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Beyond the School Fence: Rethinking Urban Schools in the
Twenty-first Century
Ian McShane, Centre for Urban Research, RMIT University
Chris K Wilson, Centre for Urban Research, RMIT University
Pre-publication copy
Published online in Urban Policy and Research 16 April 2017 DOI:
10.1080/08111146.2017.1310098
Abstract
Schools have traditionally been black-boxed in urban planning, in Australia and
elsewhere. During the twentieth century, the shaping of a ‘community within a
community’ that informed liberal educational thought materialised in campusstyle schools that were exempted from local planning laws, contributed to sprawl
and car dependency, and duplicated facilities provided by local authorities.
Advocacy of compact city forms underpinning recent urban policy calls for a
rethink by education and planning authorities of how schools engage with their
urban surrounds. Focussing on Melbourne, Australia, this article discusses some
challenges for the provision of schools and schooling in twenty-first century cities.
Introduction
In his 1948 Australian tour the pioneering British town planner Sir Patrick
Abercrombie (1948) argued that schools were defining elements of local
neighbourhoods and a central concern of modern planning. Abercrombie’s counsel
fell on deaf ears. Notwithstanding the recent revival of policy rhetoric about
schools as ‘community hubs’ (McShane 2012), the provision of schooling has been
a significant gap in urban planning and urban research in Australia. With the
exception of journal articles focussing on schools involved in local planning
conflicts (Taylor and Marais 2011, Bugg and Gurran 2011), and incidental
discussion of schools and schooling in planning textbooks (Thompson and McGinn
2012, Gurran 2011), the recent Australian-focussed literature has paid little
attention to intersections between educational planning and urban planning. This
deficiency is replicated internationally. The urban planning literature shows few
explicit links between educational planning and urban or spatial planning
(Billingham 2013, Bierbaum, Vincent and McKoy 2010, Gulson and Symes 2007,
Vitiello 2006). In turn, the literature on school planning and design has
concentrated on the design of learning and teaching environments, with limited
attention to the world beyond the school fence (Organisation for Economic
Cooperation and Development (OECD) Centre for Effective Learning Environments
2011).
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At a practice level, Banerjee (2015) provides some examples of international
experimentation in “educational urbanism”, but puzzles over why research into the
value of situated learning and community education, stretching back to the mid1800s, has had such limited impact on city planning. Recent attempts to close the
gap between educational and urban planning in Australia have underscored the
difficulty of successful policy implementation in complex governance
environments (Honig 2006).
Focussing on the state of Victoria, the adoption of precinct or master planning at
the local level is designed to open the ‘black box’ of school planning which
traditionally has been a top-down, state-level activity. Victoria’s precinct structure
plans (PSPs) underpin development in urban growth areas, aiming to manage
urban amenity and ensure the timely provision of infrastructure, including schools.
The reservation of land for both government and non-government schools under
this model reflects contemporary neo-liberal educational policy centred on
promoting school choice (Metropolitan Planning Authority 2015). This process has
its critics. For example, the Ministerial Advisory Committee (2015) advising on the
Victorian government’s revision of Plan Melbourne raised concerns that the
planning focus on outer Melbourne is detracting from the appropriate redevelopment of established areas, and there was also a propensity for PSPs to ‘lock
in’ future land uses and housing densities. Nonetheless, the PSP process goes some
way to overcoming structural impediments to bringing education to the planning
table.
This article seeks to encourage dialogue between education planning and urban
planning by examining school provision in the context of Melbourne’s urban
growth. Our interests lie beyond the design of educational services, focussed on
school campuses, to understand the engagement of schools with urban settings,
particularly in regard to the role schools might play in addressing major social and
environmental challenges of cities.
Policy and planning responses to growth and environmental pressures in
Australia’s major cities have, with varying success, pursued a ‘smart growth’ or
compact city vision, seeking to constrain geographic expansion on the urban fringe
by focussing development around transport hubs and suburban activity centres. In
Melbourne, Australia’s fastest growing capital city, this planning vision also seeks
to balance rapid vertical or high-rise expansion in the inner city. These
developments call for a strategic and integrated response to urban intensification
and its emerging challenges by education providers and city planners.
To frame this discussion the article seeks to move beyond the ‘school as
community hub’ discourse to explore wider connections between schools and
cities. It does so by reworking an established construct in the education literature:
the urban school. As detailed below, the original construct focussed on race, class
and inner cities as compounding markers of educational disadvantage. While
disadvantage remains a salient issue for both educationists and city planners,
changing urban demographics challenge the original meaning of the term ‘urban
school’. Victorian planning documents have begun using the rhetoric of urban
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schools to identify design parameters and educational needs of schools in
conditions of land scarcity in inner Melbourne (for example Learning By Design et
al. 2010, Tweeddale and Herel 2010). This article seeks to extend this discussion
by examining four vital policy issues for twenty-first century urban schools: the
educational demand cycle, the coordination of education, transport and housing
policy, environmental sustainability, and digital connectivity.
The article begins with a brief discussion of our reworking of the original
conceptualisation of the urban school. Then follows a discussion of Melbourne as
an applied context for examining the engagement of schools in urban settings. The
third section sets out the rationale for focussing on will examine the four issues
listed above, and examines each in turn.
The article draws on analysis of policy and critical literature relating to educational
and urban planning, as well as interviews with state and local government officials
and fieldwork associated with a research project on the community use of schools.
The project was funded by the Australian Research Council (LP110200550) in
partnership with the Victorian Department of Education and Training. The article
focuses mainly on the government school sector, although, as the PSP process
indicates, wider policy settings recognise the significance of the non-government
sector – which caters for approximately one-third of Victorian students - in
educational provision. The discussion encompasses both primary and secondary
schools, as detailed in specific examples.
Rethinking the Urban School
The vocabulary of urban schooling emerged in educational theory and practice in
the 1960s as a marker of educational disadvantage connected with racial and class
stratification in inner cities (Franklin 2010, Foster 2007, Steinberg and Kincheloe
2004, Grace 1984). This association of problem schools and inner cities came
under strain with changing urban demographics in the late twentieth century. In
advanced Western economies, many schools with the educationally disadvantaged
characteristics once associated with urban schooling are now located in outer
urban or rural areas (Ehrenhalt 2012, Russo 2004). In contrast, inner city schools
are now, at least in some areas, seen as agents of urban revitalisation or
gentrification (Wu et al. 2015, Hyra 2014, Cucchiara 2012, Butler and Robson
2003), and the OECD has identified an “urban advantage” in the superior
performance of students in population centres over 100,000 in almost every
country that participated in the 2009 Programme for International Student
Assessment (OECD 2013a).
The small amount of literature that deals with urban schooling in Australia adopts
the conventional focus on educational disadvantage (for example, Baxter and
Meyers 2016, Lawrence 1994). However, the concept has not strongly informed
Australian educational policy and critical analysis, leaving a space that is relatively
free of entrenched or defensive actors and positions.
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What do we mean by an urban school for the purposes of this article? Urban
locations are characterised by their relatively dense and diverse populations,
institutional and service clusters, flows of people and information, and economic
activity. Urban locations are also distinctive ecologies and areas of concentrated
resource consumption. The concept is not restricted to inner cities, but applies at
scale across metropolitan and regional centres. Although some analysts define an
urban school quantitatively (OECD 2013b), our approach is qualitative, focusing on
the relationships of schools with their urban settings.
Schools and Cities: Policy and Practice in Victoria
The expansion of state education systems in Australia coincided with the
development of suburbs in Australia’s urban morphology. While there are
surviving examples of early inner-city schools on constrained sites, Australian
school developments have typically followed a nineteenth century educational
model that sought to bolster liberal learning and school identity through the
provision of playing fields and ancillary facilities as well as classrooms. The
conscious shaping of a ‘community within a community’ reflected the
professionalization and corporatization of schooling, and desires to separate
school-based learning from socialization processes and physical environments that
were seen as harmful to proper development (Campbell and Proctor 2014, Cutler
2000). The low-density configuration of Australian cities supported this model
through the twentieth century, and it is institutionalised and standardised in site
specifications. For example, the Victorian school facilities schedule requires 3.5
hectares of land for primary schools and 8.4 for secondary schools (Bok 2011).
Both the pedagogical foundations and the physical template of this model have
come under strain. Criticism of a transmission model of instruction, delivered
within the mono-functional ‘containment space’ of the classroom, has featured in
educational debate for at least half a century (Banerjee 2015). Specific to our
concerns here, critics have pointed to the social and environmental impact of ‘big
box’ campus-style schools, as contributors to suburban sprawl, car dependency
and greenhouse gas emissions (Reid 2011, Tachieva 2010, Haar 2003, Strickland
2003). Large high schools have been criticized for their poorer student outcomes
compared to smaller counterparts (Leithwood and Jantzi 2009), and for their
negative impact on neighbourhood sociality and walkability (Hillier 1996). Land
economies, site constraints and pressure on public sector outlays are encouraging
policy interest in the increasing use of extra-mural resources such as public
libraries and recreation facilities, as well as the sharing of facilities on both
government and non-government school campuses (Victorian Competition and
Efficiency Commission 2009). The emphasis of policy debate encourages extended
use of schools facilities and more porous boundaries between schools and
surrounding neighbourhoods. This policy is not without its critics. Investment in
new urban schools, such as a senior secondary campus sited in a northern
Melbourne town centre, was described as “penny pinching” in the allocation of
learning and recreation space (school official, 2013).
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The re-population of inner cities has prompted new policy, design and market
interest in urban schooling. The Victorian department of education has
commissioned what it refers to as the state’s first “vertical government school” in
South Melbourne, “designed to be fully embedded in neighbourhood life”, and
incorporating community services and civic spaces (Victorian School Building
Authority 2016). Non-government schools have sought to establish inner-city
campuses, and identified a new market in international school students
(replicating the practice of Australian tertiary institutions on both counts) (Jacks
2017, Haileybury 2015, Melbourne City School 2015). Along with the adaptive reuse of existing building stock for schools, inner urban residential developers are
integrating schools or early childhood centres into their designs, in part as a
concession to obtain planning approval (Dow 2013). The incorporation of schools
and other education facilities in inner-city high-rise projects has generated
significant publicity on ‘skyscraper schools’ (Winter 2013). Accordingly, inner
Melbourne's changing skyline has brought new research interest in the needs and
experiences of young people living in a ‘vertical’ environment (Whitzman and
Mizrachi 2009).
There is some congruence between urban planners and educational planners on
the challenges for cities and for schooling in the twenty-first century, as illustrated
in Table 1. However, the lack of dialogue between the two domains, in Victoria at
least, has powerful institutional underpinnings. The Planning and Environment Act
1987 makes provision to exempt state government educational facilities from local
planning schemes, through a section (s16) which “provides essentially unlimited
scope to bypass the normal requirements of the Act” (Rowley 2017, p. 141,
Victorian Government 1988). The non-government school sector is not covered by
the exemption, giving rise to the curious situation where the (exempt) state
education authority publishes “town planning guidelines” for non-government
schools (Department of Education and Early Childhood Development 2008). These
jurisdictional barriers are reinforced by the different registers or objects of
planning: the individual student for the state, spatial precincts for local authorities.
The Neighbourhood Renewal policy introduced by the Victorian Labor government
in 2001 (Klein 2004), which included a focus on school regeneration and involved
dialogue between the state departments of education and planning, along with
initiatives of the Growth Areas Authority (later the Metropolitan Planning
Authority) in precinct-level planning, have gone some way to overcoming these
barriers.
The novelty of these moves was acknowledged by a senior local government
official, commenting on a project to integrate educational and spatial planning in
an urban renewal context:
[It was] really valuable to have Education along with some other
government departments sitting at the table…some of them acknowledged
that they’d never done that before, they didn’t sit around and plan
geographically...it was a time of enlightenment (local government official,
2013).
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However, a recent policy emphasis on shared or extended use of school facilities
has more typically steered conversations across state and local jurisdictions in
Victoria (Department of Education and Early Childhood Development (DEECD) and
Department of Planning and Community Development (DPCD) 2007, Department
of Employment and Training (DET) 2005). Notwithstanding the virtues of more
efficiently using school infrastructure, this policy privileges functional and service
relationships occurring behind the school fence, rather than integrating schools
with urban planning. In such a policy setting, local planning may be reactive,
concerned with adjustments to state-level decisions. In particular, a recent return
to devolved or school-based decision-making (DEECD 2011) typifies policy valency
in this field:
Education’s approach in terms of wanting to open up the schools, changing
the learning paradigm, making the grounds accessible and the facilities
accessible after hours was pretty consistent in terms of our planning but at
the time when this started in the early 2000s, up till then we had to deal
with individual principals, and they could change. You might get a principal
that said “yep, let’s bring down the fences’ and the next principal says ‘let’s
put the fences up...We [don’t] want to go back to a situation of dealing with
individual principals (local government official, 2013).
This real and figurative concern with the school fence suggests the continued
resonance of the ‘community within a community’ ideal, reinforced, indeed, by
frequent reference to the “school community” in government policy and schoolbased communications (DEECD 2011). The urban school construct advanced in
this article seeks to move beyond this normative sociology of schools to focus on
the planning and pedagogical relationship between schools and cities.
Urban Planning:
Challenges for Twenty First Century
Cities
economy (work and wealth)
society (social cohesion)
shelter (housing for all)
environment (stable
ecosystem)
● access (resource-conserving
mobility)
● liveability (quality of life)
● democracy (voice and
participation).
●
●
●
●
Source: Hall and Pfeiffer (2000)
Table 1
Educational Planning:
Principles for Twenty First
Century Schools
● lifelong learning
● community building and social
cohesion
● ecological sustainability
● resource sharing and adaptive
re-use
● digital connection.
Source: Learning By Design et al.
(2010)
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Setting the Scene: Melbourne as a Growth City
Melbourne provides an instructive Australian setting for this discussion.
Metropolitan Melbourne grew faster than any other Australian city in the first
decade of the twenty-first century, and is projected to overtake Sydney as
Australia’s largest city by mid-century (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2012).
Recent growth has been fastest in inner Melbourne and the outer urban growth
areas, with earlier planning visions for infill growth around suburban activity
centres faltering.
In the space of two decades the tenor of Melbourne’s planning narrative has
changed dramatically. Where concerns were voiced about depopulation and
underutilized infrastructure in the Victorian government’s 1987 document
Shaping Melbourne’s Future (Ministry of Planning and Environment 1987),
attention is now on the diminishing capacity of current infrastructure and policy
options for future provision (Victorian Government 2014, City of Melbourne 2014).
The population of inner Melbourne, defined here as the five central Melbourne
local government authorities, is projected to increase by 2.4% each year between
2011 and 2031, outstripping the state average of 1.7% (Department of Transport,
Planning and Local Infrastructure [DTPLI] 2014 ). In 2013, the population of inner
Melbourne is projected to reach 718,600 with the addition of 268,100 people over
the previous twenty years pushing population density up from 3350 per sq.km to
5344 per sq.km (ABS 2011 , DTPLI 2014 ).
There is no agreement on whether the expansion of high-rise housing provision in
inner Melbourne will attract families with young children, creating demand for the
first stages of educational provision. Birrell and Healy (2013) point to limitations
in the supply pipeline (dominated by small one and two bedroom dwellings),
whereas the City of Melbourne (2014, p. 35) argues that investment in new inner
urban schools may change the profile of housing demand. These projections have
generated significant publicity and media commentary in relation to school
provision (Cook 2016, Topsfield 2014).
Around half of Melbourne’s housing growth over the past decade has occurred in
the outer urban growth areas, and an estimated 610,000 dwellings will be
constructed in these areas by 2051 (Victorian Government 2014, p. 62). Concern
has been expressed about a mismatch of physical planning and social planning, or
the advance of developer-driven estate housing over the provision of social
infrastructure and social programs in these areas (Growth Areas Planning Tool
Reference Group 2014). There has been significant lobbying by outer urban LGAs
and media publicity around existing educational provision and future school
demand on Melbourne’s fringe (Forrest 2015).
It is also projected that 650,000 new dwellings will be constructed in established
middle-ring suburbs by 2051 – around 8% more than in outer Melbourne and
double the inner city projections (Victorian Government 2014, p. 62). There has
been vocal public debate over schools, particularly high schools, in middle-ring
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suburbs, following school closures and subsequent local demographic change
(Davies 2010). Here debates focus on the regeneration or reopening of schools,
rather than initial provision.
Some Policy Challenges for Urban Schools
Educational planning and urban planning are future oriented. Schools have been
famously defined as “four walls surrounding the future” (Barth 1990, p. 158),
invoking a particular socio-spatial setting. Urban planning has been
characteristically concerned with the spatial organization of future growth. Recent
planning literature asks critical questions about the growth dependence of liberal
market economies (Rydin 2013). A more precise framing of our interest here,
though, is the growth dynamics of cities and how educational planning authorities
and schools engage with the changing urban contexts in which they operate.
Working broadly off the challenges and principles enumerated in the table above,
the following section discusses some key policy issues for urban schools, with
particular reference to Melbourne.
Managing the Educational Demand Cycle
Land scarcity and associated revenue constraints have emerged as significant
problems for the Victorian state department of education, only two decades after a
round of school closures in inner Melbourne. At the time of writing, the
department is seeking to acquire or re-purpose up to ten sites for schooling in
inner Melbourne. The department has the third largest land portfolio of Victorian
government instrumentalities, with estimated holdings of 2,363 hectares in 2011
(Victorian Environment Assessment Council (VEAC) 2011, p. 65). The portfolio is
subject to a whole-of-government public land policy administered by the Victorian
Department of Treasury and Finance (DTF), which requires departments and
agencies to dispose of land that “no longer contributes to current or future service
delivery needs” (DTF 2015).
Under this policy, land sales are intended to free up capital for social infrastructure
projects such as “schools, hospitals and public transport” (DTF 2015). The policy
sets down processes and criteria for identifying surplus public land, and sets
annual revenue targets from its sale. Setting aside DTF’s conflicted position in both
setting policy and performance targets, and conducting sales, VEAC (2011, p. 56)
observes that DTF’s criteria for assessing public land values do not specifically
canvass the future impact of urban densification. Incorporating this perspective
would, in economic terms, involve placing greater weight on the option value of
public land – that is, the value placed on preserving options for the future use of
the land – than on realizing its current market value.
Education authorities, like other public land managers, need to weigh up the
opportunity cost of retaining underutilised or unsuitable land assets. However,
does the current system prioritise disposal and distort decision-making in the
absence of alternative policy mechanisms? Troy (1996) has been one of the few
Australian voices arguing for policy settings, design input and institutional
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experimentation to manage educational demand cycles. At a conceptual level, the
close coupling of education with compulsory-years schooling (rather than, for
example, locating schooling on a spectrum of life-long learning) limits the planning
imagination. There is a modest international literature on the re-use of urban land
(for example Greenstein and Sungu-Eryilmaz 2004) and on the adaptive re-use of
schools (for example Fox et al. 2012), but there is little published research
specifically addressing the merits of disposing or retaining educational sites. A key
research question here is the whether the sale of high-value educational land,
where that land is used for housing developments, contributes to the privatisation
of education, through the contraction of local educational choice and the
preferences of the new high income households.
Coordinating education, transport and housing policy
A series of Melbourne planning strategies has advocated business, public service
and housing development around suburban transport and commercial hubs
(Victorian Government 2008, Victorian Government 2002). Policy objectives
include containing urban growth, reducing car dependency, developing vibrant
and equitable urban precincts, and reducing the infrastructural, social and
environmental costs of urban sprawl. Recent Victorian government discussion
papers have confirmed this policy direction through a planning vernacular of
transport-oriented development (TOD), twenty-minute neighbourhoods and
walkability (Victorian Government 2015, Victorian Government 2014).
The failure of earlier plans to implement this vision has been attributed to
deficiencies in their original conception (Mees 2011), unprecedented population
growth (Victorian Government 2014), and the eclipse of spatial planning by major
infrastructure developments as the strategic basis for Australian metropolitan
development (Dodson 2009).
There has been little specific attention to the relationship between schools and
TOD, in Australia or internationally (Bierbaum, Vincent and McKoy 2010). Working
within a new urbanist framework, Reid (2011) has gestured to TOD principles in
proposing the concept of school-oriented development (SOD). In this setting, Reid
advocates institutional co-location with different stages of schooling (for example,
community services or aged care facilities with primary schools; employment and
cultural precincts and secondary schools).
The centrality of transport and housing to the TOD development model is
significant for schools. Historical data show a steep increase in the use of private
vehicles for school transport in Melbourne in the late twentieth century, with an
associated decline in ‘active’ transport such as walking or cycling by students
(Curtis, Babb and Olaru 2015). Imaginative strategies such as walking school buses
have emerged in response to concerns over childhood obesity, neighbourhood
walkability and safety. TOD principles, though, have particular relevance for the
siting of secondary schools, as secondary schools are located at regional rather
than neighbourhood scale, and secondary students generally travel further and
more independently than primary students. An efficient and safe public transport
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system may foster school networks, curriculum choice and student mix by
facilitating coordinated subject offerings across schools. Victorian data also show
there is greater community use of secondary school facilities outside class time
than their primary counterparts (Victorian Competition and Efficiency Commission
2009). Good public transport and well-sited secondary schools may encourage
such use, while minimising car dependency.
Housing affordability impacts on educational provision by influencing the housing
choices of the educational workforce and the social mix of student populations.
The Australian policy literature pays some attention to the influence of social
infrastructure provision on social mix (for example, Growth Management
Queensland, 2010). The US literature goes further, with Bierbaum, Vincent and
McKoy (2010) urging that new urban developments based on TOD or compact city
principles specifically engage with questions of housing affordability, to address
problems related to attracting and retaining modestly remunerated teaching staff
and with diversifying the social mix of school populations. The housing choices of
key public sector workers (including teachers) have come under recent scrutiny in
Australia’s major cities (City of Sydney 2014, City of Melbourne 2014, Williams and
Finney 2013). Australian state education authorities offer housing services and
subsidies for teachers in regional and remote regions. Is there a case for extending
this system to urban settings?
With regard to the social mix of school populations, Melbourne’s outer urban
councils have expressed concern about the lack of household and generational
diversity in new growth areas, driven by the spatial patterns of affordable housing
(Growth Areas Social Planning Tool Reference Group 2014). However, the
stratification of school populations, along class and cultural lines, is evident across
Australian metropolitan regions, and encouraged by school choice policies.
Without holding up local schools up as paragons of everyday multiculturalism (the
school experience of some minority students has surely been oppressive), Ho
(2015, n.p.) makes a powerful point in arguing that student segregation entails
“the loss of opportunities to experience the realities of cosmopolitan Australian
society and a globalised world”.
The social mix of schools is an “enduring problem” (Thrupp 2006) in educational
research, policy and practice, and fully exploring its complexities is beyond the
scope of this paper (for further discussion see Posey-Maddox et al. 2014, Camina &
Iannone 2013, West 2006). However, the positive correlation between levels of
social equity and educational achievement (OECD 2013b) indicates that it is a
salient issue for twenty-first century planners.
Urban Environmental Sustainability
Climate change is one of the key challenges to urban sustainability in the twenty
first century. Recent Melbourne-based research under the banner of the Smart
Green Schools (SGS) project has given us a better understanding of relationships
between space, pedagogy and environmental sustainability through the construct
of “effective green learning environments” (Hes 2013). Such research is finding its
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way into specifications for the design and construction of new schools, along with
the environmental objectives of whole-of-government procurement policies. For
example, the Victorian government’s specifications for new schools constructed
under public-private partnership (PPP) arrangements (now the preferred
procurement mode for Victorian government school facilities) includes ecological
sustainability and responsibility as a project objective, to be realized through a
range of design and management strategies (DEECD 2009). State educational
jurisdictions have indicated an interest in formally benchmarking school
environmental performance against international standards such as ISO 14001 Environmental Management Systems (Queensland Sustainable Schools 2015). The
detailed specification of environmental performance criteria and reporting
mechanisms in Victorian PPP contracts provides a good opportunity to gather
further data on the environmental impact of schools, and inform future policy in
this area.
The PPP contract’s attention to the resource consumption of school facilities is one
side of the environmental ledger. The flipside is the contribution that schools can
make as environmental assets. As Hes (2013:169) comments
[a] sustainable school is one that adds energy to the electricity grid, collects
more water than it needs, is an effective and healthy learning space for its
teachers and students, and is a learning tool.
Indeed, there are some notable examples of schools taking direct action on humaninduced climate change, such as South Fremantle Senior High School achieving an
Australia-first status as a carbon-neutral school (South Fremantle Senior High
School 2015).
Looking beyond the school fence, local environmental partnerships are an
important interface between schools, LGAs and communities. SGS’ concept of the
school site as a learning tool is usefully extended to encompass the local ecoregion. Formal programs sponsoring environmental partnerships include the
Australian Sustainable Schools Initiative (Australian Government Department of
the Environment 2015), and more local initiatives, such as that administered by
the Local Government Association of South Australia (2015). This record of
cooperation bodes well for future demands on schools around environmental
sustainability, and for their participation in measures for climate change mitigation
and adaptation. With intensifying urban development, and added demand on
environmental resources, there is likely to be increasing pressure on schools to act
as good environmental citizens. In this scenario, school environmental policies and
practices may become increasingly formalized and accountable, and also
harmonized with other local institutions. There is growing policy interest amongst
local jurisdictions – in Australia and internationally – in issues of climate change
and community resilience, for planning and pragmatic reasons (local authorities
are significant actors in emergency recovery). Urban governments are playing an
increasingly important and evolving role in what is now broadly conceptualized as
climate change governance (McGuirk, Dowling and Bulkeley 2014). The extent to
which the educational role and institutional assets of schools (for example, using
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their physical assets for shelter, or using their communication assets) contribute to
climate change governance is an area that would benefit from further empirical
investigation and policy development.
Connecting schools with urban digital networks
In recent years, Australian schools, like cities, have been transformed by
broadband and wireless communication technologies. Broad-scale technological
developments (for example, devices such as notebook computers and mobile
phones), digital infrastructure investment such as the Victorian government’s
VicSmart fibre network connecting all Victorian schools, and specific policies such
as the Digital Education Revolution program’s provision of wi-fi enabled notebooks
(Commonwealth of Australia 2009), have transformed teaching, learning and
classroom design.
Beyond the school fence, Australia is seeing escalating local government
investment in public wi-fi networks and low power wide area networks supporting
the ‘internet of things’ as basic forms of urban infrastructure. The increasing use of
wireless connectivity and the internet across domains of governance, education,
leisure and commerce is also placing pressure on public institutions to provide
internet access as part of their core business. Libraries, of course, have long been
active in this area, and more than 70% of Australian local public libraries provide
free public wi-fi (Australian Library and Information Association (ALIA) 2013).
However, the hopes of internet scholars such as Benkler (2002) for schools to be
nodes in local public networks have failed to emerge – in part due to risk-averse
policy settings in the education sector. Ironically, as the school fences go down, and
boundaries between schools and their surrounding communities become more
porous, perceived online risks have raised new electronic barriers. For example,
while all public library users share physical space, in Australia’s increasing number
of shared school-public libraries, different internet access protocols between
public library and education systems have typically led to the deployment of
separate networks, or to school-driven restrictions on public library networks
(ALIA 2013).
As the social and economic implications of digital disadvantage are increasingly
apparent, we are seeing advocacy to expand “extended school” programs to
encompass digital literacy skills through “dual-generational” learning (The Smith
Family 2010). However valuable such programs may be, the contradictions
between opening up the school for such purposes, and school-driven restrictions
on a public internet resource (in dual libraries) suggests that integrated planning
at a conceptual and practical level in this field has some way to go. Lowering the
electronic fences of schools and sharing resources can make important
contributions to community ICT access and capability. With internet penetration
increasing across the globe, recent scholarship questions the validity of a binary
‘digital divide’ separating those with access and those without. In addition to
differences in internet skills, the sustainability of internet connections has
emerged as a significant problem for low-income groups. Gonzales (2015) draws
on technology maintenance theory to describe the practices and strategies that
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many people with low incomes engage in to negotiate temporary service
disconnections, broken hardware and public network access limitations. Schools
can play an important role in digital access and sustainability through boosting
network resources, leveraging partnerships to acquire and share high-value
equipment such as 3D printers, and using their teaching resources to enhance
community ICT knowledge.
Extending mobile wireless connectivity may also facilitate learning and student
engagement with urban environments. Students have been largely missing from
the discussion to this point, underscoring the point that policy is customarily done
to students, rather than done with them (Ball, Maguire and Braun 2012). There are
good examples of how to involve students in urban research and urban
governance, such as the Y-Plan program directed by the University of California’s
Center for Cities and Schools (2015). The location of schools in urban
environments presents considerable learning opportunities to integrate the city as
a text in curricula. The rapid uptake of mobile internet-enabled devices and
increasingly ubiquitous access to public wi-fi enhances the viability of such
initiatives.
Conclusion
International research suggests that demographic change and intensification of
established urban areas is making decision-making about the provision and use of
school facilities increasingly complex and contested (Hyra 2014). Recent Victorian
education policy has prioritised a strategy of opening up schools for extended or
shared use. The numerical dominance of primary schools, and a policy focus on
early childhood (reflected in the 2006 transformation of the Department of
Education and Training to the Department of Education and Early Childhood
Development) has influenced the spatial and institutional coordinates of this
policy. The ‘community hub’ rhetoric is operationalized in several ways, as a locus
for building parent-school partnerships, through to the use of school sites to colocate early childhood facilities and community services. This in turn has involved
complex cross-jurisdictional and cross-portfolio negotiations (local authorities, in
association with state health and human service departments, have traditionally
oversighted the early childhood sphere), with issues such as risk, resourcing and
service coordination at front of mind.
Critical analysts have labelled the extension of state education department
interests in early childhood and community services a process of
“educationalisation” (Smeyers and Depaepe 2009). This seems a harsh assessment,
given the well-documented benefits of good policy design and investment in early
years settings.
However, in Victoria, we see glimpses of the ‘urbanisation’ of education. Discussion
of urban schooling has emanated from the Victorian government planning
authorities, rather than the state department of education. The current challenge
to build schools to cater for Melbourne’s educational demand, though, is being
approached from a Treasury-driven procurement perspective, through the use of
14
PPP vehicle. While this policy encourages innovation in school design and delivery,
some wider structural issues sketched out in this article receive little attention.
This article has sought to encourage a conversation between planning and learning
by identifying four challenges for the provision of schools and schooling in the
context of urban growth and intensification. However, in reframing the concept of
an urban school, we reinforce that concept’s original concern with educational
disadvantage and its association with uneven patterns of urban development.
Urban schooling, as we have outlined it in this paper, requires the sustained
engagement with the surrounding community and urban region. We argue that
school provision in inner city areas experiencing demographic change brings
particular challenges and may require experimental approaches with physical
settings and institutional links. Such an approach would be consistent with the
long tradition of innovation in teaching, curricula and learning technologies.
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