army in the ‘Agincourt’ formation with his men-at-arms in the centre and the famous archers on the lanks. There was also a reserve of 2,000 archers who formed a laager of wagons and horses to defend the baggage train. Facing the English was a ‘French’ army of about 14-16,000 men but 6,000 of these troops were Scottish under the command of the Earls of Douglas and Buchan. The Scots were vigorous allies of the French and had been a considerable thorn in the side of the English for decades, and the Dauphin had even appointed Buchan as Constable of France. Viscount d’Aumale was commanding this coalition army, but the Scots had a great degree of inluence. For Bedford, the battle would be personal, as it was a Scottish force that had killed his elder brother, Thomas, Duke of Clarence, at the Battle of Baugé in 1421. A Burgundian eyewitness, Jean de Waurin, who fought for the English, described the Anglo-Scottish enmity during the battle: “The English archers, and the Scots who were with the French, began to shoot each other so cruelly that it was horrible to look at them. They brought death with full force to those they attacked. After the shooting the parties attacked each other furiously, hand to hand.” Waurin, who had fought at Agincourt, stated that Verneuil was a more ferocious battle: “Without doubt, I have never seen a iner company where there were so many nobles showing greater appearance of wanting to ight. I saw the assembly of Agincourt, but the assembly at Verneuil was the most formidable and the best fought.” He went on to state: “This battle lasted about three-quarters of an hour, very terrible and bloody, and it was not in the memory of man to have two such mighty parties ighting for such a space of time without being able to tell to whom the loss or victory would turn…” Eventually, however, victory turned decisively for the English. As at Agincourt, the archers played a part in the success Left: Joan dictated many letters to the English demanding their withdrawal from France. This particular letter is addressed to the people of the city of Riom (in the Auvergne region) in 1429 Joan of Arc ENGLAND’S NEMESIS THE SCOURGE OF THE ENGLISH IS ONE OF THE MOST FAMOUS WOMEN IN HISTORY, WHOSE SHORT BUT EXTRAORDINARY LIFE HAS BECOME LEGENDARY Joan of Arc is a French national icon and one of the most curiously fascinating igures to emerge from the Middle Ages. She was a teenage peasant girl from Domrémy in Lorraine who claimed to hear divine voices telling her to expel the English from France and crown the Dauphin as Charles VII. Remarkably, her story was believed (or used) by Charles and he allowed her to accompany a relief convoy to the Siege of Orléans carrying a holy banner and wearing a suit of armour. Joan soon energised the town and garrison into taking the ight to the English and the siege was lifted on 8 May 1429 – just over a week after her arrival. The spell of English invincibility had been broken and shortly afterwards they were driven from the Loire region in a series of sieges and battles that Joan either took part in or helped to inspire. 56 Following these victories Joan and her allies moved fast to crown the Dauphin as Charles VII at Reims Cathedral in July 1429, but a subsequent attack on Paris failed in September. In the spring of 1430, Burgundians captured her while she was attacking Compiégne and she was subsequently sold to the English who imprisoned her at Rouen. At her subsequent trial she was accused of witchcraft, heresy and cross-dressing but she amazed her accusers with her spontaneous eloquence and intelligent deiance. She was burned at the stake for relapsed heresy aged only 19 in May 1431. A posthumous trial in 1456 declared her innocent and she has since become a patron saint of France. Left: Joan was famous for wearing a suit of armour and carrying a distinctive white banner to the victor, the spoils LARGELY THANKS TO HIS FATHER HENRY V AND HIS UNCLE BEDFORD, HENRY VI REMAINS THE ONLY KING OF ENGLAND TO BE CROWNED AS KING OF FRANCE It is commonly assumed that Joan of Arc’s military successes caused the collapse of English rule in France. While this was true in the long term, it was not apparent in the early 1430s. In fact Henry VI of England was crowned in Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris as King of France on 26 December 1431, months after Joan had been executed. He was only ten years old, but he had already been crowned as King of England on 6 November 1429 in Westminster Abbey. The ceremony was rich in symbolism for his dual kingdoms. He was announced as, “Born by descent and title of right justly to reign in England and in France.” The traditional site for crowning French kings was at Reims Cathedral but it was under hostile French occupation so Paris was the second option. Henry arrived in Paris on a white horse accompanied by his retinue and nobles, with Bedford prominent among them. He rode under a canopy, the symbol of rank and honour, and was greeted by the prominent Parisian bishops and burghers who all wore lavish costumes. Paris was decked out with colourful symbolic shields and statues to mark Henry’s arrival. During the coronation ceremony the king was crowned by the Bishop of Winchester and the singing was apparently of a good standard. The same could not be said of the celebratory banquet, as the food organised by the English had been prepared three days before and was cold. In time-honoured tradition the French disapproved, with one Parisian writing, “This seemed very odd to the French.” but the ighting was much more hand-to-hand and the casualties were high. The English lost 1,600 men while the Franco-Scottish army had casualties of at least 7,000. The vast majority of these were the Scots who were virtually annihilated. Two days after the battle, Bedford conirmed: “There were very few Scots who were not slain.” Contemporaries are unanimous about Bedford’s leadership capabilities, with Waurin saying, “The Duke of Bedford did that day wonderful deeds of arms, and killed many a man with an axe that he held in two hands. He reached no one whom he did not fell, he was great in body and large in limbs, wise and brave in arms.” The chronicler John Hardyng agreed, “The regent was there that day a lion, and fought in arms like any champion.” Unlike Agincourt, Verneuil’s strategic importance was profound. The battle destroyed the Scottish army and French morale, allowing the English to push further south towards the Loire River and securing Normandy from the French for nearly 30 years. For ive years after Verneuil, the English were virtually unopposed by the French until they laid siege to the town of Orléans between 1428-29 when Bedford would irst hear from his most famous foe: Joan of Arc. The Regent and the Maid Joan was an illiterate teenage peasant girl from Lorraine who claimed to hear voices from God telling her to liberate France from the English and helped to raise the Siege of Orléans. Her now famous ‘Letter to the English’ before her arrival was directly addressed to Bedford: “King of England, and you, Duke of Bedford, who call yourself Regent of France… Hand over to the Maiden (Joan) who is sent here by God, the keys to all the towns you have taken and violated in France. Duke of Bedford, the Maiden asks and requests that you will not cause your own downfall.” After the siege, French forces heavily defeated English armies and the Dauphin was Henry VI was crowned in Notre Dame Cathedral as king of France in December 1431. This was arguably the pinnacle of Bedford’s achievements crowned as Charles VII at Reims Cathedral in July 1429. The English were on the back foot for the irst time in years. However, Bedford was not present at either the siege or the subsequent defeats, as he was running the English administration in Paris. He was incensed by Joan’s presence and described her as, “a disorderly and deformed travesty of a woman who dresses like a man and whose life is dissolute.” After the coronation, Charles and Joan marched on Paris and Bedford went with his army to confront the French at Montépilloy in August. The two armies faced each other for two days but neither attacked, which was highly unusual for both Bedford and Joan. Bedford refrained from attacking because his men were terriied of Joan’s previous successes. On Joan’s part it is recorded that she was, “perpetually changing her resolutions; sometimes she was eager for combat, at other times not.” This indecision indicates that Joan did not want a repeat of Verneuil and both armies withdrew on 16 August. Joan immediately went to attack Paris but Bedford had reinforced its defence and the siege immediately failed. Joan was captured by the Burgundians in May 1430, sold to the English and burned at the stake for relapsed heresy in May 1431. Bedford was the only English general that Joan never defeated, either at a siege or on the battleield, and if he is remembered at all today it is as ‘the man who burned Joan of Arc’. This is erroneous, as Joan was condemned by a largely French, pro-Burgundian ecclesiastical court, but Bedford would have agreed with their decision. The English advance into France may have stalled, but it was only when Bedford died of natural causes in 1435 that the French started to reclaim territory before inally expelling the English in 1453. Bedford was recognised as a great man during his lifetime. In 1433 the English Parliament wrote to Henry VI saying his uncle had, “achieved many great things, especially the battle of Verneuil, which was the greatest deed done by Englishmen in our days, save the battle of Agincourt.” Even the French admired him. When Louis XI, who reigned between 1461-83, was asked to demolish Bedford’s tomb in Rouen Cathedral he replied: “In his lifetime neither my father nor yours, for all their might, could make him budge one foot. Let his body rest. I account it an honour to have him remain in my domains”. Images: Alamy, Getty divided his lands into two governments. Henry V’s youngest brother, Humphrey, ran England, while Bedford was named as Regent of France. This was by far the hardest assignment, as Bedford had to continue his brother’s conquests in the face of stiff opposition by those who regarded Charles VI’s son, the Dauphin, as the true king of France. One Victorian historian said Bedford was, “at once prime minister and commander-in-chief, he was virtually king of France.” Additionally, Bedford had to maintain a tenuous alliance with the Duke of Burgundy. Burgundian support was essential to Bedford as the English did not have a numerical superiority in France, but the alliance was shaky as Burgundy was a semidependent duchy and its duke was a slippery character who changed sides depending on the political climate. This meant that the English took on the bulk of the military offensive against ‘Dauphinist’ French armies. Under Bedford’s leadership the English armies had continued success in France. An Anglo-Burgundian army defeated a numerically superior Franco-Scottish army at Cravant in July ENGLAND’S FORGOTTEN WARRIOR Right: Bedford was the victor of two major battles, a loyal uncle to his young nephew Henry VI and an able administrator and patron of the arts 57