Exp Astron (2005) 20:131–137 DOI 10.1007/s10686-006-9072-z ORIGINAL ARTICLE Development of the HEFT and NuSTAR focusing telescopes Fiona A. Harrison · Finn E. Christensen · William Craig · Charles Hailey · Wayne Baumgartner · C. M. H. Chen · James Chonko · W. Rick Cook · Jason Koglin · Kristin-Kruse Madsen · Michael Pivavoroff · Steven Boggs · David Smith Received: 5 July 2006 / Accepted: 17 August 2006
C Springer Science + Business Media B.V. 2006 Abstract Hard X-ray/soft gamma-ray astrophysics is on the verge of a major advance with the practical realization of technologies capable of efficiently focusing X-rays above 10 keV. Hard X-ray focusing telescopes can achieve orders of magnitude improvements in sensitivity compared to the instruments based on coded apertures and collimated detectors that have traditionally been employed in this energy band. Compact focal planes enable high-performance detectors with good spectral resolution to be employed in efficient, low-background configurations. We have developed multilayer coated grazing incidence optics and solid state Cadmium Zinc Telluride focal plane systems for the High Energy Focusing Telescope (HEFT) balloon-borne experiment, and for the Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope Array (NuSTAR) Small Explorer satellite. In this paper we describe the technologies, telescope designs, and performance of both experiments. Keywords X-ray telescopes . X-ray optics . X-ray detectors F. A. Harrison (
) · W. Baumgartner · C. M. H. Chen · W. R. Cook Space Radiation Laboratory, California Institute of Technology F. E. Christensen · K.-K. Madsen Danish National Space Centre W. Craig · J. Chonko · M. Pivavoroff Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory C. Hailey · J. Koglin Columbia Astrophysics Laboratory, Columbia University S. Boggs University of California, Berkeley D. Smith University of California, Santa Cruz Springer 132 Exp Astron (2005) 20:131–137 1 Introduction The last decade has seen a major technological advance in hard X-ray/soft gamma-ray astronomy – the ability to focus efficiently – creating the potential for instruments that improve spatial and spectral resolution by more than two orders of magnitude at energies above 10 keV. Extending grazing incidence telescopes to operate efficiently in the hard X-ray band requires shallow graze-angle optics and position sensitive detectors with high quantum efficiency from 10–100 keV. Incorporating these technologies into astrophysical instruments results in greatly enhanced signal to background ratios compared to coded aperture imagers. Several research groups have developed focusing hard X-ray systems over the last ten years, and three balloon experiments have been constructed incorporating them. The InFOCuS experiment [4] extends the segmented aluminum foil mirror technology developed for Astro-E2 to 40 keV utilizing an optic coated with Pt/C depth graded multilayers. The InFOCuS focal plane consists of a CdZnTe detector with a 12 × 12 array of 2-mm pixels. The telescope achieves angular resolution of 2.2′ (HPD) and spectral resolution of 4 keV at 32 keV, and has flown twice, in 2001 and 2004. The HERO experiment [5] uses shallow graze-angle iridium-coated replicated nickel optics and xenon gas scintillation proportional counters to achieve 45′′ (HPD) angular resolution and 1.5 keV (FWHM) energy resultion at 30 keV. HERO flew in 2001 with a small complement of shells, and in Spring 2005 with three telescope modules. In this paper, we describe the High Energy Focusing Telescope (HEFT) balloon payload, as well as the Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope Array (NuSTAR) Small Explorer mission. Both of these experiments are based on multilayer-coated formed glass segmented optics and CdZnTe pixel detectors. HEFT flew once in Spring 2005 with a complement of three telescopes, demonstrating angular resolution of 1.5′ (HPD) and with spectral resolution of 1 keV (FWHM) at 60 keV. Results from the flight are being published elsewhere. NuSTAR employs demonstrated improvements to the optics to achieve 40′′ (HPD) angular resolution in a high throughput three-module telescope array. In this paper we describe the optics and detector technologies, and the HEFT and NuSTAR experiment designs and performance. 2 Depth graded multilayer optics For HEFT and NuSTAR we developed depth-graded multilayer coated mirrors in a conical approximation to the Wolter I geometry. The optics are based on formed glass; each shell (full figure of revolution) is assembled from multiple segments [3]. Each segment is thermally formed from a glass sheet, and is coated using a planar magnetron sputtering system developed at the Danish National Space Centre for these programs [2]. The mirrors are assembled layer by layer using graphite spacers epoxied to the glass then machined to accomodate the next layer [1]. Figure 1 shows the assembled HEFT flight optics. The angular resolution achieved using this method is currently dictated by the substrate quality, and depends on the segment size as well as the degree to which substrates are preselected based on figure. The HEFT optics achieved 1.5′ HPD with no selection and 20 segments per shell. Several prototype optics have demonstrated that we can achieve 40′′ HPD with 32 segments/shell and 50% preselection on glass segments. Springer Exp Astron (2005) 20:131–137 133 Fig. 1 Photo of the three HEFT flight optics. Each unit is fabricated from formed, multilayer-coated glass Fig. 2 Photo showing a HEFT focal plane detector system. Two CdZnTe/ASIC hybrid pixel sensors are mounted side-by-side 3 Cadmium zinc telluride pixel detectors We employ CdZnTe pixel detectors for the HEFT and NuSTAR focal planes. A focal plane is comprised of two hybrid sensors (see Figure 2). An individual sensor consists of a 1.2 × 2.4× cm, 2 mm thick CdZnTe crystal, with the anode contact segmented into pixels with 500 µm pitch. Gold stud/epoxy interconnects couple the sensor pixel contacts to a custom low-noise readout chip. The ASIC, designed at Caltech for HEFT, contains one circuit for each pixel, laid out on a grid exactly matching the detector pixel array. The state of the art design achieves excellent imaging and spectral performance, as well as the ability to measure the interaction depth of the event in the detector. Figure 3 shows an 241 Am spectrum from 100 pixels summed together (somewhat larger than, but not atypical of the number to be included in a point source reconstruction) taken at −5◦ C. The spectrum includes all detected X-ray events, including those where charge is shared among multiple Springer 134 Exp Astron (2005) 20:131–137 Fig. 3 Spectrum of an 241Am source illuminating 100 pixels of the HEFT detector. All events, including those where charge is split among multiple pixels, are included. For comparison, the blue line shows the same spectrum convolved through the response of an NaI detector pixels. The FWHM of the 60 keV line is 900 eV, and of the 14 keV line is 800 eV (FWHM). The depth sensing ability, enabled by the ASIC design, allows events occuring in the back portion of the detector to be rejected as background, resulting in a factor 2–3 additional background rejection. 4 HEFT design and performance HEFT is a balloon payload developed by a collaboration among Caltech, Columbia, the Danish National Space Center (DNSC), Lawrence Livermore National Laboratories (LLNL) and Stanford University. Figure 4 shows a photo of the HEFT payload, indicating the major components. The telescope contains three co-aligned conical-approximation Wolter I mirror assemblies, each of which focuses hard X-rays/soft gamma-rays onto a shielded, solid-state Cadmium Zinc Telluride (CdZnTe) focal plane. The focal plane modules are housed inside a kevlar pressure vessel. The instrument focal length is 6 m. Table 1 provides an overview of the performance characteristics and instrument parameters. Each of the three optics has 70 shells, with shell radii ranging from 4–12 cm. The reflectors are coated with W/Si multilayers, which provide good reflectance up to the W K-edge at 69.5 keV. The lower energy limit is determined by atmospheric attenuation at balloon altitudes. The total instrument collecting area on-axis is 100 cm2 at 30 keV, not accounting for atmospheric attenuation. Each detector is surrounded by a Pb/Sn/Cu graded −Z passive well housed inside a 2-cm thick plastic scintillator. This arrangement attenuates cosmic and atmospheric backgrounds, and vetos charged particles that create local background in the passive shield. While not as effective as an alkali halide shield (NaI or CsI), this configuration provides a cost-effective approach to reducing detector background. Springer Exp Astron (2005) 20:131–137 135 Table 1 Instrument performance characteristics and configuration. Sensitivity is listed for 3σ threshold, 20 ksec integration (corresponding to two source transits) Instrument performance characteristics Energy range Angular resolution (HPD) FOV (20 keV) Sensitivity (mCrab) Line sensitivity (γ /cm2 /s) Energy Resolution (fwhm) Effective area (3.5 g/cm−2 ) Aspect reconstruction (rms) Pointing stability (rms) Time resolution 20–70 keV 1.5′ 17′ 2 (20 - 60 keV) 2 ×10−5 (68 keV) 980 eV (68 keV) 50 cm2 (40 keV) 6′′ 30′′ 1 m sec Instrument parameters Num. modules Focal Length Optics Mirror substrates Multilayer Detector Shielding Envelope Weight Power 3 6m Conical Wolter-I Formed glass W/Si 2 mm thick CdZnTe Graded-Z/plastic 6.5 m × 1.25 m diam. 1854 kg 400 Watts Fig. 4 Photograph of the HEFT payload indicating the major components of the experiment HEFT was launched on May 18, 2005 from Ft. Sumner, NM. During this flight we used observations of three bright point sources; the Crab, Cygnus X-1, and GRS +1915 to verify the instrument pointing stability, imaging, and throughput. Results from this flight are being published elsewhere. 5 NuSTAR design The NuSTAR Small Explorer satellite is based on the technologies developed for the HEFT experiment, combined with an extendible optical bench developed by ABLE Engineering and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory for the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission. NuSTAR was selected for a Phase A study in November, 2003 as one of four missions to compete for two launch opportunities. In January 2005 NuSTAR was selected for a launch date of February 2009, and was placed into an extended technical development phase. NuSTAR consists of three co-aligned telescope modules with a 10-m focal length. The optics and detectors are placed at either end of an extendible mast. For launch the mast is stowed inside a canister, and the entire payload fits inside a Pegasus XL shroud. NuSTAR Springer 136 Exp Astron (2005) 20:131–137 Fig. 5 The NuSTAR payload, with each end shown separately will be placed into an Equatorial circular 550 km orbit. Figure 5 shows a view of the two ends of the NuSTAR payload after deployment. The bench housing the three optics modules is extended outward from the spacecraft end, which houses the three focal plane modules. The optics consist of 130 shells each, with radii ranging from 5.5 to 16.9 cm. The shells are coated with a combination of W/SiC and Pt/SiC multilayers, with the coating dependent on the shell graze angle. This, combined with the relatively low graze angles, provides reflectance with a smooth response extending to 80 keV. NuSTAR will utilize smaller glass segments (32 per shell) compared to HEFT, and in addition the substrates will be preselected for figure quality. We have demonstrated through several prototypes that by accepting the best 50% of the glass segments, NuSTAR will achieve angular resolution (HPD) of 40′′ . The NuSTAR focal plane detectors have the same dimensions as the HEFT focal planes, but they are surrounded by an active CsI shield rather than the graded-Z/plastic shield used on HEFT. This, combined with the depth-sensing capability of the detectors, reduces the internal detector background to very low levels (<10−4 cts cm−1 , s−1 from 10–80 keV). In addition to the active well-shaped shield, an aperture stop consisting of rings of graded-Z material reduces diffuse cosmic background. The aperture stop deploys simultaneously with the mast after launch. 6 NuSTAR performance Table 2 summarizes the NuSTAR performance. Compared to coded aperture instruments that have operated in the same band, NuSTAR achieves more than two orders of magnitude improvement in continuum flux sensitivity. The excellent energy resolution of the detectors will allow measurement of velocity shifts in the 44 Ti lines at 68 and 78 keV of ±1000 km s−1 . Using the combination of sensitivity, spectral and spatial resolution, NuSTAR will be able to undertake investigations not previously possible in the hard X-ray band. In extragalactic survey fields NuSTAR can resolve 50% of the hard X-ray background at 30 keV, and will Springer Exp Astron (2005) 20:131–137 Table 2 NuSTAR instrument performance. 137 Energy range Angular resolution (HPD) FOV Source positions Spectral resolution Timing resolution Line sensitivity (106 s, 68 keV) Continuum sensitivity (106 s, 3σ , E/E) = 0.5 Background in HPD/module (40 keV) Effective area (20 keV) ToO response 6–80 keV 40′′ 8.4 × 8.4′ 5′′ 900 eV 68 keV 0.1 ms 10−7 ph/cm2 /s 0.7 µCrab (20 keV) 6 µCrab (60 keV) 1.1 × 10−5 cts/s/keV 500 cm2 <24 h detect several hundred obscured AGN in its 2 square degree survey fields. NuSTAR can also spatially resolve the 44 Ti line in Cas A, mapping the line doppler shifts with 1000 km s−1 resolution in 40′′ spatial bins. In surveys of the Galactic center region, NuSTAR can resolve the hard source populations discovered by Integral and XMM, and study the distribution in latitude of any truly diffuse component. 7 Summary The HEFT balloon experiment has demonstrated hard X-ray focusing optics and solid state pixel detectors by imaging cosmic sources in this band. These observations have fully verified the expected throughput, resolution, and sensitivity of the HEFT instrument. NuSTAR, which is based on the HEFT technologies, is ready to proceed to phase B, and will realize the potential of hard X-ray focusing in space. References 1. Hailey, C.J., Abdali, S., Christensen, F.E., Craig, W.W., Decker, T.R., Harrison, F.A., Jimenez-Garate, M.: EUV, X-Ray, and Gamma-Ray Instrumentation for Astronomy VIII. In: Siegmund O.H., Gummin M.A. (eds.), Proc. 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