Chapter 3
Bats as Potential Reservoir Hosts for
Vector-Borne Diseases
Christian Melaun, Antje Werblow, Markus Wilhelm Busch,
Andrew Liston, and Sven Klimpel
Abstract Bats are the only mammals with the capacity of powered flight. Nearly
1,000 species can be found all over the world except in the northern and southern
polar areas. They perform important ecosystem services such as control of insects,
reseeding of cut forests and pollination of plants, which provide food for humans
and animals. On the other side, they are also recognized to be natural reservoir hosts
of a large variety of zoonotic diseases with the ability to cross species barriers. To
date, more than 80 virus species of different groups and various parasites, which can
cause several diseases have been isolated or detected in bats. Especially their high
population density and gregarious roosting behaviour increase the likelihood of
intra- and inter-species transmission of infections. Another important factor, which
enables pathogens to spread long distances, is the migratory habit of some bat
species, resulting in a great dispersal capacity. The transmission of pathogens from
bats to humans or other animals occurs by direct contact with infected animals, their
blood and tissue or through vector species. One of the most important vector groups
are insects. With more than a million described species, they are the most diverse
group of animals. Especially haematophagous groups such as Cimicidae, Culicidae
or Phlebotominae are known as vectors for a variety of diseases. These include
bacteria, protozoan and metazoan parasites as well as viruses. We focused on
blood-feeding insects, because the presence of certain viruses in them as well as
in bats comprises a potential virus transmission from bats to humans through
mosquitoes or other blood-feeding insects. For this chapter, we could find 20 viruses
C. Melaun (*) • A. Werblow • M.W. Busch • S. Klimpel (*)
Biodiversity and Climate Research Centre (BiK-F), Medical Biodiversity and Parasitology;
Senckenberg Gesellschaft für Naturforschung (SGN); Goethe-University (GO), Institute for
Ecology, Evolution and Diversity, Senckenberganlage 25, 60325 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
e-mail: Christian.Melaun@senckenberg.de; klimpel@bio.uni-frankfurt.de
A. Liston
Senckenberg German Entomological Institute (SDEI), Eberswalder Str. 90, 15374
Müncheberg, Germany
S. Klimpel and H. Mehlhorn (eds.), Bats (Chiroptera) as Vectors of Diseases and
Parasites, Parasitology Research Monographs 5, DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-39333-4_3,
© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2014
25
26
C. Melaun et al.
from four different families and two parasitic pathogens detected in all three groups
of haematophagous insects.
Keywords Chiroptera • Haematophagous insects • Vectors • Virus • Diseases •
Parasites
3.1
Introduction
Bats (order Chiroptera) are one of the most diverse, abundant and widely
distributed groups of mammals and the only one with the capacity of powered
flight (Li et al. 2010; Omatsu et al. 2007). Nearly 1,000 species are found worldwide, except in the northern and southern polar areas, representing approximately
20 % of all mammalian species (Omatsu et al. 2007; Teeling et al. 2005). Chiroptera
can be divided into the two suborders Megachiroptera (old world fruit bats) and
Microchiroptera (echolocating bats) (Jones et al. 2002). Analysis of 17 nuclear
genes dated the origin of chiropterans up to 50 million years ago (Calisher
et al. 2006). One major lineage of Microchiroptera was traced to Laurasia and
one to Gondwana (Teeling et al. 2005). Derived ancient origins for certain zoonotic
viruses in bats, such as lyssa and henipa viruses, suggest a long history of coevolution and cospeciation (Calisher et al. 2006). On the one hand, bats perform
important ecosystem services, such as control of insects (Reiskind and Wund
2009, 2010; Rydell et al. 2002), reseeding of cut forests and pollination of plants
that provide food for humans and animals. On the other hand, bats are recognized to
be a natural reservoir of a large variety of zoonotic viruses, which can cross species
barriers to infect humans and other domestic or wild animals (Li et al. 2010). To
date, more than 80 virus species of different groups have been isolated or detected
in bats. Bats have a great dispersal capacity and the migratory habits of some
species provide a good opportunity for pathogens to spread long distances
(Messenger et al. 2003). Further, different migration patterns can often be found
within one species. These different patterns may allow the exchange of viruses or
virus variants between subpopulations as well as members of other species, because
several species may roost in the same place. Also, their high population densities
and gregarious roosting behaviour increase the likelihood of intra- and inter-species
transmission of viral infections (Calisher et al. 2006). The extreme longevity of bats
may help to maintain the viruses, resulting in chronic infections, and increase the
chances of transmission to other mammals or vertebrates. Calisher et al. (2006)
suggest an explanation why some viruses, which are deadly for humans and other
mammals, can persist in bats without proving being fatal: because bats form a very
ancient lineage amongst the mammals, it is possible that their immune system with
its innate acquired immune responses may differ significantly from those of other
mammals. So far very little is known about bat immune systems, although some
studies indicate similarities between bats immune responses and those of other
mammals (Chakravarty and Sarkar 1994; McMurray et al. 1982; Sarkar and
3 Bats as Potential Reservoir Hosts for Vector-Borne Diseases
27
Chakravarty 1991). The studies of Halpin et al. (2000), Lau et al. (2005) and Leroy
et al. (2005) show the occurrence of virus-specific B- and T-cell responses despite
persistent virus infection. One possible pathway of virus transmission involves the
animal’s ecology. Due to their flying habits, bats are constrained by the aerodynamics of flight and cannot therefore ingest huge amounts of food. Instead of
swallowing whole fruits, bats chew these to extract sugars and other substances.
The partially digested fruit is spat out and falls to the ground, where these remnants
are fed on by other animals. Residual virus particles in the bat saliva on the fruit
remnants may cause infection of the latter animals. Heavier body parts of insect
prey are discarded in the same way and are also eaten by terrestrial foraging species
(Dobson 2005).
Insects comprise the most diverse group of animals with more than a million
described species. The estimated number of extant species is between four and six
million (Chapman 2009; Novotny et al. 2002). Insects can be found in nearly all
terrestrial environments. Some species have become specialized feeders on blood.
Depending on the species, this haematophagous behaviour can be observed either in
both males and females or just in females. In the latter case, blood proteins are
essential for egg production. All haematophagous insects use modified extremities
of the head and extensions of the head capsule as piercing-sucking mouthparts to
obtain and feed on blood (Krenn and Aspöck 2012; Lehane 2005). Convergent
evolution has led to the development of piercing proboscides in various
haematophagous insect groups (Krenn and Aspöck 2010, 2012).
One group of haematophagous insects with a worldwide distribution is the
family Cimicidae (bed and bat bugs), which contains more than 100 species. Balvı́n
(2008) mentions that bats are generally considered to be the original hosts of the
family. The same had long been thought about the bedbug Cimex lectularius
(e.g. Sailer 1952; Usinger 1966), but new results suggest an early sympatric
speciation on humans and bats for different populations of bed bugs (Balvı́n
et al. 2012). Although various pathogens have been identified from Cimicidae
(e.g. Burton 1963; Delaunay et al. 2011; Goddard and deShazo 2009), their role
as vectors is still unclear.
Mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) are a second group of blood-sucking insects.
They are regarded worldwide as the major vectors of vector-borne diseases. Especially, species of the genus Anopheles, which are well known as vectors of malaria,
can also impact human and animal health by their ability to transmit arboviruses
(arthropod-borne viruses) as well as filarial parasites such as the elephantiasiscausing Wuchereria bancrofti and Brugia malayi (Gillies and Coetzee 1987;
Sallum et al. 2000; Service 1993). Apart from Anopheles spp., numerous other
species of mosquitoes are pests or vectors of pathogens that cause diseases in
humans and animals (Reinert et al. 2004). Because of their adaptive abilities,
mosquitoes are capable of inhabiting and surviving in a wide range of habitats.
Worldwide, they colonize nearly every aquatic habitat. As a result of their large
flight range, some floodwater mosquito species can become pests even in places
located far away from their breeding sites (Mohrig 1969; Schäfer et al. 1997).
Additionally, flood plains along coastal areas as well as tree holes are used as
28
C. Melaun et al.
breeding sites by certain species. Also impressive is the adaptive capacity of
mosquitoes to extremes of, or changes in, climatic factors. This ecological flexibility is one of the reasons for the success of mosquitoes (Becker et al. 2010). With the
exception of the tropical genus Toxorhynchites, in which both sexes subsist on
carbohydrate-rich materials such as honeydew, nectar and plant fluids (Snodgrass
1959), the females consume blood, e.g. to obtain proteins necessary for egg
production. The host is located mainly by their olfactory senses, by the odour of
carbon dioxide or the use of visual contact (Becker et al. 2010). While some
mosquito species have specialized on birds, amphibians and other animal groups,
others feed on mammals. Especially species with the last feeding habits, or possibly
hybrids between different species, can be responsible for zoonoses, because they act
as vectors between reservoir hosts and humans. Phlebotomine sand flies (Diptera:
Psychodidae: Phlebotominae) are small (ca. 3 mm) nematoceran dipterans (Ready
2013) and a third group of haematophagous insects. They are mainly distributed in
the tropics, but there is also an important Palaearctic element (Lewis 1974). The
group acts as vector of leishmaniasis, Bartonella bacilliformis as well as some
arboviruses of the three different genera: Phlebovirus (family Bunyaviridae),
Vesiculovirus (family Rhabdoviridae) and Orbivirus (family Reoviridae) (Depaquit
et al. 2010). Known disease agents, who can be transmitted by insects and have a
potential impact on bats include bacteria, viruses, fungi as well as protozoan and
metazoan parasites. With a few exceptions, in this chapter we concentrate on
viruses, which have been detected in bats, haematophagous insects and humans
(short information see Table 3.1).
3.2
Pathogens in Bats, Humans and Haematophagic Insects
The most important pathogens causing viral infections in bats, humans and
haematophagic insects belong to the families Togaviridae (genera Alphavirus and
Rubivirus), Flaviviridae (genus Flavivirus), Bunyaviridae (genera Orthobunyavirus
and Phlebovirus) and Arenaviridae (genus Arenavirus).
3.2.1
Bunyaviridae
The Bunyaviridae is the largest family of RNA viruses with over 300 serologically
or molecular-genetically distinguishable strains (Elliott 1997; Soldan and
González-Scarano 2005). It was characterized in 1975 (Soldan and GonzálezScarano 2005) and is now considered to contain five genera: Tospovirus (the only
plant-infecting viruses in the group), Hantavirus, Nairovirus, Phlebovirus and
Orthobunyavirus (Bowen et al. 2001; LeDuc and Kahlon 2012; Weidmann
et al. 2003). The medically most important pathogens within this family are not
only transmitted through the bite of infected mosquitoes but also by sand flies or
virus family
genus
Arenaviridae Arenavirus
Orthobunyavirus
virus species
bat species
common name
distribuƟon infect. bat
Great fruit eang bat
Jamaican fruit bat
Common vampire bat
Heller’s broad-nosed bat
Yellow-shouldered bat
Trinidad/Guatemala Trinidad
n.k.
n.k.
n.k.
vector
vector species
mosquito
n.k.
Tacaribe virus
(TACV)
haemorrhagic
fever
South America
Bwamba virus
(BWAV)
fever
headache
myalgia
slow pulse
Cameroon
Kenya
Nigeria
Uganda
Myos lucifugus
Lile brown bat
infecon only
in the Laboratory
mosquito
Aedes furcifer
Anopheles coustai
Anopheles funestus
Anopheles gambiae
Mansonia uniformis
Brazil
Mollosus currenum
Bonda masff bat
Brazil
mosquito
Anopheles nimbus
Culex spp.
Brazil
unidenfied
n.k.
Brazil
mosquito
sandfly
Culex spp.
n.k.
Cambodia
Thailand
Chaerephon plicatus
Taphozous theobaldi
Wrinkle-lipped free-tailed bat
Theobald’s tomb bat
Thailand
Cambodia
Catú-virus
(CATUV)
Kaeng Khoi
virus (KKV)
fever
headache
body pains
weakness
fever
headache
muscle pain
myalgia
leukopenia
fibrile illness
bedbugs
mosquito
Striccimex parvus
Cimex insuetus
Aedes dalzieli
Aedes dentatus
Aedes circumluteolus
Culex antennatus
Culex neavei
Culex pipiens
Phlebotomus duboscqi
Phlebotomus papatasi
Egypt
Kenya
Madagascar
Mauritania
Saudi Arabia
Somalia
Yemen
Epomops franque
Glauconycteris argentata
Hipposideros abae
Hipposideros caffer
Micropteropus pusillus
Miniopterus schreibersii
Franquet's epauleed fruit bat
Silvered bat
Aba roundleaf bat
Sundevall's roundleaf bat
Peter's dwarf epauleed fruit bat
Schreiber's long-fingered bat
Guinea
n.k.
Guinea
n.k.
n.k.
n.k.
sandfly
Toscana Virus
(TOSV)
asepc meningis
headache
meningoencephalis
muscle aches
neck sffness
strong fever
France
Greece
Italy
Spain
Sweden
Swiss
Pipistrellus kuhlii
Kuhl's pipistrelle
n.k.
sandfly
Phlebotomus perniciosus
Phlebotomus perfiliewi
Dengue virus
(DENV)
general indisposion
headache
haemorrhagic fever
orbital pain
Arbeus jamaicensis (AB)
Carollia perspicillata
tropical and subtropical
Molossus sp. (AB)
regions,
Myos nigricans (AB)
especially in
Natalus stramineus (AB)
southeast and south Asia
Pteronotus parnellii (AB)
Uroderma sp.(AB)
Jamaican fruit-eang bat
Seba's short-tailed bat
n.k.
Black myos
Mexican funnel-eared bat
Parnell's mustached bat
n.k.
Mexico
French Guinea
n.k.
Mexico
Mexico
Mexico
n.k.
mosquito
Aedes aegyp
Aedes albopictus
Ilheus virus
(ILHV)
chills
CNS pleocytosis
fever
photophobia
asthenia
Bolivia
Ecuador
Panama
Trinidad
n.k.
n.k.
mosquito
Culex spp.
Haemagogus spp.
Ochlerotatus spp.
Psorophora ferox
Sabethes spp.
Trichoprospon spp.
Flavivirus
unidenfied
(continued)
29
Ri Valley fever
virus (RVFV)
body pain
flu-like fever
loss of memory
neck sffness
renal lesions
sensivity to light
voming
Phlebovirus
Flaviviridae
disease occurence
Arbeus lituratus
Arbeus jamaicensis
Desmodus rotundus (AB)
Platyrrhinus helleri (AB)
Sturnira lilium (AB)
Guamá-virus
(GMAV)
Bunyaviridae
clinical features
3 Bats as Potential Reservoir Hosts for Vector-Borne Diseases
Table 3.1 Overview of the diseases mentioned in this review, further details incl. sources can be found in the particular chapters (AB = Antibodies,
n.k. = not known)
virus family
Flaviviridae
genus
30
Table 3.1 (continued)
virus species
clinical features
disease occurence
bat species
common name
distribuƟon infect. bat
vector
vector species
Japanese
encephalis
virus (JEV)
CNS pleocytosis
CNS signs
fever
headache
prostraon
Asia
northern Australia
Miniopterus schreibersi
Myos mystacinus (AB)
Plecotus auritus (AB)
Pipistrellus abramus (AB)
Rhinolophus pusillus
Schreiber's long-fingered bat
Whiskered bat
Brown big-eared bat
Japanese Pipistrelle
Least horseshoe bat
Japan
n.k.
n.k.
n.k.
Japan
mosquito
Culex annulirostris
Culex gelidus
Culex pipiens
Mansonia uniformis
Ochleorotatus japonicus
St. Louis
encephalis
(SLEV)
fever
headache
meningoencephalis
Canada
Eptesicus fuscus (AB)
Central/South America
Myos lucifugus (AB)
USA
Big brown bat
Lile brown bat
USA
USA
mosquito
Aedes aegyp
Culex nigripalpus
Culex quinquefasciatus
Culex tarsalis
West Nile virus
(WNV)
coma
fever
headache
neck sffness
paralysis
redness
Africa
Asia
Middle East
Europe
Eptesicus fuscus (AB)
Myos lucifugus (AB)
Myos septentrionalis (AB)
Rouseus aegypacus
Rouseus leschenauli
Tadarida brasiliensis (AB)
Big brown bat
Lile brown bat
Northern myos
Fruit bat
Leschenault's rousee
Brazilian free-tailed bat
India
New York
n.k.
Uganda/Israel
India
n.k.
mosquito
Coquilledia richiardii
Culex modestus
Culex pipiens
Culex quinquefasciatus
Culex univiatus
Culex vishnui
Africa
Lan America
Eidolon sp.
Rouseus sp.
n.k.
n.k.
East Africa
mosquito
Aedes spp.
Haemogogus spp.
mosquito
Aedes aegyp
Aedes africanus
Aedes apicoargenteus
Aedes furcifer
Aedes luteocephalus
Aedes viatus
Flavivirus
Yellow fever
virus (YFV)
body aches
chills
fever
headache
nausea
voming
Zika virus
(ZIKV)
Chikungunya
virus (CHIK)
Togaviridae
diarrhea
dizziness
fever
headache
joint pain
rash
fever
headache
haemorrhagic signs
leukopenia
lyphadenopathy
Gaboon
Sierra Leone
Tanzania
Thailand
Uganda
Yap Island
Myos lucifugus
Lile brown bat
infecon only in
the Laboratory
Africa
south and
southeast
Asia
Chaerephon pumilus
Hipposideros caffer
Rouseus leschenaula
Scotophilus sp.
Lile free-tailed bat
Sundevall’s leaf-nosed bat
Leschenault’s rousee
Asiac yellow bat
China
China
China
Senegal
mosquito
Aedes aegyp
Aedes albopictus
Great fruit-eang bat
Jamaican fruit-eang bat
Big brown bat
Hawaiian hoary bat
Lile brown bat
Brazilian free-tailed bat
Guatemala
Guatemala
New Jersey
New Jersey
New Jersey
n.k.
mosquito
Aedes vexans
Coquilledia perturbans
Culiseta melanura
Culex erracus
Uranotaenia sapphirina
abdominal pain fever
cyanosis
lethargy
seizures
Eastern USA
Arbeus lituratus (AB)
Arbeus jamaicensis (AB)
Eptesicus fuscus
Lasiurus cinereus
Myos lucifugus
Tadarida brasiliensis (AB)
Ross River virus
(RRV)
arthralgia/arthris
fever
paraesthesia
rash
Am. Samoa
Australia
Fiji
New Guinea
Solomon Is.
S. Pacific Is
Pteropus conspicillatus
Spectacled flying-fox
Australia
mosquito
Aedes camptorhynchus
Aedes vigilax
Culex annulirostris
Sindbis virus
(SINV)
headache
itchy exanthema
joint pain
mild fever
nausea
Africa
Asia
Australia
Europe
Hipposideridae sp.
Rhinolophidae sp.
Old world leaf-nosed bat
Horseshoe bat
Venezuela
Mexiko
mosquito
Aedes spp.
Culiseta morsitans
Culex pipiens
Culex torrenum
Ochleorotatus spp.
Alphavirus
C. Melaun et al.
Eastern equine
encephalis
virus (EEV)
Alphavirus
Belize
Colombia
Ecuador
El Salvador
Guatemala
Honduras
Mexico
Panama
Venezuela
species
symptoms
occurence
Trypanosoma cruzi
fever
swelling around the
Central and
site of inoculaon
South America
inflammaon of heart,
muscle or brain
Venezuelan
equine
encephalis
virus (VEEV)
Western equine
encephalis
(WEEV)
disease
Chagas-disease
Malaria
parasite
Flagellates
Apicomplexa
Plasmodium sp.
Hepatocys sp.
Polychromophilus sp.
fever
headache
death
North
America
Africa
Mediterranean
South-East Asia
Arbeus lituratus
Arbeus jamaicensis (AB)
Arbeus phaeos (AB)
Desmodus rotundus (AB)
Glossophaga commissarisi (AB)
Great fruit-eang bat
Jamaican fruit-eang bat
Pygmy fruit-eang bat
Common vampire bat
Commissaris's long-tongued bat
Black myos
Tent-making bat
Guatemala
mosquito
Aedes serratus
Culex spp.
Mansonia lans
Ochleorotatus taeniorhynchus
Arbeus lituratus (AB)
Arbeus jamaicensis (AB)
Great fruit-eang bat
Jamaican fruit-eang bat
Guatemala
Hai
mosquito
Aedes campestris
Aedes dorsalis
Culex tarsalis
Ochleorotatus melanimon
vector species
Myos nigricans (AB)
Uroderma bilobatum (AB)
bat species
common name
distribuƟon bat
vector
Arbeus lituratus
Carollia perspicillata
Desmodus rotundus
Glossophaga soricina
Molossus molossus
Phyllostomus hastatus
Great fruit-eang bat
Seba's short-tailed bat
Common vampire bat
Pallas's long-tongued bat
Pallas's masff bat
Greater spear-nosed bat
infecon under
controlled condions,
but also natural
Rhodnius prolixus
triatomine
Triatoma dimidiata
bug
Triatoma infestans
Eptesicus seronus
Kerivoula hardwickii
Megaderma spasma
Miniopterus gleni
Myos daubentonii
Myos goudo
Myos myos
Nyctalus noctula
Pteropus poliocephalus
Serone
Hardwicke’s woolly bat
Lesser false vampire
Glen's long-fingered bat
Daubenton's myos
Malagasy mouse-eared bat
Greater mouse-eared bat
Noctule
Grey-headed flying fox
Switzerland
Cambodia
Cambodia
Madagascar
Switzerland
Madagascar
Switzerland
Switzerland
Australia
mosquito
bingmidges
bat flies
Anopheles spp.
Culicoides nubecolusus
Nycteribia kolenai
3 Bats as Potential Reservoir Hosts for Vector-Borne Diseases
Togaviridae
ataxia
chills
coma
fever
headache
malaise
nuchal rigidity
paralysis
sore throats
fever
headache
manifestaons in CNS
somnolence
31
32
C. Melaun et al.
possibly by bedbugs (Darai et al. 2011; Elliott and Blakqori 2011). The largest of
the five genera is the genus Orthobunyavirus, containing 174 known viruses (Elliott
and Blakqori 2011). Within this group, up to half of the potential 60 Bunyaviridae
viruses that cause disease in humans belong to Orthobunyavirus (Soldan and
González-Scarano 2005) including the prototype bunyavirus, Bunyamwera virus.
It was first isolated in 1943 from Aedes mosquitoes in Uganda and gave its name to
the family Bunyaviridae and the genus Bunyavirus. In 2005, Bunyavirus was
renamed Orthobunyavirus (Bowen et al. 2001; Elliott and Blakqori 2011). The
first virus within this genus is the Bwamba virus (BWAV), which is a member of
the Bwamba serogroup (Lambert and Lanciotti 2008). It is transmitted by
mosquitoes including Aedes furcifer, Anopheles coustani, Anopheles funestus,
Anopheles gambiae and Mansonia uniformis (Lee et al. 1974; Lutwama et al.
2002). According to Gonzales and Georges (1988), the principal anthropophilic
vector species are An. funestus and An. gambiae. The first encounter with Bwamba
fever was in 1937 among construction workers in Western Uganda (Smithburn
et al. 1941). Today, Bwamba virus is endemic in Nigeria, Cameroon, Central
African Republic, Kenya, Tanzania and South Africa, but due to the mild symptoms
it is often mistaken for malaria (Lutwama et al. 2002; Moore et al. 1975; Smithburn
et al. 1941). In a laboratory study by Reagan et al. (1955), the cave bat Myotis
lucifugus was successfully infected after intraperitoneal, intradermal, intracerebral
and intrarectal injection of the virus, although the bats were not susceptible to the
virus after intranasal exposure. The second virus is the Kaeng Khoi virus (KKV),
which was first isolated in Thailand in 1969 from the bat species Chaerephon
plicata (wrinkle-lipped bat) and Taphozous theobaldi (Theobald’s bat). Both species can be found across the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. (Hutson
et al. 2001) In 1976 and 2003, the virus was found again in C. plicata in Thailand
and for the first time in Cambodia (Osborne et al. 2003; Williams et al. 1976). Apart
from bats, Williams et al. (1976) found the virus also in bedbugs (Stricticimex
parvus and Cimex insuetus) that inhabit caves together with other haematophagous
arthropods, which attack humans. The virus might be a public health concern,
because serum analysis found neutralizing antibody in 29 % of the population.
The symptoms of the virus in bats and humans are unknown, but a survey of the
population indicated that they believe that bedbug bites were the cause of an
influenza-like illness, which is typical of infection by members of Orthobunyavirus
(Osborne et al. 2003). Also known to occur in bats and humans are the Guamá and
Catú viruses, which are members of the Guamá serotype group and are transmitted
by species of Culex mosquitoes (Darai et al. 2011; Löscher and Burchard 2008).
Both were isolated from humans and mosquitoes in the Amazon area (Causey
et al. 1961) and Catú virus also from humans in Trinidad (Tikasingh et al. 1974).
However, Catú virus was also isolated in Brazil from the bat Molossus currentium
and Guamá virus from an unidentified bat (Calisher et al. 2006; Karabatsos 1985).
The symptoms of both viruses show considerable variation such as fever, headache,
general body pains, weakness or dizziness and photophobia (Causey et al. 1961).
Another group of viruses that may be transmitted by bats is the genus
Phlebovirus, including nine species with 37 viruses (Bouloy 2011), distributed in
3 Bats as Potential Reservoir Hosts for Vector-Borne Diseases
33
Africa, Asia, North and South America and the Mediterranean region (McMullan
et al. 2012). Many phleboviruses are transmitted by sandflies or other arthropods
such as mosquitoes or ticks. The first pathogen in this genus that has to be
considered in connection with bats is the Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV). It is
primarily transmitted by mosquitoes of the genus Aedes (e.g. Ae. cumminsii,
Ae. circumluteolus, Ae. mcintoshi or Ae. vexans) or Culex (e.g. Cx. pipiens, Cx.
tritaeniorhynchus or Cx. neavei), but it has been shown that sandflies (Phlebotomus
duboscqi and P. papatasi) might also be potential vectors (Dohm et al. 2000;
Fontenille et al. 1998; Pepin et al. 2010). RVFV can be transmitted into mosquito
offspring transovarially (Ikegami and Makino 2011). Outbreaks of RVF are
associated with heavy rainfalls during the El Niño/Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
phenomenon (Miller et al. 2002; WHO 2013a) because the floods create optimal
breeding conditions (Bowen et al. 2001; Fontenille et al. 1998; Woods et al. 2002).
After the first identification of the virus in the Rift Valley of Kenya in 1930,
numerous outbreaks of RVF have been reported in many regions of Africa
(Fig. 3.1a) (Daubney and Hudson 1931; Fontenille et al. 1998). The largest
occurred in Egypt in 1977–1978 with 200,000 estimated human infections,
18,000 cases of illness and 600 deaths (Ikegami 2012). The first detected outbreak
of RVF outside the African continent was in 2000 in Saudi Arabia and Yemen. The
latest outbreak of RVF was 2012 in Mauritania with 34 cases and 17 deaths reported
(WHO 2012). The clinical symptoms range from flu-like fever, muscle pain or
headache to neck stiffness, retinal lesions, loss of memory and even death (Ikegami
2012; WHO 2013b). However, RVF occurs not only in humans. Outbreaks can also
result in devastating economic losses when livestock is infected (Woods
et al. 2002). In 1991, the virus was also isolated from bats in West Africa
(Fontenille et al. 1998). Calisher et al. (2006) suggest the bat species Micropteropus
pusillus, Epomops franqueti, Hipposideros abae, H. caffer, Miniopterus
schreibersii and Glauconycteris argentata as potential hosts for the RVFV. They
are all distributed in West, East and Central Africa except for M. schreibersii, which
occurs primarily in southern and middle Europe (e.g. Portugal, Italy (Sardinia,
Sicily), Turkey, Switzerland and Serbia) (IUCN red list 2012). The effect on
potential vectors (e.g. Aedes vexans) of climate changes may enable this bat to
spread the virus to European countries. The second pathogen within the
Phlebovirus genus that has been linked with bats is the Toscana virus, a serotype
of Sand fly fever distributed in the Mediterranean region (Fig. 3.1b) (Charrel
et al. 2005; Cusi et al. 2010). In 1971, the Toscana virus was isolated for the first
time from the sand fly Phlebotomus perniciosus in Monte Argentario, Toscana
(Braito et al. 1997; Cusi et al. 2010; Valassina et al. 2003; WHO 2004). Later the
virus was also isolated from the sand fly P. perfiliewi (Valassina et al. 2003).
However, P. perniciosus is probably the most common insect vector of the Toscana
virus, being one of the most abundant sand flies in southern Europe (Maroli
et al. 1994; Sanbonmatsu-Gámez et al. 2005). With tourists, returning from Mediterranean countries, the virus has been imported to further European countries such
as Germany, Sweden and Switzerland (Cusi et al. 2010). The only known vertebrate
hosts beside humans are bats. Accordingly, the virus has been isolated from the bat
34
C. Melaun et al.
Fig. 3.1 Virus distribution (a) Rift Valley fever: dark orange (do)—epizootic and epidemic areas;
light orange (lo)—serological evidence or virus isolation (Ikegami 2012). (b) Toscana virus: do—
native infections; middle orange (mo)—imported cases; lo—seropositive cases in population
(Cusi et al. 2010). (c) Chikungunya virus: do—endemic or epidemic areas; lo—imported cases
(Powers and Logue 2007). (d) Eastern equine encephalitis: reported cases between 1964 and 2010
(CDC 2010). (e) Venezuelan equine encephalitis: major outbreaks regions (Weaver et al. 2004)
3 Bats as Potential Reservoir Hosts for Vector-Borne Diseases
35
Pipistrellus kuhlii in regions where the insect vectors were present (Charrel
et al. 2005; Valassina et al. 2003). The role of bats as virus reservoirs is not yet
definitely clarified (Valassina et al. 2003). Most infections are recorded during
summertime and cause high fever, headaches, muscle aches, neck stiffness and
aseptic meningitis with a non-fatal course or a mild meningoencephalitis, but
asymptomatic infections are also possible (Baldelli et al. 2004; Braito et al. 1997;
Hemmersbach-Miller et al. 2004). Studies in central Italy showed that 52 % of
aseptic meningitis cases were caused by Toscana virus (Charrel et al. 2005). Studies
of Sanbonmatsu-Gámez et al. (2005) in Spain, where 979 persons were probed for
their seroprevalence, indicated that Toscana virus occurs more often in rural areas
(26.7 %) than in urban (20.6 %).
3.2.2
Togaviridae
Within this second large virus family, the two genera Alphavirus and Rubivirus are
known (Rolle and Mayr 2007). It can be characterized as a group of positive
stranded RNA viruses, which possess a cubically symmetric capsid. All vectorborne togaviruses, which are medically important, belong to Alphavirus that
contains 26 different viruses (Laine et al. 2004). The first of five viruses associated
with bats, human and haematophagous insects is the Western equine encephalitis
virus, which is eponymous for the western equine encephalitis antigenic complex
and an important pathogen not only in human but also in veterinary medicine
(Reisler et al. 2012). It was isolated in 1930 from a horse brain although epidemics
had already been described in 1912 and 1919 (Johnson 1964). The natural vertebrate hosts of WEEV are passerine and domestic birds (Eklund 1954) where it
maintains an enzootic cycle with the mosquito vectors. The main vector is Culex
tarsalis, of which hybrid strains have evolved that are highly resistant to WEEV
infection (Hardy et al. 1978). Other vectors are Aedes campestris, Ae. dorsalis and
Ochlerotatus melanimon (Zacks and Paessler 2010). In early experiments, transmission could also be shown in Ae. aegypti (Kelser 1933; Merrill and Ten Broeck
1935; Merrill et al. 1934), Ae. albopictus (Simmons et al. 1936), Ae. nigromaculis
(Madsen and Knowlton 1935; Madsen et al. 1936), Ae. sollicitans (Merrill
et al. 1934), Ae. taeniorhynchus (Kelser 1937, 1938) and Ae. vexans (Kelser
1937, 1938; Knowlton and Rowe 1935). Culiseta spp. is mentioned as vector by
Whitley and Gnann (2002) without mentioning the species or the source of the
information.
The connection between Western equine encephalitis and human disease was
proven in 1938, when the virus was recovered from a child’s brain that died of
encephalitis (Griffin 2001). Nevertheless in North America, WEEV is a rare cause
of encephalitis and only seven cases were reported from 1987 to 2002 (CDC 2002;
Romero and Newland 2003). The virus has caused encephalitis epidemics in emus,
humans and horses with fatality rates of 10 % for emus and humans and 20–40 %
for horses (Ayers et al. 1994; Nalca et al. 2003). The patients suffer a 2- or 3-day
36
C. Melaun et al.
period with fever, headache, vomiting, nausea, somnolence and irritability before
manifestations in the CNS begin (Nalca et al. 2003). Constantine (1970) mentions
that WEEV has been isolated from bats and Western equine encephalitis N
antibodies were detected in Artibeus jamaicensis from Haiti (McLean et al. 1979)
and Artibeus lituratus from Tikal, Guatemala (Ubico and McLean 1995). The latter
authors postulate that bats may become infected, especially during epizootics in
other hosts. The prototype virus of the genus Alphavirus is the Sindbis virus
(SINV), which belongs together with the Highland J, Fort Morgan, Buggy Creek
and Aura virus to the Western equine encephalomyelitis antigenic complex
(Hubálek 2008; Lundström and Pfeffer 2010; Netolitzky et al. 2000). It was first
recognized and isolated from Culex pipiens and Cx. univittatus in 1952 in Egypt
(Jöst et al. 2010; Kurkela et al. 2008; Laine et al. 2004). The first record of Sindbis
virus in European countries was in 1975 (Laine et al. 2004). Today, Sindbis
virus is one of the most widely distributed viruses, having been isolated in Europe
(e.g. Sweden, Finland and Italy (Sicily)), Africa (e.g. Egypt, Kenya and South
Africa), Asia (e.g. China, Malaysia and Lebanon) and Australia (Lundström and
Pfeffer 2010; Norder et al. 1996; Tesh 1982). Nucleotide sequencing of SINV
strains isolated around the globe has shown that the majority of SINV strains are
geographically distinct genotypes and that migrating birds may carry the virus over
long distances (Modlmaier et al. 2002; Strauss and Strauss 1994). Together with a
wide distribution, the virus also has a broad host range and has been isolated from
frogs, ticks, humans and numerous mosquito species (Kurkela et al. 2008;
Modlmaier et al. 2002). Furthermore, Blackburn et al. (1982) isolated the virus
from the organs of the Microchiropteran bats Hipposideros spp. and Rhinolophus
spp. Vectors of SINV are ornithophilic mosquitoes Cx. torrentium or Cx. pipiens,
Culiseta morsitans and Ochlerotatus spp. or Aedes spp. (Hubálek 2008; Jöst
et al. 2010). The first description of symptoms caused by Sindbis virus infection
is from Uganda in 1961 (Laine et al. 2004). They range from itchy exanthema, mild
fever and joint pain in wrists, hips, knees and ankle to nausea, headache and muscle
pain (Kurkela et al. 2005). Together with other mosquito-borne diseases like the
Ross River virus, Mayaro-, onyong-nyong-, Bebaru-, Getah and Semliki forest
virus, the Chikungunya virus is a member of the Semliki forest antigenic complex
(Burt et al. 2012). The first isolation of the virus from an infected patient was
carried out by Ross in 1952/1953 during an outbreak in Tanzania (Diallo
et al. 1999; Tesh 1982; Tiawsirisup 2011). Today, the geographic distribution of
this enzootic virus includes the tropical and subtropical areas of Africa, and
southern or southeast Asia, including India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand,
Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines (Fig. 3.1c) (Burt et al. 2012; Krishna
et al. 2006; Sam et al. 2006). The virus is transmitted by Aedes spp. mosquitoes
and exhibits two different transmission cycles. Aedes aegypti as well as Ae.
albopictus are the main vectors in Asia and transmit the virus to humans directly
in an urban transmission cycle. Virus isolation from non-human primates or
vertebrates like bats in Africa suggests the occurrence of a sylvatic transmission
cycle. The main vectors of CHIKV in Africa are Ae. furcifer-taylori, Ae. africanus,
Ae. luteocephalus and Ae. aegypti (Higgs 2006; Krishna et al. 2006). In the last
3 Bats as Potential Reservoir Hosts for Vector-Borne Diseases
37
50 years, numerous outbreaks of CHIKV were reported (Schwartz and Albert
2010). One of the last large-scale epidemics began in 2004 in Kenya and spread
to several islands in the Indian Ocean (Powers and Logue 2007). On La Réunion,
nearly 34 % of the total island population was infected and 237 people died
(Schwartz and Albert 2010; Tsetsarkin et al. 2007). It was a noteworthy outbreak
because Ae. albopictus was recognized as the major vector for the first time (Reiter
et al. 2006). In July to September 2007, the first autochthonous epidemic outbreak
of CHIKV with 248 cases was reported in Italy. The vector responsible for this
outbreak was also Ae. albopictus (Rezza et al. 2007; Sambri et al. 2008). An
infection with CHIKV can cause acute, subacute and chronic diseases. Especially
in areas that also suffer outbreaks of Dengue virus, CHIKV can easily be mistaken
for Dengue and both viruses can occur in one patient. Dengue has much more
potential for causing infections with serious outcomes (PAHO 2011; Tiawsirisup
2011). An acute disease is characterized by fever and joint pain, while other
symptoms may include headache, myalgia, nausea, vomiting, polyarthritis, rash
and conjunctivitis (PAHO 2011). Apart from humans, bats can also be carriers of
the virus. Diallo et al. (1999) isolated it from bats of the genus Scotophilus sp. in
Senegal. Other surveys suggest Rousettus aegyptiacus (Egyptian rousette),
Hipposideros caffer (Sundevall’s leaf-nosed bat) as well as Chaerephon pumilus
(little free-tailed bat) to be vertebrate hosts for the virus (Calisher et al. 2006). Ross
River virus (RRV) causes a disease known as epidemic polyarthritis, which is
regarded with 2,000–8,000 notified cases per annum as the most common cause of
arboviral disease in humans in Australia (Russell 2002; Smith et al. 2011). The first
reported outbreak of an infection with RRV was in 1928 during epidemics in New
South Wales (Mackenzie et al. 1994; Russell 2002). Today, human infections are
also documented for New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Fiji and American Samoa
(Meyer 2007; Tesh 1982). It is believed that the virus was introduced to these
islands by viraemic air travellers from Australia (Smith et al. 2011). The first
isolation of the virus from a mosquito (Ae. vigilax) was by Doherty et al. in 1959
(Harley et al. 2001). In 1979, the virus was isolated for the first time from the serum
of a patient with epidemic polyarthritis (Mackenzie et al. 1994). The virus was also
isolated from a Pteropus bat in Australia (Doherty et al. 1966; Messenger
et al. 2003). Serological surveys and virus isolation by Harley et al. (2000) from
mosquitoes trapped near a flying fox camp suggested the flying fox Pteropus
conspicillatus as a potential reservoir host. These authors also suggest that other
vertebrates living in the flying fox camp could also be important reservoir hosts
(Harley et al. 2000, 2001). On the other hand, Ryan et al. (1997) showed that the
grey-headed flying fox (Pteropus poliocephalus) does not produce a viraemia of
sufficient magnitude to be very competent vertebrate hosts of RRV (Ryan
et al. 1997). Within 9 years (1991–2000), more than 47,000 laboratory-notified
cases were reported by national authorities (Russell 2002). Typical symptoms are
various combinations of arthralgia and arthritis, muscle and joint pains, myalgia,
lethargy, headache or fever. To return to full physical activity, most of the patients
need up to 6 months (Mackenzie et al. 1994; Smith et al. 2011; Weinstein
et al. 2011). So far, RRV has been isolated from 27 mosquito species. In Australia,
38
C. Melaun et al.
these include the major vectors Aedes vigilax, Ae. camptorhynchus and Cx.
annulirostris (Harley et al. 2000; Hu et al. 2006; Mackenzie et al. 1994). There is
also evidence that Ae. aegypti can be infected with and transmit the virus, but it has
not been isolated from this species in the field (Harley et al. 2000). The Eastern
equine encephalitis virus (EEEV) is placed as the only species in the Eastern
equine encephalitis complex (EEE) and is distributed in North America (Fig. 3.1d)
(Calisher et al. 1980). Originally, it was divided into North and South American
varieties based on antigenic properties (Casals 1964). Following further antigenic
studies four different subtypes have been distinguished, which correspond to four
genetic lineages (I–IV) (Arrigo et al. 2010; Brault et al. 1999). EEEV was first
recognized as a horse disease in the northeastern USA in 1831 (Hanson 1957; Nalca
et al. 2003; Scott and Weaver 1989). The most severe outbreak of EEEV was
recorded from Texas and Louisiana in 1947, causing 14,344 cases with 11,722
horse deaths (Chang and Trent 1987; Nalca et al. 2003). However, suspected EEEV
could not be linked to humans till an outbreak in 1938 (Fothergill et al. 1938;
Getting 1941). In humans, the virus causes severe meningoencephalitis, sometimes
causing focal brain lesions. Morse et al. (1992) report the fatality rate in humans of
all ages as 30 %, and in affected children up to 75 %. A prodrome of fever,
headache, confusion, lethargy, myalgias, vomiting and abdominal pain, which
lasts 1–3 weeks, precedes the onset of neurologic symptoms. The onset of illness
is characterized by fever, altered mental condition, seizures, vomiting and cyanosis
(Deresiewicz et al. 1997; Hart et al. 1964; Romero and Newland 2003). In a study
made in Alabama, several mosquito species were found to be carriers of the virus:
Culiseta melanura, Aedes vexans, Coquillettidia perturbans, Culex erraticus and
Uranotaenia sapphirina. Interestingly, these species were infected at different
times: Aedes vexans at the beginning of the season; Cx. erraticus and Cs. melanura
from June till mid-September (Cupp et al. 2003). In most publications, the
ornithophilic mosquito Cs. melanura is mentioned as the main vector of EEEV,
but Cx. erraticus is an important bridge vector between birds and mammals in the
mid-south USA, because of frequent virus isolations and abundance of this mosquito species in bottomland swamps, flood plains, permanent standing water,
recreation areas near rivers or ponds and water impoundments (Jacob et al. 2010).
However, EEEV has been isolated from a wide range of species of Aedes, Anopheles, Coquillettidia, Culex, Ochlerotatus and Uranotaenia, though not all of the
species involved can be regarded as competent vectors (more specific e.g. in
Armstrong and Andreadis 2010; Arrigo et al. 2010). In surveying for the natural
vector of EEEV, Merrill et al. (1934) mention Ae. cantator and even more
A. sollicitans and A. aegypti. Regarding the latter species, they conclude with
Kelser (1933) that it could not be the transmitting species at it did not occur
sufficiently far northwards. Generally, epizootics of EEE occur every 5–10 years
and are associated with increased mosquito populations resulting from heavy
rainfall and warm weather (Grady et al. 1978; Letson et al. 1993; Mahmood and
Crans 1998; Nalca et al. 2003). Although birds seem to be the main reservoir hosts
of EEEV, the virus has also been detected in bats. During 1969 and 1970, it was
found in ten bat individuals caught in the wild in New Jersey, belonging to three
3 Bats as Potential Reservoir Hosts for Vector-Borne Diseases
39
species: one Lasiurus cinereus, two Myotis lucifugus and seven Eptesicus fuscus
(Main 1979a). Antibodies have been detected in the previously mentioned species,
Tadarida brasiliensis and an unidentified bat (Daniels et al. 1960; Hayes et al. 1964;
Karstad and Hanson 1958). The survey by Main (1979a) showed that EEE
neutralizing antibodies were detectable in a small percentage of the tested adult
hibernating animals (0.3 % of Myotis keenii) but significantly more in
non-hibernating animals (3.4 % in M. lucifugus, M. keenii and E. fuscus). In
experimentally infected bats, the virus could be detected in the blood, mammary
glands, brown fat, lung, kidney, brain, pancreas, heart, salivary glands, liver and
ovary, with the highest percentage in blood and mammary glands (Main 1979b). In
a serological survey of Guatemalan bats, antibodies neutralizing EEEV were found
in Artibeus intermedius, A. jamaicensis, A. lituratus, Glossophaga soricina,
Rhynchonycteris naso and Sturnira lilium (Ubico and McLean 1995). The
Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) belongs to the VEE complex,
which consists of six subtypes which have been identified in North, Central and
South America (Fig. 3.1e) (Fine et al. 2007; Weaver et al. 1992). The first isolation
of VEEV was in 1938 from the brain of a Venezuelan animal (Beck and Wyckhoff
1938). It is the most important pathogen among the New World alphaviruses
affecting humans and horses. It not only remains a naturally emerging disease but
is also a highly developed biological weapon (Colpitts et al. 2007), because it can
be also spread by aerosol infection. Since 1938, sporadic outbreaks have involved
hundreds of thousands of people (Weaver et al. 2004). During an epidemic in
Colombia, more than 75,000 human cases were reported (Rivas et al. 1997). The
symptoms in humans include malaise, sore throats, headaches, fever and chills,
persisting for 4–6 days and followed by 2 or 3 weeks of generalized weakness.
Encephalitis occurs mainly in children (in about 4 % of cases). Other symptoms
range from mild nausea, vomiting with decreased sensorial capability, nuchal
rigidity, ataxia and convulsions, to coma and paralysis. The fatality rate in humans
is about 1 % (Johnson and Martin 1974; Johnson et al. 1968; Nalca et al. 2003;
Pittman et al. 1996). Currently, no vaccine for VEEV is publicly available and the
experimental military vaccine has poor efficacy (Colpitts et al. 2007; Russell 1999).
In nature, VEEV is maintained in a cycle between mosquitoes and small rodents
(Grayson and Galindo 1968; Nalca et al. 2003; Scherer et al. 1972). Epidemic
outbreaks of the epizootic strains occur in 10–20-year intervals in the ranch areas in
Peru, Venezuela, Colombia and Ecuador after heavy rainfall, which lead to
increased mosquito populations (Rivas et al. 1997). Enzootic strains are transmitted
by Culex species, whereas the main vector of the epizootic strains seems to be
Ochlerotatus taeniorhynchus and possibly also Psorophora confinnis, but nearly all
mosquito species have been found to be infected during epizootics (Rivas
et al. 1997; Smith et al. 2008; Zacks and Paessler 2010). Weaver et al. (1992) list
Culex cedeci, Cx. ocossa, Cx. panocossa, Cx. portesi, Cx. taeniopus and cliff
swallow bugs Oeciacus vicarius as vectors. Other natural enzootic vectors are Cx.
accelerans, Cx. adamesi, Cx. amazonicus, Cx. ferreri, Cx. nigripalpus, Cx. pedroi,
Cx. spissipes, Cx. vomerifer, Aedes serratus and Mansonia titillans (Ferro
et al. 2003). In the laboratory, Aedes aegypti and Culex aikenii could additionally
40
C. Melaun et al.
be infected (Kramer and Scherer 1976; Sudia et al. 1971). By testing haemagglutination inhibition antibody titres in Guatemalan bats, antibodies against enzootic
VEEV strains were detected in seven bat species: Artibeus jamaicensis, A. lituratus,
A. phaeotis, Desmodus rotundus, Glossophaga commissarisi, Myotis nigricans and
Uroderma bilobatum, and it was noted that the insectivorous M. nigricans may
become infected by eating infected mosquitoes and the vampire bat D. rotundus by
feeding on viraemic cattle (Seymour et al. 1978a). Experimental infection studies
showed that bat genera respond differently to infection, e.g. Artibeus jamaicensis
and A. lituratus showed longer VEEV viraemias than Phyllostomus discolor, which
had a faster, higher and longer lasting immune response to epizootic strains than to
enzootic ones. Phyllostomus discolor may not serve as a host for enzootic VEEV
strains, while the circulating virus levels in Artibeus jamaicensis, A. lituratus and
Sturnira lilium seemed to be high enough to permit the infection of Culex vectors
(Seymour et al. 1978b).
3.2.3
Flaviviridae: Flavivirus
The family Flaviviridae can be divided into the three genera Pestivirus,
Hepacivirus and Flavivirus (Cook and Holmes 2006). The last named contains
the largest number of viruses with the potential to cause diseases in bats and humans
and may be spread by haematophagous insects. Flavivirus currently consists of
70 serologically related, single-strand, positive-sense RNA viruses (Hoshino
et al. 2009; Mackenzie and Williams 2008; Tajima et al. 2005). All members of
the genus can be found around the world and are most often transmitted by
arthropods. The most important mosquito-borne diseases caused by flaviviruses
are Yellow fever, Japanese Encephalitis, West Nile fever, Dengue fever and
St. Louis encephalitis (Mackenzie and Williams 2008). Yellow fever is an acute
haemorrhagic disease and is endemic in tropical areas of Africa and Latin America
with an incidence of 200,000 cases and 30,000 deaths each year (Fig. 3.2b). The
symptoms range from mild to severe illness (WHO 2000). Yellow fever transmission depends on arthropods as vectors, e.g. several mosquito (Culicidae) species
belonging to Aedes in Africa and Haemogogus in South America (Ellis and Barrett
2008; WHO 2000). As long ago as the first half of the twentieth century, scientists
tried to detect a connection between the yellow fever virus and bats. Williams
et al. (1964) emphasized the potential and importance of bats in the wild cycle of
arboviruses, e.g. yellow fever virus. In the experiments of Kumm (1932), Brazilian
bats (Molossus molossus obscurus and M. rufus) were exposed to unfed Aedes
aegypti. The mosquitoes willingly took blood, but no transmission of the disease
from the infected mosquitoes to the bats resulted. The author concluded that bats
play little part in the life cycle of this disease. Contrastingly, Simpson and
O’Sullivan (1968) stated that in East Africa, yellow fever virus circulated in the
fruit bat genera Eidolon and Rousettus. However, the virus did not produce demonstrable viraemia in the tested fruit bats (Simpson and O’Sullivan 1968). Marinkelle
3 Bats as Potential Reservoir Hosts for Vector-Borne Diseases
41
Fig. 3.2 Occurrence of viruses (a) West Nile virus: detected in human sera or antibodies in birds
(Hubálek and Halouzka 1999; Gubler 2007); (b) Yellow fever: dark orange (do)—risk area
(Travel approved 2010); (c) Japanese encephalitis virus (CDC 2012; Van der Hurk et al. 2009b);
(d) Dengue fever: transmission risk areas (WHO 2009)
42
C. Melaun et al.
and Grose (1972) reviewed organisms, which act as vectors between bats, humans
and domestic animals. They listed six references involving yellow fever records
from two continents.
Oelofsen and van der Ryst (1999) stated that bats can be infected orally by
ingesting a single mosquito and that experiments with bats and yellow fever virus
produced positive results. The virus was recovered from several organs of the bats
(Oelofsen and van der Ryst 1999). Furthermore, serological prevalence of bats for
yellow fever virus had been demonstrated in Uganda, Kenya and Sudan and in
previous publications the laboratory capacity had been tested in the genera Eidolon
and Rousettus (Ellis and Barrett 2008). The Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) is
eponymous for the JEV antigenic complex. Other members of this group are the
West Nile virus, Murray Valley encephalitis virus, St. Louis encephalitis virus and
Kunjin virus (Bengis et al. 2004; Campbell et al. 2002). It is the leading cause of
viral encephalitis in rural regions of eastern, southeastern and southern Asia
(Fig. 3.2c). The central nervous system may be affected, leading to severe
complications and even death (Agarwal 2006; Mackenzie et al. 2006). Up to
50,000 cases of JEV are estimated to occur annually worldwide (Ravanini
et al. 2012; Van der Hurk et al. 2009a). According to the sequence of its genomic
RNA, JEV is classified into five genotypes (Nabeshima et al. 2009; Solomon
et al. 2003). The majority of infections are subclinical, but the fatality rate is nearly
25 % (Ravanini et al. 2012; Van der Hurk et al. 2009b). Over the last 60 years, it has
been estimated that the virus has been responsible in humans for more than ten
million infections, three million deaths and four million cases of long-term disability. It is also calculated that today nearly two billion people live in JEV-prone areas.
Historically, epidemics had been recorded in Japan since 1871 (Mackenzie
et al. 2006; Van der Hurk et al. 2009a), but the first isolation of JEV in Japan was
not until 1935 in Japan (Tiawsisirsup et al. 2012). A sequence closely related to JEV
strains from Japan was isolated for the first time in Europe from the mosquito Culex
pipiens (Ravanini et al. 2012). Birds and mosquitoes play the major role in the life
cycle of JEV, but the virus can also infect a wide range of other vertebrates such as
humans, domestic animals, bats, snakes or frogs (Agarwal 2006; Ravanini
et al. 2012; Tiawsisirsup et al. 2012). The main vectors seem to be species of
Culex mosquitoes such as Cx. pipiens (Korea), Cx. annulirostris (Australia) or Cx.
tritaeniorhynchus (Nabeshima et al. 2009; Van der Hurk et al. 2009b), but JEV has
also isolated from Cx. gelidus, Cx. vishnui, Cx. fucocephala, Cx. pseudovishnui,
Mansonia uniformis, Anopheles subpictus and Ochlerotatus japonicus (Mackenzie
et al. 2006; Van der Hurk et al. 2009a). Sulkin et al. (1970) isolated the virus in
Japan from the bats Miniopterus schreibersii and Rhinolophus cornutus. Other bats,
which have yielded antibodies or JEV, were Myotis mystacinus, Pipistrellus
abramus, Plecotus auritus, Vespertilio superans, Myotis macrodactylus and
M. nattereri bombinus (Banerjee et al. 1984). In China, JEV has been isolated
from Rousettus lechenaultii and Murina aurata (Wang et al. 2009). West Nile
virus, the disease causing agent of the West Nile fever, was first discovered in the
blood of a native woman of the West Nile district of Uganda in 1937 (Garmendia
et al. 2001; George et al. 1984). In South Africa, one of the biggest outbreaks, with
3 Bats as Potential Reservoir Hosts for Vector-Borne Diseases
43
nearly 18,000 human infections, was reported in 1974 (Dauphin et al. 2004).
Molecular epidemiological survey indicates that WNV spread from Africa to the
Mediterranean and southern European regions and then to India as well as Central
and South Asia (Fig. 3.2a) (Buckley et al. 2003; Hayes 2006). In 1999, the virus was
inadvertently introduced into North America (Pilipski et al. 2004). Up to now, over
12,000 human cases of meningitis or encephalitis and 1,100 deaths caused by WNV
have been documented in the USA (Murray et al. 2010). Phylogenetic studies have
identified several genetic lineages of the virus in different geographical locations
(Campbell et al. 2002; Rappole et al. 2000). West Nile virus is transmitted in natural
cycles between birds and mosquitoes (Mackenzie et al. 2004). So far, the virus has
been isolated from at least 300 bird and 43 mosquito species from 11 genera. The
major vectors for Africa and the Middle East are Culex univittatus, Cx. poicilipes,
Cx. neavei or Aedes albocephalus. For Asia, it is Cx. quinquefasciatus,
Cx. tritaeniorhynchus and Cx. vishnui. In Europe, Cx. pipiens, Cx. modestus as
well as Coquillettidia richardii may act as important vectors. A huge number of
infections (nearly 80 % symptomless) occur during summer, early fall and during
the rainy season in the tropics (Campbell et al. 2002). The symptoms reach from
fever, headache, tiredness or swollen lymph glands to neck stiffness, disorientation,
coma and paralysis (Mackenzie et al. 2004; WHO 2011; Zeller and Schuffenecker
2004). The first identification of WNV in Chiroptera was in Rousettus aegyptiacus
(fruit bat) in Uganda and Israel. Nearly 8 % of the surveyed R. aegyptiacus in Israel
tested positive for WNV antibodies (Bunde et al. 2006). In India, the virus was
isolated from Rousettus leschenaultia (Davis et al. 2005; Paul et al. 1970) and in
2,000 antibodies were isolated again from live Eptesicus fuscus (big brown bat) as
well as from Myotis lucifugus (little brown bat) in New York City (Bunde
et al. 2006). Pilipski et al. (2004) found antibodies again in M. lucifugus and in
M. septentrionalis, whereas Davis et al. (2005) determined neutralizing antibodies
for WNV from Tadarida brasiliensis. The St. Louis encephalitis virus is the
etiological agent of St. Louis encephalitis and is a member of the Japanese
encephalitis antigenic complex. It was first detected in 1933 during an outbreak
of human encephalitis in St. Louis in the US State Missouri (Auguste et al. 2009;
Flores et al. 2010; Rodrigues et al. 2010). Today, the virus is found all over the USA
and Canada as well as Central and South America (Diaz et al. 2006; Pires and
Gleiser 2010). The largest outbreak of SLEV among humans so far was in 2005 in
Argentina (Diaz et al. 2006). The first detection of SLEV in Argentina was in 1957
(Flores et al. 2010). Studies have indicated Cx. tarsalis, Cx. nigripalpus and Cx.
quinquefasciatus to be the major vectors in the USA (Reisen 2003). Diaz
et al. (2012) isolated the virus from eight different mosquito species: Cx.
quinquefasciatus, Cx. interfor, Cx. apicinus, Ae. scapularis, Ae. aegypti, Ae.
albifasciatus, An. albitarsis and Ps. ferox. The primary transmission cycle is
between mosquitoes and birds, but serological evidence of infection has also been
found in horses, cattle and goats (Calisher 1994; Spinsanti et al. 2003). In a survey
by Bunde et al. (2006), the bats Eptesicus fuscus (big brown bat) and Myotis
lucifugus (little brown bat) were tested positive for SLEV antibodies. An infection
with SLEV can cause a slight illness with fever and headache or serious illness with
44
C. Melaun et al.
meningoencephalitis and death. Dengue is a viral infection and characterized by
symptoms like fever, severe headache, orbital pain and general indisposition and
start 5–7 days after infection. Haemorrhages and an increase in vascular permeability are the consequences of the Dengue haemorrhagic fever, which frequently leads
to death. There is good evidence that sequential infection with different serotypes
increases the risk of developing this dangerous form of dengue fever (AguilarSetién et al. 2008; Becker et al. 2010; Kalayanarooj et al. 1997). Dengue infections
increased worldwide during the last decades and about one-fifth of the world
population lives in Dengue risk zones (Fig. 3.2d) (Thomas et al. 2011). Dengue
virus has been detected worldwide in tropical and subtropical regions, especially
not only in the Southeast and South Asia but also in Central and South America and
with an ongoing transmission risk in Africa (e.g. Chen and Wilson 2005). The first
reported cases occurred at the end of the eighteenth century in Asia, Africa and
North America, while Dengue haemorrhagic fever first occurred in the 1950s in the
Philippines and Thailand (Becker et al. 2010). In the first half of the twentieth
century in Europe (Austria, Greece, Italy and Spain), the virus caused epidemics.
Primary vectors are species of the mosquito genus Aedes (Aedes aegypti and Ae.
albopictus). Hypothetically, insectivore bats might become infected by ingestion of
virus-infected mosquitoes, while fructivore species have to be infected by a mosquito bite (Aguilar-Setién et al. 2008). Wong et al. (2007) categorized the risk of bat
to human transmission for the families Pteropodidae and Phyllostomidae as low
because of low prevalence of pathogens in bats or inefficient vectorial capacity.
However, de Thoisy et al. (2009) detected dengue viral RNA in 4 % of Chiroptera
samples (Carollia perspicillata) from French Guiana. Platt et al. (2000) detected
antibodies against Dengue virus in 22.6 % of examined bats from Costa Rica
(n ¼ 53) and 30 % of those from Ecuador (n ¼ 10), mainly not only in bats of
the genera Artibeus and Uroderma but also in four species of Molossus. In laboratory experiments, Ae. aegypti from Costa Rica fed on bats (Platt et al. 2000), but
Scott (2001) doubted that this feeding is consistent with bat involvement in Dengue
transmission and considered that there is no proof of interactions in natural
conditions. In Mexico, Dengue virus is transmitted between humans by mosquitoes
of the genus Aedes. Bat samples (n ¼ 162) from five families (Emballonuridae,
Mormoopidae, Phyllostomidae, Natalidae and Vespertilionidae) contained nine
individuals of four species that were seropositive according to ELISA (Artibeus
jamaicensis, Myotis nigricans, Pteronotus parnellii and Natalus stramineus). This
is the first definite evidence of Dengue virus in Myotis species. These results
support the contention that Dengue virus is present in bats from the Pacific and
gulf coasts of Mexico (Aguilar-Setién et al. 2008). The first isolation of Ilheus
virus (ILHV) was from mosquitoes of the genera Ochlerotatus and Psorophora
from Brazil, especially Psorophora ferox, which is considered its main vector
(da Silva Azevedo et al. 2010; Laemmert and Hughes 1947). Later it was isolated
also from the genera Culex, Haemagogus, Sabethes and Trichoprospon (Venegas
et al. 2012). In Brazil, it has been isolated also from birds, sentinel monkeys and
horses (Iversson et al. 1993). Only a few reports of isolation from humans are
available (Johnson et al. 2007; Spence et al. 1962; Srihongse and Johnson 1967;
3 Bats as Potential Reservoir Hosts for Vector-Borne Diseases
45
Venegas et al. 2012). Results of infection are widely variable, ranging from
asymptomatic to encephalitis, but most of the cases are accompanied by fever,
headache, chills, photophobia, arthralgia, myalgia and asthenia (da Silva Azevedo
et al. 2010). Price (1978) found sera in bats from Trinidad that protect against
Ilheus. According to da Silva Azevedo et al. (2010), it has been isolated also from
bats, but unfortunately no details of which species were involved were mentioned
by the authors. Zika virus is known from Africa and Southeast Asia (Dick
et al. 1952; Duffy et al. 2009; Hayes 2009). It is related to West Nile, Dengue
and Yellow fever viruses (Duffy et al 2009). The first isolation of Zika virus was in
1947 from a rhesus monkey (Simpson 1964) in 1948 was the first isolation from a
mosquito (Aedes africanus) and in 1968 from humans in Nigeria (Hayes 2009).
Other serological studies showed human Zika virus infection in Africa also e.g. in
Senegal, Uganda, Central African Republic and Egypt and for Asia e.g. in India,
Malaysia, Vietnam or Indonesia (Duffy et al. 2009; Hayes 2009). Zika virus has
been isolated from Ae. aegypti, Ae. africanus, Ae. furcifer, Ae. luteocephalus and
Ae. vittifer (Dick 1952; Haddow et al. 1964; Hayes 2009; Lee and Moore 1972;
Marchette et al. 1969). So far, no natural infections of bats with Zika virus have
been documented, but in the laboratory the cave bat Myotis lucifugus was infected
successfully when the virus was injected intraperitoneal, intradermal, intracerebral
and intrarectal. But the bats were not susceptible to the virus after intranasal
exposure (Reagan et al. 1955). Tacaribe virus (TCRV) belongs to the Arenaviridae
(genus Arenavirus) (Bowen et al. 1996; Rossi et al. 1996). Diseases caused by the
Tacaribe virus complex of the new world are Argentine haemorrhagic fever,
Brazilian haemorrhagic fever, Venezuelan haemorrhagic fever and another yet
unnamed haemorrhagic fever, induced by Junı́n, Sabiá, Guanarito, Machupo and
Chapare viruses (Carballal et al. 1987; Cogswell-Hawkinson et al. 2012; Tesh
et al. 1994). In contrast to the other arenaviruses, which have all been isolated
from rodents, Tacaribe virus was originally isolated from two bat species: great
fruit-eating bats (Artibeus lituratus) and Jamaican fruit bats (A. jamaicensis)
(Downs et al. 1963; Price 1978). Furthermore, Price (1978) was able to detect
antibodies against TCRV in the little yellow-shouldered bat (Sturnira lilium),
Heller’s broad-nosed bat (Platyrrhinus helleri) and in the vampire bat (Desmodus
rotundus). Nevertheless, the study of Cogswell-Hawkinson et al. (2012) does not
support the hypothesis that A. jamaicensis is a natural reservoir host for TCRV,
because the injection of high doses resulted in significant and fatal disease including
pneumonia, pathological changes in liver and spleen and brain lesions. One study
(Downs et al. 1963) however revealed close correspondence between a strain
isolated from a mosquito pool and one isolated from a bat. Unfortunately, the
pool consisted of 18 mosquito species, so that no precise information about the
possible vector can be given.
Besides viruses, some parasites are known, which occur in bats and humans, and
can be transmitted through haemorrhagic insects. The first one is the Chagas
disease an infection with the flagellate Trypanosoma cruzi (Zeledón and
Rabinovich 1981). The disease occurs in Central and South America and is transmitted by the intestinal content of triatomine kissing bugs (Mehlhorn 2001). It is the
46
C. Melaun et al.
leading cause of heart disease in South America with the major vector species
Triatoma infestans, T. dimidiata and Rhodnius prolixus (Reduviidae) (Dorn
et al. 2003). Flagellates of the genus Trypanosoma are parasitic in nearly all
mammalian species. In more than 100 species of bats more than 30 trypanosome
species are recorded, while the subgenus Schizotrypanum comprises species
restricted to bats as well as T. cruzi (Cavazzana et al. 2010). Kissing bugs live for
example in caves, burrows, nests of wild animals on which they feed during the
night. During the blood meal infected faeces is set free and after the bite scratched
by the victim in the itching wound. During the life cycle in man or other reservoir
hosts, amastigotes reproduce in the cytoplasm of different host cell types, which
appear as “pseudocysts” when they are completely filled with parasites. The most
important lesions are in the heart and a myocardial failure results to death years
after the infection (Mehlhorn 2001). The symptoms range from fever to inflammation of heart, muscles and brain (CDC 2010).
Beneath the usual triatomine vector, several wild animals are associated with the
Chagas disease. Among others Marsupialia, Rodentia, Edentata, Primates and
Chiroptera had been positive investigated for T. cruzi (Coura et al. 2002). Common
species of neotropical bats, including those of the genera Artibeus, Noctilio,
Mormoops, Nautilus, Pteronotus, Myotis, Carollia, Desmodus, Glossophaga,
Phyllostomus and Molossus, have been reported to be susceptible to T. cruzi
infection under natural as well as under experimental conditions (Añez
et al. 2009). Bats can get infected by the blood meal of the kissing bugs or through
the ingestion of infected arthropods. So it is not astonishing that most infected bats
are insectivorous. The prevalence in South American bats varied widely. In
Colombia and in the Amazonia of Brazil, it is approximately 9.0 %, respectively
2.4–4.6 % (Garcı́a et al. 2012).
Añez et al. (2009) detected in Molossus molossus in western Venezuela a
congenital transmission from pregnant female bats to their foetus. Trypomastigotes
had been found in 100 % of all examined foetus. In their natural habitat,
M. molossus is associated with R. prolixus kissing bugs. The insectivore
M. molossus shows a high susceptibility for T. cruzi, due to the fact that 80 % of
the examined bats are infected. These results emphasize the role of Chiroptera as
host for Chagas disease in endemic areas and their impact for the sylvatic cycle of
T. cruzi (Añez et al. 2009).
Recent examinations detected new genotypes of T. cruzi associated with bats,
which indicate that the complexity of T. cruzi is larger than known and confirmed
bats as important reservoir for infections to humans (e.g. Maeda et al. 2011; Marcili
et al. 2009) and the strong association between bats and, for instance,
Schizotryphanum suggests a long shared evolutionary development (Garcı́a
et al. 2012). Furthermore, the molecular examination of Chagas virus strains reveals
the movement of bats, naturally or by human transport, between the Old and the
New World (Hamilton et al. 2012b). Hamilton et al. (2012a) suggested that T. cruzi
evolved from bat trypanosomes and have successful switched into other mammalian hosts.
3 Bats as Potential Reservoir Hosts for Vector-Borne Diseases
47
Coccidia (Apicomplexa) are characterized by intracellular life cycles consisting
of the three phases: schizogony, gamogony and sporogony. The coccidian genus
Plasmodium is the pathogenic agent of malaria, a mosquito-borne infectious
disease of humans and animals, which causes fever, headache and in severe cases
death (Mehlhorn 2001). Worldwide 3.3 billion people live in risk areas (Africa,
Southeast Asia region and the Eastern Mediterranean) of malaria transmission and
each year at least one million people die after infection (Snow et al. 2005). The
order Haemosporidia consists of the five genera: Plasmodium, Hepatocystis,
Polychromophilus, Nycteria and Rayella. The vectors of the first three genera are
respectively haematophagous Diptera of the families Culicidae (Anopheles spp.),
Ceratopogonidae and Nycteribiidae (Witsenburg et al. 2012). With the exception of
Rayella, all haemosporidia genera are known to infect insectivorous bats in temperate and tropical regions (Duval et al. 2012). Megali et al. (2011) investigated
237 bats of four species from Switzerland to obtain a better understanding of the
complex co-evolutionary processes between hosts and parasites. A total of 34 %
(n ¼ 70) was infected with Plasmodium murinus. In detail, Myotis daubentonii was
the most parasitized species (51 %), followed by Eptesicus serotinus (11 %),
Nyctalus noctula (7 %) and Myotis myotis (4 %) (Megali et al. 2011). The prevalence (P) of P. murinus in M. daubentonii was twice as great as found by
Gardner and Molyneux (1988) in England and Scotland. Duval et al. (2007)
examined 530 bat individuals (Pteropodidae, Rhinolophidae, Hipposideridae,
Megadermatidae, Emballonuridae, Vespertilionidae and Molossidae) from
Madagascar and Cambodia. In Madagascar haemosporidian infections were found
in Hipposideridae (Triaenops furculus, P 4 %) and Vespertilionidae (Miniopterus
gleni, P 23 %; Myotis goudoti, P 24 % and Miniopterus manavi, P 38 %). In
Cambodia, infections were found in the Hipposideridae (Hipposideros larvatus,
P 8 %), Megadermatidae (Megaderma spasma, P 80 %) and Vespertilionidae
(Kerivoula hardwickii, P 20 %) (Duval et al. 2007). In Pteropus poliocephalus
from Australia (P 36 %), Landau et al. (1980) described Hepatocystis levinei, which
under laboratory conditions, used Culicoides nubecolusus (Diptera and
Ceratopogonidae) to complete its life cycle. Landau et al. (2012) listed bat hosts
of six families in which different types of gametocytes were detected. The authors
concluded that the Microchiroptera harbour mainly parasites of the falciparum and
malariae groups, while Megachiroptera harbour parasites of the vivax group (Landau et al. 2012). Duval et al. (2012) sampled 164 bats from Gabon in Central Africa
of which only Miniopterus inflatus was positively tested for haemosporidian
parasites. The prevalences ranged from 17.6 % to 66.7 % (blood smear
examinations), while the molecular prevalence ranged from 63.2 % to 88.9 %.
The nycteribiid Polychromophilus fulvida was found infected with Polychromatophilia sp. in Faucon Cave in Gabon (Landau et al. 1980). Miniopterus inflatus and
other bat species (e.g. H. gigas, H. caffer and C. afra) are potentially exposed to this
blood parasite (Duval et al. 2012). The five host specific Polychromophilus species
are restricted, regarding their vertebrate hosts, to insectivorous bats of the order
Microchiroptera. Vectors are Nycteribiidae (Diptera, Hippoboscoidea)
(Witsenburg et al. 2012).
48
C. Melaun et al.
Fig. 3.3 Overview of the pathogens found in bats and human with their family, genera and
vectors, which are discussed in this chapter
3.3
Conclusion
In the past, a high number of viruses and parasites has been detected in bats, which
are important reservoir hosts. On the contrary, many haematophagous insects serve
as vectors for numerous arboviruses and parasites, with mosquitoes (Culicidae)
being the most important vectors worldwide. So the presence of certain viruses in
both mosquitoes and bats is not really surprising and a transmission cycle between
bats, mosquitoes and humans is thinkable. However, it is not possible to say
whether the mosquitoes served as vector for the bats or the bats as reservoir both
options must be taken into consideration.
In the present chapter, we describe 20 viruses from four different families as well
as two parasitic pathogens, which have been detected in bats, in haematophagous
insects and in humans (see also Table 3.1, Fig. 3.3). Therefore, for these pathogens
is a probability to be transmitted from bats to humans via insects. However, because
of the amount of publications in these fields and the quantity of described viruses it
is difficult to give a definite number for the possible diseases and the chapter makes
no claim to be complete. So far, this way of transmission between bats–mosquito–humans could not be proven for any of the diseases, but vectors being in relation
with bat infections (e.g. Cx. quinquefasciatus, Ae. vexans or Ae. aegypti and Ae.
albopictus) are also known to bite humans. Climate change as well as global trade
could not only increase the risk for such way of transmission e.g. when potential
hosts but also competent vectors expand their distribution. Apart from the listed
viruses and parasites (see Table 3.1, Fig. 3.3) are some pathogens often described
only in humans or bats but has been detected already also in mosquitoes or is, at
least, suspected to be transmitted by arthropods, like Bimiti, Oriboca, Mayaro or
Yokose virus. With climate change range swift of vectors and possible spontaneous
3 Bats as Potential Reservoir Hosts for Vector-Borne Diseases
49
mutations, new hosts and/or vector competences can occur. For some diseases like
WNV, Dengue or Yellow fever, the way of transmission is already well known,
while this is not the case for others like Kaeng Khoi, Catu, Guama, Zika or Bwamba
virus, but knowledge about these things is essential as epidemics cause high social
as well as economic impact.
Acknowledgements The present study was financially supported by the research funding
programme “LOEWE—Landes-Offensive zur Entwicklung Wissenschaftlich-ökonomischer
Exzellenz” of Hesse’s Ministry of Higher Education, Research, and the Arts and by the SAW
(Senate Competition Committee) grant (SAW-2011-BNI-3) of the Leibniz Association.
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