The rocks for Emona.pdf

The stone used in construction and the manufacture of a range of products at Emona, as in other towns and cities across the Empire, was mainly supplied from local and regional sources, only in rare cases from distant ones. The rock used in the construction of the colony was quarried on the southern slopes of Grajski grič, with the main quarry presumably located behind the church of St Florian. Also from the beginning of the construction, Lower Jurassic limestone was quarried at Podpeč, probably at Podutik as well. There was also Neogene limestone, which came from a number of sources in the vicinity of Moravče and was probably only used later, in the 3rd century. The limited use of Peračica Tuff for construction purposes could as yet not be determined chronologically, while the colourful Škofja Loka Conglomerate was used for architectural members in Late Antiquity. As for interregional rocks, the use of Cretaceous Aurisina limestone has been proven at least for the earliest period of the Roman colony and for the furnishings of the Severan (?) civil basilica, while white Eastern Alpine marbles were used in the period of the construction of the defensive walls of Emona (Gummern) and later for funerary monuments and architectural members (Pohorje). Mediterranean marbles have only been documented as floor and wall veneer.

URBANIZACIJA PROSTORA – NASTANEK MESTA URBANISATION OF SPACE – BEGINNING OF A TOWN 6 Uvodnik / Editorial Začetki Emone / The beginnings of Emona 9 Zaton predrimske naselbine na Tribuni. Razumevanje morebitne diskontinuitete poselitve med zadnjo fazo latenskega naselja in rimskim vojaškim taborom / The decline of the pre-Roman settlement at Tribuna. Deliberations on the possibility of settlement discontinuity between the final phase of the La Tène settlement and the Roman military camp Matjaž Novšak, Iris Bekljanov Zidanšek, Petra Vojaković 53 Obrežje Ljubljanice na Prulah (Ljubljana) v avgustejskem obdobju / The bank of the Ljubljanica at Prule (Ljubljana) in the Augustan period Tina Žerjal 71 Nekaj novih ugotovitev o poselitvi pod Grajskim gričem v Ljubljani: raziskave na Starem in Gornjem trgu v letih 2009–2011 / New insights into the settlement below Grajski grič in Ljubljana: results of the 2009–2011 investigations at Stari trg and Gornji trg Mateja Ravnik, Bernarda Županek Mesto in ljudje / The town and its inhabitants 91 Mesto kot stroj: analiza prostorske skladnje Emone / The town as a machine: space syntax analysis of Emona Dimitrij Mlekuž, Bernarda Županek 111 O začetkih poselitve Emone z vidika novčnih najdb / The beginnings of the settlement of Emona in light of the coin finds Alenka Miškec 121 Kamen Emone / The rocks for Emona Bojan Djurić, Igor Rižnar 145 Pometeno pod preprogo: zbir živalskih ostankov na pragu rimske kolonije Emone / Swept under the carpet: Animal remains on the doorstep of the Roman town of Emona (Slovenia) Borut Toškan 159 Živalski ostanki z arheološkega najdišča Emonska cesta (izkopavanja iz let 1988–89) / Animal remains from the Emonska cesta archaeological site (excavations in 1988–89) Mateja Kovač 173 Ljudje, ki tvorijo mesto / The people maketh the town Kaja Štemberger 185 Bronasta posodica z vložki iz emajla iz severnega emonskega grobišča / A bronze vessel with enamel inlay from the northern cemetery of Emona Tadeja Mulh Emonsko podeželje / Emona's countryside 201 Emonsko podeželje / Emona’s countryside Jana Horvat, Milan Sagadin 225 Antično ime za Ljubljanico / The ancient name(s) for the Ljubljanica River Marjeta Šašel Kos 235 Prvo odkritje rimskega grobišča na Igu / The first discovery of the Roman cemetery at Ig, Slovenia Lucija Grahek, Anja Ragolič 249 Meč s srebrno nožnico poznolatenske sheme z mednarodnega trga starin. Predhodna opažanja / Late La Tène style sword and its silver scabbard from the antiquities market. Preliminary notes Andrej Gaspari 6 Uvodnik Pričujoča publikacija zaokrožuje nadvse razgibano in dogodkov polno obdobje v letih 2014 in 2015, ki so bili posvečeni dvatisoči obletnici ustanovitve Emone (Colonia Iulia Emona), rimskodobne predhodnice današnje Ljubljane. Ideja o praznovanju je v začetku sprožila nekaj negativnih odzivov predvsem v strokovni javnosti, saj nam ni poznan vir, ki bi nedvoumno pričal o natančnejšem datumu nastanka kolonije. Pobudniki in organizatorji smo se tega zavedali, vendar smo menili, da vsi novopridobljeni arheološki dokazi zadnjih dveh desetletij podpirajo in upravičujejo izvedbo bogatega programa, ki ga povezuje okrogla obletnica. Ideja o praznovanju je doživela posebej široko podporo in razumevanje pri vodstvu Mestne občine Ljubljana, še zlasti njenem Oddelku za kulturo in Zavodu za turizem, ki ga je takrat vodila ga. Barbara Vajda in se ji ob tej priložnosti še prav posebej zahvaljujemo. Koordinacijo projekta je prevzel Oddelek za kulturo Mestne občine Ljubljana. Slednja je skozi programsko-finančna razpisa sofinancirala vrsto projektov s področja umetnosti in kulture ter turističnih prireditev, povezanih z arheološko in nesnovno dediščino antične Emone. V času praznovanja se je zvrstilo veliko različnih prireditev: razstav, literarnih dogodkov, gledaliških predstav, delavnic, izšlo je več knjig, Banka Slovenije je izdala spominski novec, Pošta Slovenije pa priložnostno razglednično dopisnico. V praznovanje mestne obletnice so se vključili ljubljanski vrtci in šole s številnimi prireditvami, ki so jih izvedli sami ali v sodelovanju z različnimi institucijami, ter Mestna knjižnica Ljubljana s pestrim programom predavanj in drugih dogodkov. Tik pred samo obletnico, in že z mislimi nanjo, so bili obnovljeni ljubljanski arheološki parki in vzpostavljena krožna »Pot po rimski Ljubljani«. V zadnjih dveh desetletjih so bile na emonskem pomeriju izvedene številne arheološke raziskave, tako na urbanih predelih mesta kot tudi v predmestjih in na grobiščih. Posebej je treba omeniti velika izkopavanja na Prulah, območju na južnih brežinah Grajskega griča. Poleg izjemno izpovednih prazgodovinskih ostalin sta bila delno raziskana tudi dva vojaška tabora, nastala tik pred izgradnjo obzidanega mesta na nasprotnem, levem bregu Ljubljanice. Poglavitne značilnosti poselitve na Prulah so predstavljene v uvodnem prispevku te publikacije, z nestrpnostjo pa pričakujemo monografsko obdelavo najdišča. Na koncu se najlepše zahvaljujemo vsem, ki so kakorkoli prispevali k uspešni izvedbi niza dogajanj z naslovom Emona MM. 7 Editorial This book represents the last chapter in the story unfolding in 2014 and 2015 that commemorated the bimillenary of the foundation of Emona (Colonia Iulia Emona), the Roman-period predecessor of the modern Ljubljana. It should be noted that the commemoration was not without initial reservations on the part of the scholars, given the fact that we do not have irrefutable evidence of the exact date of the said foundation. The initiators and organisers were well aware of this fact, but we also believed that the archaeological finds and findings made during the last two decades should be accompanied by a series of events dedicated to the Roman endeavour in the area and the anniversary associated with it. The idea of the anniversary commemoration was particularly well accepted and also wholeheartedly supported by the Municipality of Ljubljana, particularly its Department for Culture and the Tourism Institute, then headed by Barbara Vajda, whom we would especially like to thank on this occasion. The Department for Culture coordinated the commemoration activities. The Municipality of Ljubljana also organised two tenders to co-finance a series of programmes. These involved events on the common topic of the archaeological and immaterial heritage of the ancient Emona. The events and activities that took place during 2014 and 2015 consisted of exhibitions, literary events, theatrical performances, workshops and book publications, the Bank of Slovenia issued a commemorative coin and the Post of Slovenia issued a commemorative postcard. Commemoration activities also took place in the nurseries and schools across Ljubljana, organised either by themselves or in collaboration with different institutions. The City Library of Ljubljana organised a series of lectures and other events. Before the anniversary and with it in mind, the archaeological parks in Ljubljana were renovated and the circular ‘Roman trail of Ljubljana’ set up. The territory of Emona has witnessed numerous archaeological investigations over the last two decades, both in the urban areas, the suburbs and the adjacent cemeteries. Of particular importance are the extensive excavations at Prule, the area at the southern foot of Grajski grič. These revealed prehistoric habitation remains, but also two Roman camps put up just before the construction of the fortified colony of Emona on the opposite, left bank of the River Ljubljanica. The main features of the habitation traces at Prule are presented in the opening contribution of this publication, but we eagerly await a comprehensive publication of the site. Last but not least, we would sincerely like to thank all who contributed their knowledge, effort and time to successfully carry out the events that took place under the common title of Emona MM. Boris Vičič, Bernarda Županek 121 Kamen Emone he rocks for Emona Bojan Djurić, Igor Rižnar 122 Izvleček: Uporaba kamnin za potrebe gradnje in izdelavo Abstract: The stone used in construction and the manufacture of raznovrstnih spomenikov je v Emoni, enako kot v drugih a range of products at Emona, as in other towns and cities across mestih imperija, vezana predvsem na lokalne in regionalne the Empire, was mainly supplied from local and regional sources, vire in le v izjemnih primerih na oddaljene vire. Stavbni only in rare cases from distant ones. The rock used in the construc- kamen je bil lomljen na južnih pobočjih Grajskega griča, kjer tion of the colony was quarried on the southern slopes of Grajski je bil za cerkvijo sv. Florijana hipostaziran glavni emonski grič, with the main quarry presumably located behind the church kamnolom. Apnenec spodnjejurske starosti je bil že ob of St Florian. Also from the beginning of the construction, Lower začetku gradnje kolonije lomljen v Podpeči, verjetno tudi Jurassic limestone was quarried at Podpeč, probably at Podutik v Podutiku, medtem ko je bil neogenski apnenec kopan as well. There was also Neogene limestone, which came from a na nekaj mestih v okolici Moravč verjetno šele v 3. st. number of sources in the vicinity of Moravče and was probably only Skromnejša uporaba peračiškega tufa za gradbene namene used later, in the 3rd century. The limited use of Peračica Tuff for časovno še ni določljiva, verjetna poznoantična raba construction purposes could as yet not be determined chronolo- pisanega škofjeloškega konglomerata pa z nekaj fragmenti gically, while the colourful Škofja Loka Conglomerate was used for arhitektonskih členov dokazana. Raba nadregionalnih architectural members in Late Antiquity. As for interregional rocks, kamnin, predvsem krednega nabrežinskega apnenca, the use of Cretaceous Aurisina limestone has been proven at least je dokazana vsaj za najzgodnejše obdobje kolonije in for the earliest period of the Roman colony and for the furnishings opremo severske (?) civilne bazilike, medtem ko je bil beli of the Severan (?) civil basilica, while white Eastern Alpine marbles vzhodnoalpski marmor uporabljen že ob nastanku mestnega were used in the period of the construction of the defensive obzidja (Gummern) in pozneje za nagrobne spomenike in walls of Emona (Gummern) and later for funerary monuments and dele arhitekture (Pohorje). Mediteranski marmorji se pojavl- architectural members (Pohorje). Mediterranean marbles have only jajo samo v obliki talnih in stenskih obložnih plošč. been documented as floor and wall veneer. Ključne besede: kamnolomi, kremenov peščenjak, podpeški, Keywords: quarries, quartz sandstone, Podpeč limestone, Podutik podutiški in nabrežinski apnenci, peračiški tuf, škofjeloški limestone, Aurisina limestone, Peračica Tuff, Škofja Loka Conglo- konglomerat, vzhodnoalpski marmor, mediteranski marmorji merate, Eastern Alpine marbles, Mediterranean marbles Djurić, Rižnar 123 Sl. 1: Položaj kamnolomov Emone: 1-Ljubljana-Grajski grič, 2-Podutik, 3-Podpeč, 4-Moravče, 5-Škofja Loka-Kamnitnik, 6-Peračica (E. Lozić). Fig. 1: Locations of the quarries supplying Emona: 1-Ljubljana-Grajski grič, 2-Podutik, 3-Podpeč, 4-Moravče, 5-Škofja Loka-Kamnitnik, v6-Peračica (E. Lozić). O raznovrstnih kamninah in njihovi raznoliki rabi v rimski The long list of literature on Roman Emona (Colonia Iulia Emona) and Emoni (Colonia Iulia Emona) je bilo med dolgim ukvarjanjem its stone monuments, written at least from the times of Schönleben z mestom in njegovimi spomeniki, vsaj od Schönlebna (1674) and Valvasor (1689) onwards includes numerous passages (1674) in Valvasorja (1689) naprej, napisanega že zelo dealing with the different rocks and their varied use in the city. veliko, a vendar celovit in samo na to temo osredotočen A comprehensive overview focused on that part of the Roman pregled tega dela rimske ekonomije, proizvodnje in trgo- economy, however, has never been attempted. Neither does the vine doslej še ni bil napisan. Naš namen sicer ni na tem current state of research and knowledge allow us to give a compre- mestu ponuditi tak celovit pregled. Želimo samo pregledati hensive and detailed analysis of the rocks used in Emona and to tackle the associated questions of products and production process, * V besedilu sta za označevanje let uporabljani okrajšavi pr. kr. št. = pred krščanskim štetjem, oz. kr. št. = krščanskega štetja, ki je v zahodnem svetu najbolj razširjeno označevanje, ni pa edino. as well as trading and transport networks. This contribution merely aims to provide a homogeneous overview and an attempt at a critical 124 dosedanje védenje o tej temi, ga po možnosti kritično evaluation of the literature on that subject, as well as to add new ovrednotiti, mu dati bolj homogeno obliko in ga dopolniti z data and interpretations. možnimi novimi podatki oziroma razlagami. Nikakor namreč As far as the extraction and use of rocks is concerned, Emona še ni mogoče podati celovite in popolne analize vseh was no different than any other Roman city newly founded in areas kamnin, uporabljenih v Emoni, ki bi hkrati vključevala tudi without the previous experience of urban life and the ancient Medi- vprašanja proizvodnje, izdelkov in trgovskih ter transpor- terranean practice of using stone for constructional, architectural, tnih mrež, vezanih nanje. decorative, memorial and other purposes. For the first time in this Glede pridobivanja in rabe kamnin se Emona sicer v area, Rome brought with it the cultural need for products made of ničemer ni razlikovala od drugih novonastalih mest rimske stone and the associated range of skills and knowledge involved in države, postavljenih v okoljih, ki dotlej niso poznala ne the production cycle1 from the quarry to the finished product. urbane organiziranosti življenja ne stare mediteranske In its basic features, this cycle was always determined (only Impe- prakse rabe kamna za gradbene, arhitekturne, krasilne, rial projects differed to a certain extent) by the natural environment označevalne in druge namene. Z rimsko državo se je, prvič of a particular city, by which we mean the presence of suitable rocks v tem prostoru sploh, pojavila kulturna potreba po kamni- in the immediate vicinity and the transport routes between these tih proizvodih in vzporedno z njo celota znanj in tehnik, ki resources and the city. The quarries that supplied a city were located so sestavljali in oblikovali proizvodni cikel1 od pridobivanja so as to be as economically viable as possible. Those that provided kamna do končnih izdelkov. building material were for the most part opened in closest proxim- V bistvenih elementih so ta cikel vedno in povsod ity, while those that served the architectural and other needs for (izjeme so deloma le cesarski projekti) določale naravne dimension blocks were located as close as possible, in the distance danosti okolja, v katerem je bilo mesto zgrajeno – of up to 20 miles (fig. 1). The rocks lying beyond this 20-mile radius prisotnost ustreznih kamnin v neposredni bližini mesta were only used for special purposes or in special circumstances. oziroma ustrezna transportna povezanost mesta z viri The quarries and their products could thus supply only the city and kamnin. Kamnolomi, iz katerih se je mesto oskrbovalo, so its surroundings, but could also have served a region, a province bili v ekonomskem smislu v prostoru kar se da racionalno or even the Empire. On this basis, we distinguish between local, odpirani. Tisti, ki so zadovoljevali osnovne potrebe regional, provincial, interprovincial quarries and those that supplied mesta po gradbenem materialu, so bili večinoma odprti v the whole of the Empire. Inextricably related to this was the logistic njegovi neposredni bližini, tisti, ki so zadovoljevali ar- support and suitable transport routes, predominantly by water and hitektonske in druge potrebe po masivnih blokih, so bili only short distances by land. In terms of ownership, of which we prav tako odprti čim bliže mestu, običajno v oddaljenosti possess limited knowledge,2 quarries were either imperial, municipal do največ 20 milj (sl. 1). Onstran te meje se zdi, da so bili or private with different contractors. uporabljani le kamnolomi kamnin in izdelkov za posebne namene ali posebne okoliščine. Kamnolomi so s svojo LOCAL AND REGIONAL ROCKS / QUARRIES OF EMONA proizvodnjo lahko oskrbovali samo mesto in njegovo okolico ali pa so pokrivali mnogo širši prostor, ki je obse- Building material gal regijo, provinco, več provinc ali celoten imperij. Prav The city walls, infrastructure and individual buildings of Emona zato je po pomenu njihove proizvodnje mogoče ločevati were mainly constructed of the stone from the slopes of Grajski grič med krajevnimi, regionalnimi, provincialnimi, nadpro- (Castle Hill). There has, in fact, never been any doubt on that matter, vincialnimi in tistimi kamnolomi, ki so s svojimi izdelki as the general characteristics of the rock are so apparent that a pokrivali ves imperij. Neločljivo so bila s tem povezana more detailed petrographic verification was never required and never vprašanja logistike, ustrezne transportne, predvsem performed. The first detailed analyses of the building material were vodne, v notranjosti kopnega rečne in le na krajše only done in the final phase of the excavations on the NUK II site,3 razdalje kopne poti. V lastniškem smislu, kolikor lahko o These analyses have confirmed that the variously-sized rubble tem aspektu kamnolomov danes sploh govorimo,2 je šlo used in the constructions was predominantly Upper Palaeozoic or za imperialne, mestne in zasebne kamnolome z različnimi Upper Carboniferous quartz sandstone. The rubble includes pieces koncesionarji. where sandstone appears together with shale, which indicates the presence of shale layers in the quarry. The tectonisation observed on some of the sandstone pieces, e.g. several blocks with a small- 1 2 Gl. Mannoni, Giannichedda 1996. Hirt 2010; Russel 2013. 1 2 3 See Mannoni, Giannichedda 1996. Hirt 2010; Russel 2013. Rižnar 2010. Djurić, Rižnar 125 LOKALNE IN REGIONALNE KAMNINE / EMONSKI KAMNOLOMI scale fold, shows that only minor deformations are to be expected in the quarry, presumably at the contact between shale- and either sandstone or conglomerate. Also used in construction, albeit rarely Gradbeni kamen (less than 10%), was fine-grained conglomerate with up to 10mm, V Emoni uporabljan kamen za izgradnjo njenega obzidja, rarely 20mm large pebbles. The presence of such conglomerate infrastrukture in stavb je bil skoraj brez izjeme tisti, and the rough or poorly rounded shale pebbles in it, coupled with a ki so ga pridobivali v kamnolomu, odprtem na pobočju relatively high share of sandstone, positions the quarry in the upper Grajskega griča v Ljubljani. O tem ni pravzaprav nikoli bilo part of the so-called B-Level of Carboniferous clastites,4 i.e. in the nobenega dvoma, saj so splošne značilnosti kamnin tako Upper Carboniferous, which corresponds with the biostratigraphic očitne, da njihovo natančnejše petrografsko preverjanje determination.5 ni bilo ne potrebno ne izdelano. Prvi natančen strokovni The fact that sandstone was used to construct the walls together pregled gradbenega kamna je bil opravljen šele v okviru with conglomerate and shale, which is clearly visible in the exposed zadnje faze izkopavanj na lokaciji NUK II.3 Te analize parts of the city walls, and the fact that all varieties of clastites so potrdile, da gre pri gradbenem kamnu – večjih ali were used indiscriminately, although shale makes for much less manjših lomljencih – predvsem za kremenov peščenjak durable building material, lead us to infer that the lithological variety zgornjepaleozojske oziroma zgornjekarbonske starosti. observable in the walls directly reflects the shares of sandstone, Med gradniki zidov iz peščenjaka je bilo odkritih tudi nekaj conglomerate and shale in the quarry. The city walls, particularly kosov muljevca in gradnikov peščenjaka, ki se jih je držal sections of the outer face on its best preserved south part in Mirje, muljevec, kar kaže na to, da so v kamnolomu, od koder allow us to observe the changing shares of different stones of the izvira peščenjak, bile tudi plasti muljevca. Tektoniziranost same quarry, which may be related to the dynamics of supplying the nekaterih gradnikov iz peščenjaka, še posebej pa nekateri stone from different parts of the quarry. gradniki peščenjaka, v katerih je vidna guba, kažejo, da je v kamnolomu pričakovati le manjše deformacije, predvidoma zgolj ob stiku muljevca in peščenjaka ali konglomerata. V zidovih so prisotni tudi gradniki oziroma bloki kremenovega konglomerata, a jih je razmeroma malo, manj kot 10 odstotkov. Gre za drobnozrnati konglomerat, katerega prodniki so manjši od 10, izjemoma 20 milimetrov. Pojav razmeroma drobnozrnatega konglomerata, splak v konglomeratu (nezaobljenih ali slabo zaobljenih prodnikov muljevca v konglomeratu) in razmeroma velik delež peščenjaka uvršča nahajališče (kamnolom) v zgornji del tako Sl. 2: Grajski grič v Ljubljani z mestom domnevnega rimskega kamnoloma (E. Lozić). Pgled z zahoda. Fig. 2: Grajski grič in Ljubljana with the location of the presumed Roman quarry (E. Lozić). View from the west. imenovane “b etaže” karbonskih klastitov,4 torej v zgornji The layers of the hard, heavily cemented quartz sandstone, which karbon, kar se ujema z biostratigrafsko opredelitvijo.5 Ob upoštevanju, da so poleg peščenjaka uporabljeni v was very difficult to be worked, show numerous cracks and individual zidovih še konglomerat in drobnozrnati klastiti (glinovec, sandstone rubble from the quarry thus only measured up to 30cm meljevec in muljevec), kar lahko opazujemo tudi v vidnih across. The large, more regularly shaped and in part worked pieces delih mestnega obzidja, in da pri gradnji med opisanimi were mainly used for corner reinforcement, smaller ones made up the različki klastitov niso delali razlik, lahko sklepamo, da faces of the walls, while the small stones and chips were used for litološka raznolikost, ki jo vidimo v zidovih, neposredno the core of the walls constructed in the opus caementicium tech- odslikava sedimentološke razmere oziroma delež pešče- nique (the core also revealed cobbles and pebbles from the gravely njaka, konglomerata in drobnozrnatih klastitov v območju, basement into which the foundations were dug). This means that the od koder kamnina izvira. V obzidju, predvsem njegovem quarry produced no discards and that we would not find any traces of najbolje ohranjenem južnem delu na Mirju, lahko opazuje- quarrying even if the quarry were archaeologically investigated. mo v posameznih delih fasade spreminjajoča se razmerja gradnikov iz različnih kamnin iz istega kamnoloma, kar Quarry(ies) of building material The quartz sandstone quarry is generally believed to have been sited on the slope of Grajski grič between Rotovž and Tranča, 3 4 5 Rižnar 2010. Mlakar, Skaberne, Drovenik 1992. Kolar – Jurkovšek, Jurkovšek 2007. 4 5 Mlakar, Skaberne, Drovenik 1992. Kolar-Jurkovšek, Jurkovšek 2007. 126 lahko povežemo z dinamiko prihajanja tovorov kamna iz which is very steep and terraced as characteristic of abandoned različnih delov kamnoloma. quarries. It should be noted that this hypothesis is not supported Plasti trdnega, močno cementiranega kremenovega by archaeological evidence. It was first proposed by Walter Schmid6 peščenjaka, ki ga je težko obdelovati, so precej razpo- and has, as topologically rather convincing, since been adopted by kane, in v kamnolomu pridobivani lomljenci za gradnjo other authors.7 Recent excavations and discoveries at the southern so dosegali povprečno velikost do 30 centimetrov. foot of Grajski grič at Prule,8 however, have offered new interpretative Tisti večji in pravilnejših oblik, deloma dodelani, so bili possibilities on the subject. uporabljani predvsem za vogalne ojačitve zidov, drugi The excavations have shown that the quartz sandstone rubble pa za gradnjo fasadnih sten, medtem ko so drobir in was occasionally used to construct the earliest, Late Bronze Age drugo manjše kamenje uporabili za izdelavo jedra zidov settlement (10th–9th c. BCE), but also appeared in later, Early and Late v opus caementicium (v jedru mestnega obzidja so bili Iron Age settlements9 in foundations, drywalls and retaining walls, uporabljeni tudi prodniki iz plasti proda, v katero so bili paved areas and hearths. The source of this building material should vkopani njegovi temelji). Vse to pomeni, da v kamnolomu certainly be sought in the quarry (or quarries) located in the immedi- ni ostajalo prav nič odpadka in da sledov lomljenja, tudi ate vicinity of these settlements, somewhere on the southern slope če bi kamnolom arheološko raziskali, najverjetneje sploh of Grajski grič in the area of present-day Gornji trg (fig. 2). ne bi našli. The Roman fort built on the spot of these prehistoric settlements sometime after 15 BCE10 was enclosed within defensive walls built Kamnolom(i) gradbenega kamna in the drywall technique.11 They were built on top of the foundation O mestu kamnoloma kremenovega peščenjaka velja layer of quartz sandstone rubble and measured 2.5–2.8m in width, splošno prepričanje, da je bil odprt na pobočju Grajskega the exterior side of which was strengthened with an up to 0.3m thick griča med Rotovžem in Trančo, ki dejansko kaže strmo in drywall.12 This exterior face survived up to 0.5m high. The width of terasasto obliko, značilno za stene opuščenih kamnolo- the defence walls and comparable walls elsewhere suggest that the mov. Hipotezo je sicer brez vsakršnih arheoloških dokazov exterior face of the defence walls proper must have been between prvi izrazil Walter Schmid6 in po njem so jo zaradi njene 2.5 and 3m high. precejšnje topološke prepričljivosti povzeli drugi pisci.7 Even if the traces of the earlier, pre-Roman exploitation of stone Nova izkopavanja in odkritja na južni strani Grajskega griča on the southern slope of Grajski grič were no longer visible when the na Prulah8 so vprašanje lokacije rimskega kamnoloma construction of the Roman fort at Prule began, we may still presume postavila v povsem novo luč in odprla možnosti drugačne that the large quantities of building material needed to build the razlage. fort were extracted roughly on the same spot. It is also logical that Z izkopavanji je bilo ugotovljeno, da so lomljence this quarry, opened for the needs of the first fort, remained in use kremenovega peščenjaka ekstenzivno uporabljali že v when building the new colony on the other side of the Ljubljanica.13 najstarejšem, poznobronastodobnem naselju (10.–9. st. The quarry must have been located in the area of Gornji trg, directly pr. kr. št.*), pa tudi v poznejših starejše- in mlajšežele- at the road from Aquileia to Segestica/Siscia that gently descended znodobnih naseljih za gradnjo različnih temeljev, suhih westwards to the river crossing, which is a very favourable circum- zidov in škarp ter izdelavo tlakovanih površin in ognjišč. stance for the transport of the heavy loads of stone. 9 Vir gradbenega materiala je nedvomno treba iskati v The nowadays densely built up and cultivated southern slope kamnolomu (ali kamnolomih) v neposredni bližini teh still holds traces of earlier quarrying; these can be found at Reber, naselij, odprtem/ih nekje na južnem pobočju Grajskega in the valley behind the church of St Florian and to the west at Villa griča na območju današnjega Gornjega trga (sl. 2). Samassa, more precisely at the south entrance to the tunnel under Rimska utrdba, ki je na mestu starejših naselij na Prulah nastala kmalu po letu 15 pr. kr. št.,10 je imela Grajski grič. The most extensive stone extraction activity certainly took place behind the church of St Florian, which is the spot closest svoje suhozidno kamnito obzidje, postavljeno na plast 11 lomljencev kremenovega peščenjaka širine 2,5–2,8 m. Njegovo zunanjo stran je tvoril navpičen suhi zid debeline 6 7 8 9 10 11 Schmid 1913, 89; avtor kaže v tem sicer kratkem odstavku precej slabo poznavanje kamnin. Npr. Rakovec 1955, 14; Gaspari 2010, 133. Najdišče Tribuna; glej Vojaković et al. 2011; Gaspari et al. 2014. Vojaković et al. 2011. Vojaković et al. 2011, 89. Gaspari et al. 2014, 138. 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Schmid 1913, 89; this passage reveals a poor geological knowledge on the part of the author. E.g. Rakovec 1955, 14; Gaspari 2010, 133. Tribuna site; see Vojaković et al. 2011; Gaspari et al. 2014. Vojaković et al. 2011. Vojaković et al. 2011, 89. Gaspari et al. 2014, 138. It is not clear what sort of stone was used for the buildings of the ‘pre-civilian settlement’ (Plesničar-Gec 1999, 64–66) that may be contemporary with the first Roman fort at Prule; we may only presume it was quartz sandstone. For a calculation of the quantity of rubble needed in the construction of the colony see Plesničar Gec 1999, 43 and Gaspari 2010, 133. Djurić, Rižnar 127 do 0,3 metra.12 Zunanje lice je bilo v času izkopavanj na to the Roman fort. This can therefore be considered as the most nekaterih mestih ohranjeno do pol metra visoko, glede na likely location of the main and largest Roman quarry, while a smaller širino obzidja in primerljive najdbe pa izkopavalci menijo, one might have been located at Reber. The quarry at Villa Samassa, da je bila zunanja fronta glavne strukture obzidja visoka the memory of which is still alive among the local population, was od 2,5 do 3 metre. probably the quarry of Ljubljana, opened just outside its south- Tudi če sledov starega, predrimskega pridobivanja eastern city walls. gradbenega kamenja na južnem pobočju Grajskega griča The above does not exclude the possibility of there being several v času gradnje obzidja rimske vojaške utrdbe morda ni quarry sites in the Roman period, including that between Rotovž and bilo videti, velja sklepati, da so velike količine kamnitega Tranča.14 Given its location, however, it seems more likely that the gradiva, potrebnega za izgradnjo obzidja, Rimljani pridobili latter location was only used in the medieval and modern periods to v istem starem kamnolomu ali v njegovi neposredni bližini. build houses, extend courtyard areas and for trading purposes, as Povsem logično je tudi sklepanje, da so prav ta kamnolom, reported by the documents kept in the Zgodovinski arhiv Ljubljana odprt za potrebe prve utrdbe, Rimljani intenzivno uporabili (Historical Archives Ljubljana) and synoptically presented by Sergij tudi za gradnjo nove kolonije. Ležati je moral na območju Vilfan.15 13 današnjega Gornjega trga, neposredno ob cesti Aquileia– Segestica/Siscia, ki se je v smeri proti zahodu, do prehoda Products čez reko, zložno spuščala, kar je bilo za tovorjenje težkih The properties of quartz sandstone (and conglomerate) only render it tovorov kamenja zelo ugodna okoliščina. suitable for a limited range of products, mainly whetstones, querns Če skušamo na močno pozidanih in kultiviranih južnih and millstones. The prehistoric settlement contexts at the Tribuna pobočjih Grajskega griča danes najti sledove starih kamno- site yielded a number of querns,16 but no other products. The Mestni lomov, jih opazimo na Rebri, v dolini za cerkvijo sv. Florijana muzej Ljubljana keeps several Roman hand mills17 from Emona,18 in zahodno ob Samassovi vili na mestu današnjega južnega while the Narodni muzej Slovenije keeps the only inscribed object of portala predora pod Gradom. Največji poseg v pobočje je quartz sandstone known thus far – a roughly carved boundary stone nedvomno tisti za cerkvijo sv. Florijana, ki je prvi rimski utrd- with the inscription loco / co(ncesso?).19 The material makes this bi tudi najbližji. Prav tu si lahko najlaže predstavljamo glavni boundary stone unique.20 It was found in a presumably sepulchral in največji rimski kamnolom, ki se mu je morda pridružil še context.21 tisti manjši na območju Rebri. Kamnolom ob Samassovi vili, The general lack of architectural members (steps, thresholds, o katerem med lokalnim prebivalstvom še danes živi spomin, architraves, columns and so forth) in Emona is even more apparent je bil najverjetneje mestni kamnolom Ljubljane, odprt nepo- when it comes to the Grajski grič stone, suggesting it was completely sredno ob zunanji strani njenega jugovzhodnega obzidja. inappropriate for such uses. From the very beginning of the city, Povedano seveda ne izključuje možnosti, da so Rimljani izkoriščali grajski kamen tudi na drugih pobočjih hriba, mor- these members were made of limestone, in part probably also of wood. da tudi med Rotovžem in Trančo.14 Si pa je na tem prostoru laže predstavljati poznejše srednjeveško in novoveško Lime izkoriščanje kamna za gradnjo hiš, povečevanje dvoriščnih The large quantities of lime needed to construct the new colony had površin in prodajo, kakor ga beležijo dokumenti Mestnega to be obtained close to the construction site. The only source of arhiva Ljubljane, ki jih pomembno povzema S. Vilfan.15 carbonate material available on site or its vicinity was the gravel of Izdelki 14 Kremenov peščenjak (pa tudi konglomerat) je zaradi svojih lastnosti primeren samo za izdelavo nekaterih specifičnih izdelkov, predvsem brusov, žrmelj in mlinskih kamnov. Žrmelj 15 16 17 je bilo v prazgodovinskih naselbinskih kontekstih najdišča 18 12 19 20 13 14 15 Za objekte »predcivilne naselbine« (Plesničar Gec 1999, 64–66), ki bi lahko bili morda sočasni prvi rimski utrdbi, ni jasno, iz katerega kamna so bili grajeni. Domnevamo lahko, da gre za grajski kremenov peščenjak. Za izračun količine za gradnjo kolonije potrebnega lomljenega kamenja glej Plesničar Gec 1999, 43, in Gaspari 2010, 133. Manj verjetne so domneve o rimskih kamnolomih na Golovcu (Schmid 1913, 89). Vilfan 1958, 26–28; glej tudi Vrhovec 1886, 21–22. 21 The hypotheses on Roman quarries located on the hill of Golovec are less credible (Schmid 1913, 89). Vilfan 1958, 26–28; see also Vrhovec 1886, 21–22. Vojaković et al. 2011. Town Museum (Mestni muzej, hereinafter MGML) Access. No. 300 79695 (4 pieces), A6.PN2287. Ramovš (1990, 14) mentions that the stonemasons from Podutik were coming to Grajski grič to cut stones used for grinding their stone products. When inspecting the quarry on 15 April 2015, M. Novak found just such a stone. Šašel Kos 1997, 247–248. M. Šašel Kos presumes that the surviving boundary stone is only a fragment. The two bottom thirds of the stone, however, appear undamaged and may have been intentionally left rough as only the inscribed upper third was visible above ground. The upper third also seems undamaged, as the inscription is centred and complete. Found in 1896 during the construction works for the state secondary school, now the Prežihov Voranc primary school, Prežihova ulica 8; Müllner 1900, 204. For sepulchral context see Rutar 1891, 190. 128 Tribuna odkritih precej,16 drugih in drugačnih izdelkov pa ne. the River Sava,22 on top of or into which the city was constructed or Mestni muzej Ljubljana sicer hrani nekaj primerkov antičnih dug.23 The Sava gravel consists of app. 80% of carbonate pebbles. ročnih mlinov iz Emone, izdelanih iz grajskih kamnin, 17 The second closest source would be in the Podutik area some 5km 18 Narodni muzej Slovenije (NMS) pa hrani doslej edini znani, away, with limited quantities of Upper Triassic and Lower Jurassic iz kremenovega peščenjaka izdelan napisni kamen – grobo limestone,24 and the third one at Podpeč (Lower Jurassic limestone). oblikovan mejnik z napisom loco / co(ncesso?). Mejnik je The excavation report of the Tribuna site in Ljubljana states 19 prav zaradi kamnine, iz katere je izdelan, edinstven,20 odkrit that the stone used for the defensive walls of the first Roman fort v najverjetneje sepulkralnem kontekstu.21 included limestone rubble,25 such as had already been used to Značilna je sicer v Emoni popolna odsotnost delov repair a large pre-Roman paved area26 and to strengthen the bank stavbne in arhitektonske opreme (pragovi, stopnice, of a stream associated with the La Tène settlement on that spot.27 arhitravi, stebri ipd.), ki bi bili izdelani iz grajskih kamnin, We can no longer verify whether the rock was correctly identified, kar kaže na njihovo popolno neustreznost za tovrstne nor is it possible to determine the exact sort of limestone. If, namene. Te elemente so v mestu vse od začetka izdelovali however, we accept the identification as correct, we also accept predvsem iz apnenca, deloma pa verjetno tudi iz lesa. that a limestone quarry was exploited already in this pre-Roman phase. Given the direct connection via the River Ljubljanica, the Apno most likely candidate for this quarry is that at Podpeč, which could Velike količine apna, potrebnega za izgradnjo nove koloni- also be the source of lime the Romans used in the construction of je, je bilo treba izdelati v bližini gradbišča. Edini karbonatni the colony. material, ki je bil za ta namen na gradbišču oziroma v njegovi bližini na voljo, je bil savski prod,22 na katerega je Dimension stone bila kolonija postavljena oziroma vanj vkopana.23 The blocks used in Emona as ashlar, architectural members, monu- Drugi najbližji možni vir karbonatnega materiala je bilo 5 ments, votive objects and so forth, were mainly extracted from the kilometrov oddaljeno območje Podutika z majhnimi količina- layers of Lower Jurassic limestone. The closest source of this rock is mi jurskega apnenca,24 tretji možni vir pa apnenec v Podpeči. at Podutik, some 5km from Emona,28 while a somewhat more distant Izkopavalci najdišča Tribuna v Ljubljani navajajo v source (roughly 15km) is at Podpeč29 and around Ig southwest and svojem poročilu, da so bili za izgradnjo obzidja prve south of Emona, respectively. Emona revealed no pieces of the dark rimske utrdbe uporabljani tudi »apnenčevi lomljenci«,25 Upper Triassic limestone later quarried on the slopes of Lesno Brdo še prej uporabljeni za popravilo velike predrimske (west of Ljubljana) and very popular in Ljubljana and its vicinity from tlakovane površine26 in utrditve brega potoka v latenski the end of the 17th century onwards.30 It is not always possible to distinguish between Podutik limestone 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 Vojaković et al. 2011. MGML akc. št. 300 79695 (4 kosi), A6.PN2287. Ramovš (1990, 14) med drugim navaja, da so podutiški kamnoseki odhajali na Grajski grič izsekavat bruse, ki so jih uporabljali za brušenje svojih kamnitih izdelkov. Ob ogledu kamnoloma 15. aprila 2015 je M. Novak odkril kos takega brusa. Šašel Kos 1997, 247–248. M. Šašel Kos meni, da je mejnik fragmentaren, vendar se zdi, da spodnji dve tretjini mejnika nista poškodovani, temveč namenoma puščeni v grobi obliki zato, ker sta namenjeni umestitvi v zemljo, iz katere je gledala le zgornja tretjina z napisom. Tudi ta se zdi nepoškodovana, saj je napis organiziran po središčni osi sprednje ploskve in ohranjen v celoti. Leta 1896 je bil odkrit ob gradnji Državne višje gimnazije, danes Osnovna šola Prežihovega Voranca, Prežihova ulica 8; Müllner 1900, 204. Za sepulkralni kontekst glej Rutar 1891, 190. Glej npr. Rakovec 1932, 46–56. Delež malte, uporabljene pri gradnji obzidja in zidov, ki ga navaja Plesničar Gecova, znaša 20 odstotkov, kar bi ustrezalo našemu izračunu za obzidje Felix Romuliane, ki znaša okoli 25 odstotkov celotnega volumna in so ga potrdili tudi tamkajšnji restavratorji. Skupaj s prodniki, uporabljenimi v jedru emonskega obzidja, bi ta delež, po izračunu Gasparija, znašal 30–40 odstotkov. Primer peči za žganje apna iz rečnih oblic je sicer znan z najdišča Hajndl pri Ormožu, kjer je I. Žižek leta 2000 izkopal sedem rimskih peči, napolnjenih z velikimi rečnimi oblicami; glej Žižek 2003, 150. Ramovš 1990. Vojaković et al. 2011, 92. Faza II; Vojaković et al. 2011, 76. (gliničan in Slovenian)31 and Podpeč limestone (podpečan), either macro- or microscopically,32 as the two rocks formed contemporaneously and in similar environments. There are, however, certain macroscopic traits that do, in some cases, allow this distinction to be 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 See e.g. Rakovec 1932, 46–56. The 20% share of mortar in the city walls and the walls in its interior, as reported by Plesničar Gec, is comparable with the calculation we made for the defensive walls of Felix Romuliana (roughly 25%) and confirmed by the restorers working on the site. Together with the pebbles in the core of the Emona city walls, Gaspari calculated this share to be between 30 and 40%. The possibility of using pebbles in lime production is proven by the find of seven Roman lime kilns filled with large river cobbles, excavated in 2000 at Hajndl near Ormož, see Žižek 2003, 150. Ramovš 1990. Vojaković et al. 2011, 92. Phase II; Vojaković et al. 2011, 76. Vojaković et al. 2011, 71. Ramovš 1990. Ramovš 1961; 2000. Ramovš 2000. Also popular and sought after in the 18th and 19th-century Ljubljana were other dark, almost black limestones, such as the limestone from Ihan and the vicinity of Mengeš, as well as Moravče Triassic-Jurassic limestones. For black and other ‘marbles’ in Carniola during the time of Valvasor see Valvasor, I, 434–436. Named after the stream or settlement of Glinica; Ramovš 1990, 3. See Ramovš 1990, 15. Djurić, Rižnar 129 fazi naselja.27 Pravilnosti določitve kamnine danes ni več made. One of the main traits of Podutik limestone is cracks, running mogoče preveriti niti ni mogoče ugotoviti, za katero vrsto in different directions, filled with white, rarely ochre, yellowish or apnenca gre. Če je določitev kamnine pravilna, je treba že reddish calcite. These cracks are cemented to the point of no longer v tej predrimski fazi računati na izkoriščanje kamnoloma representing cleavage. The limestone is further characterised by apnenca, ki si ga je zaradi rečne transportne povezave fenestral porosity and corrosion cavities filled with coarse-grained mogoče še najlaže predstavljati v Podpeči. Ta vir bi calcite forming cocard textures, which already Ramovš mentioned as lahko Rimljani morda uporabljali tudi za izdelavo apna za a distinguishing criterion. More precisely, he writes that, in general, izgradnjo kolonije. similar environments of Podutik limestone revealed far less fossils than Podpeč limestone and no lithiotid bivalves (characteristic of Masivni kamen Podpeč limestone). He adds that at least one of the beds at Podutik V Emoni so bili masivni bloki, izsekani ali odlomljeni v shows plenty of crushed shells of megalodontid bivalves, but no kamnolomu/ih in uporabljani za oblikovanje gradbenih in brachiopod remains, such as we can find at Podpeč.33 It is also true arhitekturnih elementov, spomenikov, votivnih predmetov that the Podutik quarry revealed no thin-bedded limestone charac- ipd., izsekani predvsem iz plasti spodnjejurskega apnen- teristic mainly of the lower but, as has recently been confirmed, also ca, ki ga Emoni najbližje najdemo v okolici 5 kilometrov the upper part of the Podpeč quarry. oddaljenega Podutika,28 nekaj dlje v 15 kilometrov odda- The last to describe Podutik limestone in both sedimentological ljeni Podpeči29 ter v okolici Iga. V Emoni sicer ne najdemo and palaeolontological terms was Matevž Novak.34 The largest of nobenega kosa temnega apnenca zgornjetriasne starosti, the quarry sites, located west of Krivec, is the spot where Liassic ki so ga pozneje lomili v kamnolomih na pobočjih Lesnega (Lower Jurassic) limestone crops out, i.e. of the same age as the brda in je bil v Ljubljani in širši okolici izredno priljubljen od rock at Podpeč. However, Novak’s description reveals the horizons of konca 17. stoletja.30 oolite limestone as light grey. The Podpeč quarry was last described Ločevanje podutiškega apnenca – gliničana od 31 by Irena Debeljak and Stanko Buser35 as well as by Luka Gale,36 podpeškega apnenca – podpečana ni vedno možno though their cross section of the Podpeč quarry is not presented in ne makro- ne mikroskopsko,32 saj gre za kamnini, ki enough detail and, as a consequence, cannot be used to directly sta nastajali sočasno in v podobnih okoljih, je pa res, identify individual lithofacies or lithotypes. With the aim of studying da nekatere makroskopske značilnosti to ločevanje the foraminiferal assemblage as a whole, as well as the range of marsikdaj omogočajo. Tako je ena bistvenih karakteristik individual taxa, Luka Gale recently recorded three detailed sedimen- gliničana njegova razpokanost, razpoke, ki se medsebojno tological cross sections in the quarry.37 A detailed archaeological prepletajo, so zapolnjene z belim, redkeje tudi z okrasto, and geological analysis of the wider quarry area is also currently rumenkasto ali rdečkasto obarvanim kalcitom. Te razpoke under way. so že tako močno cementirane, da ne predstavljajo več razkolnosti kamnine. Zanj so značilne še fenestralna po- Quarry(ies) roznost in korozijske votline, zapolnjene z debelozrnatim None of the above-discussed quarries of Lower Jurassic limestone kalcitom, ki je običajno tudi obarvan, tako da tvori tako around Ljubljana (Podutik, Podpeč)38 have revealed traces of Roman imenovane kokardne teksture, kar že Ramovš omenja kot exploitation, though oral tradition for both sites relates the exist- kriterij za ločevanje omenjenih apnencev: »V splošnem ence of a ‘Roman quarry’ as the earliest known quarrying activity. je v podobnih okoljih v gliničanu precej manj okamenelih For Podutik, the oral tradition locates the Roman quarry at the SE ostankov kot v podpečanu in v njem ni litiotidnih školjk (ki foot of the 383.5m high hill of Strmica,39 which is, according to Anton so značilne za podpečana). V Podutiku je vsaj v eni plasti Ramovš,40 the site of the modern-period quarry of Lovrenc Vodnik.41 vse polno zdrobljenih megalodontidnih školjčnih lupin, ni For Podpeč, Ramovš suggests that the Roman quarry should be pa ostankov ramenonožcev, ki so v Podpeči.«33 Res pa je 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 Vojaković et al. 2011, 71. Ramovš 1990. Ramovš 1961; 2000. Ramovš 2000. Sicer so bili v Ljubljani v 18. in 19. st. cenjeni in iskani tudi drugi temni, skoraj črni apnenci, na primer tisti iz Ihana in okolice Mengša ter moravški triasno-jurski apnenci. O črnih in drugih »marmorjih« Kranjske v Valvasorjevem času glej Valvasor 1689, I, 434–436. Ime po potoku oziroma naselju Glinica; Ramovš 1990, 3. Glej Ramovš 1990, 15. Ramovš 1990, 15. 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 Ramovš 1990, 15. Novak 2003. Debeljak, Buser 1997. Gale 2015. Gale 2014. Ramovš 1990; 2000. This is most probably the quarry that Müllner (1879, 20) referred to as the Dravlje Steinbruch and located on his map (Tafel I). Of further interest here is the note by V. Vodnik (Vodnik 1848, 87) after a visit to the quarry on 7 April 1808, who wrote, “Kamna Goriza Calcareus grana Quarzi continens – Germes totus terra tecta habet Strata.” Ramovš 1990, 15. Ramovš 1990, Fig. 8, 2. 130 tudi, da v podutiškem kamnolomu ni tankoplastnatega sought in the earliest of the numerous quarry sites at the northern apnenca, značilnega predvsem za spodnji in, kot vemo and north-western foot of the hill of Sv. Ana, known as Knezov pruh,42 danes, tudi zgornji del podpeškega kamnoloma. though we believe this not to be very likely considering the limestone Podutiške kamnine je sedimentološko in paleontološko layers on that location. nazadnje opisal M. Novak.34 V največjem kamnolomu zahodno od Krivca izdanjajo apnenci liasne (spodnjejurske) Podutik starosti, torej enako stare plasti kot v podpeškem kamno- The most extensive modern quarry sites at Podutik 43 are located lomu. Vendar iz Novakovega opisa izhaja, da so horizonti at the south-eastern and southern foot of the Strmica hill. Their oolitnega apnenca svetlo sivi. Podpeški kamnolom so faces allow us to observe the orientation and thickness of the nazadnje opisali I. Debeljak in S. Buser ter L. Gale, žal pa 35 36 profil v podpeškem kamnolomu ni dovolj podrobno popisan in sedimentološko obdelan, da bi ga lahko uporabili za neposredno identifikacijo posameznih litofaciesov oziroma litotipov. Za proučitev celotne foraminiferne združbe in razpona posameznih taksonov je tri detajlne sedimentološke profile v okolici kamnoloma pred kratkim posnel L. Gale.37 Trenutno poteka detajlna arheološko-geološka analiza širšega območja kamnoloma. Kamnolom(i) V nobenem od navedenih kamnolomov spodnjejurskega apnenca v neposredni okolici Ljubljane (Podutik, Podpeč)38 ni bilo odkritih sledov rimskega pridobivanja, čeprav tako v Podutiku kot v Podpeči obstaja lokalna tradicija o »rimskem kamnolomu«, ki hkrati velja za najstarejši znani tamkajšnji kamnolom. Tako naj bi bil rimski kamnolom na jugovzhodnem vznožju 383,5 metra visokega hriba Strmica v Podutiku39 po mnenju A. Ramovša40 tam, kjer je v modernem času nastal kamnolom Lovrenca Vodnika.41 V Podpeči naj bi bil po Ramovšu med številnimi kamnolomi v Sl. 3: Ležišče jurskega apnenca v Podutiku (E. Lozić, M. Novak). Fig. 3: Jurassic limestone at Podutik (E. Lozić, M. Novak). severnem in severozahodnem vznožju hriba Sv. Ana rimske limestone beds (fig. 3). The largest of the sites, active until starosti najstarejši Knezov pruh,42 kar glede na tamkajšnje recently, shows the synclinal structure of the hill, more precisely plasti apnenca ni verjetno. a NW – SE orientated and a roughly 500m wide synclinal fold, with the axis parallel to the ridge crest. Quarrying has already removed Podutik the south-western limb of the fold. The central part of the quarry Hrib Strmica pri Podutiku ima na svojem jugovzhodnem site is intensely cracked along the syncline axis. In the southern in južnem vznožju najizrazitejše moderne kamnolome,43 v slope, there is a small part between the large quarry site and a small face to the west that has been left intact, as the rocks in this 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 Novak 2003. Debeljak, Buser 1997. Gale 2015. Gale 2014. Ramovš 1990; 2000. Najverjetneje je to Müllnerjev (1879, 20) draveljski kamnolom, zarisan na njegovi karti (Tafel I). Zanimiv je zapis Valentina Vodnika (Vodnik 1848, 87) ob njegovem obisku kamnoloma 7. aprila 1808: »Kamna Goriza Calcareus grana Quarzi continens – Germes totus terra tecta habet Strata.« Ramovš 1990, 15. Ramovš 1990, sl. 8,2. Ramovš 2000, 16, na mestu Prebilove hiše, Podpeč 10; analiza protokola in katastrskega načrta občine Preserje franciscejskega katastra iz let 1823–24 je pokazala, da gre za kamnolom Jožeta Artača, ki je ležal neposredno ob zahodni meji velikega kamnoloma skupnosti Podpeč v katastrski občini Jezero. O vseh znanih kamnolomih in njihovih lastnikih glej Ramovš 1990. part of the fold are most densely cracked and the cracks filled with a fair amount of infiltrated red earth or terra rossa, which probably rendered the stone unusable. The surviving face of this quarry site allows us to observe the beds of the north-eastern limb of the syncline dipping towards the south-west. The beds dip at an angle of up to 45° depending on the position within the fold; most are 80cm thick, rarely less, while a number of them appear to be thicker. 42 43 Ramovš 2000, 16, on the spot of the ‘Prebil’ house, Podpeč 10; the analysis of the protocol and the cadastral plan of the Preserje cadastral municipality in the Franciscan cadastre from 1823–24 has shown that this is probably the quarry owned by Jože Artač, bordering the west edge of the large quarry of the Podpeč community in the Jezero cadastral community. For all of the known quarries and their owners see Ramovš 1990. Djurić, Rižnar 131 katerih čelih je mogoče opazovati usmeritev in debelino During a survey of the area in 2015,44 we detected quarrying traces plasti apnenca (sl. 3). V največjem odkopu lahko danes across the whole of the north-eastern slope of Strmica all to its opazimo sinklinalno zgradbo Strmice. V največjem od- top, which is the NW edge of the large quarry site. We also found kopu, ki je do nedavnega še deloval, je večja sinklinalna wedge holes,45 which clearly show the method of extracting blocks. guba z osjo v smeri severozahod–jugovzhod in razponom On that subject, Ramovš already noted that Podutik limestone was približno 500 metrov, pri čemer se os gube ujema s pote- less appropriate for extraction and later working than some other kom grebena, ki predstavlja vrh hriba. Jugozahodno krilo limestones.46 The state prior to quarrying at the southern foot of je danes že odstranjeno oziroma izkoriščeno. Osrednji Strmica may be compared with the state now observable at the del kamnoloma je vzdolž osi gube močno razpokan, top of the hill. The roughly one metre thick limestone beds in the kar je za gubanje že litificiranih kamnin blizu površja normalno. V južnem pobočju je med velikim odkopom in manjšim zahodnim čelom neodkopan del, saj tu poteka os gube, kjer je kamnina najmočneje razpokana, v razpokah pa je infiltrirane precej rdeče jerine, tako da ta del prav zato najbrž nikoli ni bil zanimiv za izkoriščanje. Danes v ohranjenem čelu velikega odkopa podutiškega kamnoloma lahko opazujemo proti jugozahodu vpadajoče plasti severovzhodnega krila omenjene sinklinalne gube. Plasti apnenca, ki merijo približno 80 centimetrov, so nagnjene do 45 stopinj, odvisno od položaja v sinklinalni gubi. Redke plasti so tanjše, precej je tudi debelejših. Med pregledom območja v letu 201544 smo lahko na celotnem severovzhodnem pobočju Strmice prav do vrha hriba oziroma današnjega severozahodnega roba odkopa opazili sledove izkoriščanja kamna, tudi sledove žepov za kline,45 kar vse zelo dobro kaže način pridobivanja blokov na tem območju. Že Ramovš je ugotovil,46 »da je bil gliničan za pridobivanje iz kamnite gmote in za obdelovanje manj ugoden kot … kateri drugi kamen«. Razmere ob odprtju kamnoloma na južnem robu Strmice Sl. 4: Situacija podpeškega apnenca na hribu Sv. Ana (E. Lozić, I. Rižnar). Fig. 4: Podpeč limestone on the hill of Sv. Ana (E. Lozić, I. Rižnar). lahko primerjamo z razmerami, ki jih danes opažamo pri north-eastern part of the modern quarry site dip steeply, while vrhu hriba oziroma v severovzhodnem delu današnjega the frequency of fractures parallel to the syncline axis and the odkopa, kjer okoli meter debele plasti apnenca vpadajo transverse fractures running diagonal to the axis plane determine pod razmeroma strmim kotom, frekvenca manjših razpok the size of the blocks to be quarried. vzporednih osi gube (klivaž osne ravnine) in prečnih razpok diagonalno na osno ravnino pa definira velikost Podpeč izplenjenih blokov. The long centuries of quarrying have almost completely removed the steep northern slope of the hill of Sv. Ana. The large cut on that Podpeč spot, with the face running in an E – W direction, is the location of Strm severni rob hriba Sv. Ane je bil skozi dolgo obdobje the quarry owned by the Mineral Company and closed since 1973.47 lomljenja apnenca v preteklosti skoraj povsem odstranjen. The last quarrying here was conducted with the use of explosives V veliki zajedi, katere čelo poteka v smeri vzhod–zahod, inserted into holes. This yielded large pieces of stone, worked into je umeščen od leta 1973 zaprt kamnolom, ki je danes dimension blocks, and rubble, further crushed into aggregate. Until v lasti podjetja Mineral.47 Lomljenje plasti kamnine je 1954, this was transported to Ljubljana via the Ljubljanica.48 To 44 44 45 46 47 Ekipa B. Djurić, E. Lozić, I. Rižnar in M. Novak je opravila prvi terenski pregled aprila 2015. Povsem na vrhu hriba smo na steni globoke zaseke kamnoloma, nastalega na obeh straneh brezna (?), našli sedem skrbno vsekanih monogramov z letnico 1897. Ramovš 1990, 3. O zgodovini lastnikov glej Ramovš 2000, 17–18. 45 46 47 48 The team consisting of B. Djurić, E. Lozić, I. Rižnar and M. Novak performed the first field survey in April 2015. We found seven carefully carved monograms with the date of 1897 on top of the hill, on the face of the quarry formed on both sides of a shaft (?). Ramovš 1990, 3. For the history of ownership see Ramovš 2000, 17–18. Ramovš 2000, 17. 132 tukaj nazadnje potekalo z eksplozivom, vloženim v ročno the west of this quarry were numerous smaller and privately owned zvrtane luknje, odstreljen material pa so obdelovali v bloke quarry sites that produced dressed blocks and rubble (fig. 4). ali lomljenec drobili v gramoz, kar so vse do leta 1954 The orientation of the face in the large quarry is not coincidental odvažali v Ljubljano po Ljubljanici.48 Številni manjši zasebni and follows the trend of the subvertical bedding of dark grey and kamnolomi zahodno od njega so služili za pridobivanje blackish limestone. These beds measure from a few centimetres to gradbenega kamna, pa tudi materiala za žganje apna (sl. 4). a few metres in thickness.49 Subvertical bedding greatly facilitates Usmeritev čela velikega kamnoloma ni naključna, saj extraction by hand, as practically no effort is required for vertical njegova oblika sledi slemenitvi skoraj navpično vpada- extraction, but also enables the choice of the appropriate thickness jočih plasti temno sivega in črnikastega apnenca. Plasti apnenca, debele od nekaj centimetrov do več kot meter, depending on the intended product.50 This particular set of circum49 stances probably determined the outlay of the Roman quarry as well. s svojo skoraj navpično lego po eni strani zelo olajšujejo The LiDAR image of the area of the Podpeč quarry51 revealed ročno pridobivanje blokov in plošč, ki jih ni treba lomiti od additional areas of manual extraction on the slope of the Mineral podlage, po drugi strani pa pri lomljenju omogočajo izbiro quarry, which are aligned with the face of the quarry, i.e. the bedding. debeline, ustrezne načrtovanemu izdelku. Tem poseb- It also showed paths for transporting the stone to the valley leading nim okoliščinam se je prilagajala tudi oblika rimskega westward from these areas. The survey conducted there in the spring kamnoloma. of 201552 has shown that the most conspicuous traces of block 50 Lidarski posnetek območja podpeškega kamnoloma51 and slab extraction run in a 6m wide and 2m deep channel with the je na pobočju nad Mineralovim kamnolomom pokazal southern side face measuring up to 4m high. The extraction traces dodatna območja ročnega pridobivanja kamna, ki take the shape of horizontal wedge holes perpendicular to the beds, potekajo vzporedno s čelom kamnoloma oziroma po but also round and hand-drilled holes for blasting powder, at least slemenitvi plasti, v nadaljevanju pa iz njih potekajo po ten of which were documented. The shaft also revealed small worked pobočju navzdol proti Z poti za transport kamna v dolino. blocks and a large amount of rubble, which indicate that rough Ogled spomladi leta 201552 je pokazal, da imajo najbolj working was done at the quarry. izraziti sledovi lomljenja blokov in plošč apnenca obliko okoli 6 metrov širokega in okoli meter globokega jaška s Transport stranskim čelom na južni strani, visokim do okoli 4 metre. Traces of the Roman transport of heavy products from either the Sledovi pridobivanja blokov in plošč se na stenah kažejo Podutik or Podpeč quarries have not been preserved, or have at least v obliki ostankov vodoravnih žepov za kline, postavljenih not yet been found. There have, however, several hypotheses been pravokotno na smer plasti, ohranjenih pa je tudi vsaj deset made on that part of the production cycle in the past. Ramovš,53 for okroglih lukenj, izvrtanih z ročnim svedrom, namenjenih za example, agreed with Müllner54 on the road from Podutik to Emona vložek smodnika. V jašku ohranjeni manjši obdelani bloki leading along the Roman aqueduct beginning at the spring at Slatek. in precejšnja količina drobirja na mestu lomljenja kažejo, It has to be said, however, that the nearby road from Emona to Car- da je grobo oblikovanje potekalo v kamnolomu. nium would be much more suitable for the transport of heavy loads.55 Prevoz supposed a pagus marmorarius,56 it has always been and still is Sledovi rimskega prevoza težkih izdelkov iz kamnolomov believed that its products were mainly transported along the River Podutik in Podpeč se niso ohranili oziroma niso bili odkriti, Ljubljanica.57 As of yet, the underwater surveys conducted in recent so pa bile v preteklosti izražene nekatere logične domneve years in the Ljubljanica riverbed between Nauportus and Emona As for the Podpeč quarry, in close proximity of which Müllner o tej plati kamnoseške proizvodnje. Tako je A. Ramovš53 povzel domnevo A. Müllnerja54 o cesti iz Podutika v Emono 49 ob trasi rimskega vodovoda z zajetja Slatek, čeprav bi bila 50 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 Ramovš 2000, 17. Tridimenzionalni model plasti velikega kamnoloma v Podpeči je izdelala P. Štukovnik (Štukovnik, Dobnikar, Žarnič 2011, sl. 7), debeline posameznih plasti pa je mogoče natančneje opazovati na sedimentoloških profilih, ki jih je objavil L. Gale (2014, sl. 2–4). To posebno ugodno okoliščino je opazil že A. Ramovš (2000, 16). Avtor D. Mlekuž. Ekipa B. Djurić, E. Lozić, I. Rižnar in L. Gale je opravila prvi terenski pregled aprila 2015. Ramovš 1990, 16. Müllner 1879, 54. 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 The 3D model of the beds in the large quarry at Podpeč was made by P. Štukovnik (Štukovnik, Dobnikar, Žarnič 2011, Fig. 7), while the thickness of individual beds can be observed in detail on the sedimentological cross sections published by Gale (2014, Figs. 2–4). This particularly favourable circumstance was already observed by Ramovš (2000, 16). Author D. Mlekuž. The team consisting of B. Djurić, E. Lozić, I. Rižnar and L. Gale conducted the field survey in April 2015. Ramovš 1990, 16. Müllner 1879, 54. Šašel 1975, 75. Müllner 1879, 18. With the exception of the transport by land in the direction of Ig. As mentioned above, the products from the Podpeč quarry were transported along the Ljubljanica until 1954. Djurić, Rižnar 133 za težke tovore primernejša v bližini potekajoča cesta yielded no Roman-period vessels or cargo that could be tied to the Emona–Carnium. quarry at Podpeč.58 55 Za podpeški kamnolom, ob katerega je Müllner postavil Another supposition related to the quarry is that the course of pagus marmorarius,56 vseskozi velja, da so njegovi izdelki the River Ljubljanica was altered in the length of roughly 6km from potovali predvsem po Ljubljanici,57 o čemer ni mogoče Podpeč towards Vrhnika to flow in the immediate vicinity of the dvomiti. Vendar podvodni arheološki pregledi, opravljeni quarry for the purposes of easier transport.59 This supposition is v zadnjih letih, v strugi Ljubljanice med Nauportom in today widely accepted in spite of its resting on shaky grounds.60 Emono niso odkrili nobenega rimskodobnega plovila ali The same aim would, in fact, be achieved with far less effort either rimskodobnega tovora, ki bi ga bilo mogoče povezati s by digging a canal from the quarry to the river or by deepening and podpeškim kamnolomom. widening the bed of the stream running from the quarry to the river.61 58 Na kamnolom je vezana tudi domneva o premestitvi rečnega toka v neposredno bližino kamnoloma za lažje We believe that the reasons for the presumed change in the course of the river should be sought elsewhere. tovorjenje kamna.59 Domneva je danes splošno razširjena kljub njenemu skrajno dvomljivemu izhodišču.60 Preme- Products stitev rečne struge v dolžini okoli 6 kilometrov od Podpeči The products of Jurassic limestone used in Emona have as yet not proti Vrhniki, če je do nje v preteklosti res prišlo, je poseg, been systematically characterised, neither the epigraphic monu- ki bi ga Rimljani za potrebe kamnoloma z neprimerljivo ments62 nor the building blocks, architectural members and other manj vložka zlahka nadomestili z izkopom kanala od non-epigraphic monuments. Ramovš did detect the Roman-period kamnoloma do reke oziroma s poglobitvijo in razširitvijo use of Podutik and Podpeč limestones during the excavations in struge potoka, ki teče od kamnoloma v reko.61 Razloge za Ljubljana,63 but his observations are too general to be of any specific domnevne premestitve toka Ljubljanice je zato po našem use. The actual use of either of the limestones can only be assessed prepričanju treba iskati drugje. on the basis of a detailed examination and characterisation of all the known monuments, as well as a detailed list of the lithofacies in both Izdelki quarries. Until then, we can only presume that Jurassic limestone Sistematična karakterizacija izdelkov iz jurskega apnen- prevalent in Emona is that from Podpeč, particularly for the products ca, uporabljenih v Emoni, doslej še ni bila izdelana, ne of high quality, large size and decorative purposes,64 while the za epigrafske spomenike in še manj za gradbene in simpler and smaller products were made of Podutik limestone.65 62 arhitektonske člene ter druge anepigrafske spomenike. Omembe A. Ramovša, da je med izkopavanji v Ljubljani 58 lahko ugotavljal rimsko rabo gliničana in podpečana,63 so tako splošne, da si z njimi ni mogoče veliko pomagati. Dejansko rabo enega in drugega apnenca bo mogoče ugotoviti šele po natančnem pregledu in 59 60 karakterizaciji vseh znanih spomenikov ter natančnem popisu litofaciesov v obeh kamnolomih. Dotlej pa velja vtis, da je v emonski rabi jurskega apnenca prevladoval 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 Šašel 1975, 75. Müllner 1879, 18. V smeri proti Igu nedvomno po kopnem. Sicer pa je do leta 1954 podpeški kamnolom vozil svoje proizvode v Ljubljano po Ljubljanici. Najdbi razsutega tovora okoli 160 kamnov v strugi ob ledini Široka (Gaspari, Erič 2007) in bližnjega deblaka, ležečega 925 m nizvodno od podpeškega mostu (Gaspari, Erič, Kavur 2012, 400–401), naloženega s kamnitimi bloki, kamnitimi ploščami in apnom, sta datirani v novi vek (16.–17. st.). Rutar 1892, 65–66; Schmid 1913, 67. Povzetek in stanje diskusije glej v Gaspari 1998. Bi pa bilo treba kljub precejšnjim spremembam prostora med kamnolomom in strugo Ljubljanice ta prostor zaradi možnih sledov transportne infrastrukture arheološko natančno opazovati. Glej franciscejski kataster, mapa 133, Gemeinde Presser, 1823. Zadnji bolj ali manj sistematičen pregled emonskih epigrafskih spomenikov je opravil A. Ramovš v lapidariju Narodnega muzeja Slovenije (Šašel Kos 1997). Ramovš 1990, 15, 20. 61 62 63 64 65 The find of bulk cargo consisting of roughly 160 pieces located in the riverbed at Široka (Gaspari, Erič 2007) and the nearby log boat located 925m downstream from the bridge at Podpeč (Gaspari, Erič, Kavur 2012, 400–401), with a cargo of stone blocks, slabs and lime, date to the modern period (16th–17th c.). Rutar 1892, 65–66; Schmid 1913, 67. For a summary and state of discussion see Gaspari 1998. The area between the quarry and the Ljubljanica riverbed has witnessed considerable spatial interventions, but archaeologists should nevertheless be on alert for possible surviving traces of transport infrastructure. See Franciscan cadastre, Plan 133, Gemeinde Presser, 1823. The last more or less systematic survey of the epigraphic monuments of Emona was performed by Ramovš in the lapidarium of the Narodni muzej Slovenije (hereinafter NMS) (Šašel Kos 1997). Ramovš 1990, 15, 20. The use of the decorative Podpeč limestone, particularly the variety with lithiotid and megalodontid bivalves, a favourite of the 20th century architect Jože Plečnik and (hence) proposed to be designated as a Global Heritage Stone Resource (Kramar et al. 2015), appears to have had a specific range of uses in Emona. It was mainly used for column shafts (some of the most beautiful examples of such use were recently excavated in advance of the underground car park construction in the Zvezda park, inside a Roman well), as well as wall and floor veneer (one of the panels in Plečnik’s stone collection in Mirje is made up exclusively of slabs such as those found in the Zvezda park in Kongresni trg). Of the capitals known thus far, only the Tuscan capitals are made of Jurassic limestones. The funerary monuments from the cemeteries of Emona are predominantly made of Podpeč limestone. The monument particularly important for the study of the production process is the stela kept in the NMS under Inv. No. L 86 (Šašel Kos 1997, No. 52, 216–218), which is evidence of a two-phase production of such monuments. It was used for a number of variously-sized rectangular ash chests and cinerary urns found in the cemeteries of Emona and kept in the NMS and the MGML. Among the epigraphic monuments kept in the NMS (Šašel Kos 1997), Ramovš, the authority on Podutik limestone, could only positively identify four altars of this stone. 134 tisti iz Podpeči, posebej za kvalitetnejše in večje ter Rižnar66 found that even the earliest walls of the colony included dekorativne izdelke, za manj zahtevne in masivnejše individual small chips of limestone, which also appeared in the pa podutiški.65 foundations and at the bottom of the foundation trench, and show 64 Ugotovitve I. Rižnarja,66 da so v najzgodnejših zidovih that limestone blocks (probably) from both quarries were used from kolonije vgrajeni tudi posamezni manjši odbitki apnenca, the beginning of the construction of the colony, most probably as ki se pojavljajo tudi v nasutju za temelje in v samih threshold or the like. We cannot confirm the opinion of Schmid67 on temeljih, kažejo, da so apnenčaste bloke iz (verjetno) Podpeč limestone being used in the construction of the city walls, as obeh kamnolomov uporabljali že takoj ob gradnji kolonije, we have no evidence of this; we are rather inclined to disprove such najverjetneje za elemente vrat ipd. Ni sicer mogoče a hypothesis. It is likely that it was used in the gateways of the city pritrditi W. Schmidu, da je bil podpečan uporabljan za walls, though even this is not corroborated by irrefutable material izgradnjo obzidja, saj o tem nimamo nobenega dokaza, evidence.68 Schmid does mention that limestone slabs were used prej bi veljalo nasprotno. Verjetno pa je, da so ga uporabili on the top of the city walls (found on parts of the west and south za oblikovanje vratnih odprtin v obzidju, čeprav tudi o tem walls),69 but does not suggest their date. What Schmid’s excavations ne poznamo nedvoumnih materialnih dokazov. Schmid did prove is that blocks and pieces of limestone were used in later sicer navaja, da je bil zgornji zaključek obzidja prekrit s renovations and repairs. 67 68 ploščami apnenca, odkrite so bile na delu zahodnega in južnega obzidja,69 vendar se do časa postavitve teh plošč Lower Triassic limestone ne opredeljuje. Vsekakor so bili bloki in kosi apnenca Lower Triassic rocks are known to crop out west of Ig in the direction uporabljeni pri poznejših obnovah in popravilih, kar so towards Želimlje (Skopačnik site). Of these, the 25m thick reddish- Schmidova izkopavanja nedvoumno potrdila. grey to medium dark grey platy dolomite, dolomitic limestone and dolomitic marlstone are reportedly attributed to the Spathian stage Spodnjetriasni apnenec (Upper Scythian).70 Boulder outcrops of Lower Triassic dolomite Zahodno od Iga proti Želimljam (lokacija Skopačnik) se limestone 71 have until recently been exposed on the bottoms of the pojavljajo spodnjetriasni skladi, med katerimi so naj- valleys of Draga and of the Iška stream. mlajši (spathijska stopnja, zgornji skit) rdečkastosivi do Ramovš states two stelae kept in the Narodni muzej that are made srednje temnosivi ploščasti dolomiti, dolomitni apnenci of this rock, one of ‘partly pink and grey oolitic limestone’72 found at in dolomitni laporovci debeline 25 metrov. V dolinah Ig73 and the other of ‘pale red-brown fine-grained limestone’74 from Drage in Iške so po dnu še do nedavnega izdanjali Spodnja Šiška in Ljubljana. 70 podorni bloki spodnjetriasnega dolomitnega apnenca,71 a jih danes ni več. We believe that the stela from Spodnja Šiška is not made of Lower Triassic limestone, but of red-brown coloured calcareous flowstone that can be found, for example, in the caves in the Kras. 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 Za rabo dekorativnega podpeškega apnenca, predvsem tistega z litiotidami in megalodontidami, ki ga je v modernem času preferiral J. Plečnik in je bil (tudi zato) pred kratkim predlagan za vpis na seznam GHSR – Global Heritage Stone Resource (Kramar et al. 2015), se zdi, da je bila v Emoni izrazito namenska. Uporabljali so ga predvsem za stebre (eden najlepših je bil odkrit med arheološkimi raziskavami za podzemne garaže v rimskem vodnjaku v parku Zvezda) in stenske oziroma talne obložne plošče (v malem Plečnikovem lapidariju na Mirju je eden od panojev sestavljen skoraj izključno iz ploščic, kakršne so bile odkrite tudi med izkopavanji v parku Zvezda na Kongresnem trgu). Med doslej znanimi kapiteli so v jurskih apnencih izdelani le toskanski kapiteli. Sicer je večina nagrobnih spomenikov z emonskih grobišč iz podpeškega apnenca. V proizvodnem smislu je še posebej pomembna nagrobna stela NMS inv. št. L 86 (Šašel Kos 1997, no. 52, 216–218), ki dokazuje dvostopenjsko proizvodnjo teh spomenikov. Veliko je bilo izdelanih manjših ali večjih skrinj pravokotnih pepelnic in žar, odkritih na emonskih grobiščih in hranjenih v NMS in MGML. Med vsemi epigrafskimi spomeniki v NMS (Šašel Kos 1997) je nesporni poznavalec gliničana A. Ramovš nedvoumno določil samo štiri are, izdelane iz tega kamna. Rižnar 2010. Schmid 1913, 89. Novejša izkopavanja L. Plesničar Gec (1964; 1999) teh elementov žal niso dovolj natančno dokumentirala. Schmid 1913, 72 in Abb. 8; »Deckplatte … aus Gleinitzer Kalk (60 x 77 x 40 cm)«. Dozet, Kolar – Jurkovšek 2007; Mušič 1992. Kolar – Jurkovšek, Jurkovšek 1996. Considering the material, the specific form of the stela and its early date (first third of the 1st century CE),75 we presume that it came to Emona along the same route and at the same time as the products of Aurisina/Nabrežina limestone; it is not impossible for the calcareous flowstone to have actually been obtained from the Aurisina/Nabrežina quarry itself. As for the only example of a stela of grey-reddish limestone, from Ig, it could have been carved out of a boulder in the valleys of Draga or the Iška stream and not necessarily in a hypothetical quarry, as suggested by Ramovš. 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 Rižnar 2010. Schmid 1913, 89. Unfortunately, these elements were not documented precisely enough during the modern excavations by L. Plesničar Gec (1964; 1999). Schmid 1913, 72 and Abb. 8; ‘Deckplatte … aus Gleinitzer Kalk (60 x 77 x 40 cm)’. Dozet, Kolar-Jurkovšek 2007; Mušič 1992. Kolar-Jurkovšek, Jurkovšek 1996. Šašel Kos 1997, No. 85, 272–273. According to Vodnik (1848, 88), the inscriptions are ‘expressas in petris calcareis, quae Uebergangs Kalkstein (Calcaire de transition) generi adcensentur’. Šašel Kos 1997, No. 38, 186–187. Šašel Kos 1997, No. 38, 188. Djurić, Rižnar 135 Po A. Ramovšu sta v lapidariju Narodnega muzeja Neogene limestone Slovenije shranjena dva nagrobnika iz te kamnine (»partly Neogene limestones rank among the most common rocks used pink and grey oolitic limestone«72 in »pale red-brown fine- in the cities and towns of the Roman Pannonia. They are porous, -grained limestone«73), prvi z Iga,74 drugi iz Spodnje Šiške mainly white to yellowish varieties of detritic limestone. We can, in v Ljubljani. principle, distinguish between the fine-grained limestone indicat- Napis iz Spodnje Šiške ni izdelan iz spodnjetriasnega ing sedimentation below the wave base and the coarse-grained apnenca, temveč iz rdečerjavo obarvane kalcitne sige, ki limestone with prevailing clasts measuring 0.2–5mm and occasional jo je mogoče najti npr. v jamah na območju Krasa. Glede larger fossils. The latter limestones, in certain stratigraphic horizons, na kamnino, specifično obliko nagrobnika in njegovo also include a substantial share of terrigenous grains brought into zgodnjo starost (1. tretjina 1. st.) domnevamo, da je the shallow sea by rivers. In geologic history, Neogene limestones prišel v Emono po isti poti in ob istem času kot izdelki iz throughout the Pannonian Basin were not exposed to conditions that nabrežinskega apnenca. Prav tako ni nemogoče, da je bila would enable a complete cementation of the rock and are therefore siga odlomljena v nabrežinskem kamnolomu. Za edini zna- generally very porous, which makes their density significantly lower ni nagrobnik iz sivordečkastega apnenca pa velja, da bi than, for example, Mesozoic limestones in the Kras or marble. The kamen zanj lahko odlomili tudi z nekega podornega bloka porosity does, however, make the stone much easier to work with v dolini Drage ali Iške in ne nujno v nekem hipotetičnem and enables, particularly in the fine-grained varieties, precision kamnolomu nad Želimljami, kot to domneva Ramovš. work and carving. Stonemasons also highly valued the isotropy and 75 homogeneity of Neogene limestones, which are of low age (12–16 Ma) Neogenski apnenec and hence in principle less or rarely tectonised or cracked than the Med najpogostejše kamnine, uporabljane v pannonskih far older and more brittle rocks that break in a different manner, also mestih, sodijo neogenski apnenci. Gre za porozne, due to their rigidity. v glavnem bele do rumenkaste različke detritičnega Emona has revealed a small number of objects made of Neogene apnenca, ki se med seboj razlikujejo po velikosti zrn limestone. The closest source of the material is in the westernmost in izvoru teh. Načeloma lahko ločimo drobnozrnati part of the Laško syncline in the Moravče valley,76 in the immedi- apnenec, ki je nastajal v globljem morju pod bazo valov, ate vicinity of the town of Moravče, where there are outcrops of in debelozrnati apnenec s prevladujočimi klasti debeline fine-grained Neogene limestone of Badenian age in the area med 0,2 in 5 milimetrov. Ti v določenih stratigrafskih between Moravče, Rudnik, Zalog pri Moravčah and the village of horizontih vsebujejo tudi precejšen delež terigenih zrn, Straža. This area measures roughly 6km2. The rock is greenish-grey ki so jih v plitvo morje prinašale tedanje reke. Neogenski and fine-grained detritic limestone with pelagic foraminifera and apnenci, ki izdanjajo v Sloveniji, v geološki zgodovini occasional quartz grains. The greenish-grey colour of the rock is niso bili izpostavljeni razmeram, ki bi omogočile popolno due to the glauconite mineral, but when the rock is exposed to air cementacijo kamnine, zaradi česar so ti apnenci nače- or oxygen-rich water, glauconite discolours and turns brownish- loma zelo porozni, kar pomeni, da je njihova specifična orange as a consequence of the iron in glauconite. The relatively gostota opazno nižja od na primer kraških apnencev ali low concentration of glauconite makes the oxidised rock yellowish. marmorja. Zaradi poroznosti je veliko lažja tudi obdelava, Researchers in the 19th century also referred to Moravče limestone ki predvsem v drobnozrnatih različkih omogoča natančno as Moräutscher Tuff, Tüfferer Mergel and Moräutscher Kalk. On the in dokaj lahko oblikovanje/klesanje. Tudi izotropnost in geologic map of the area that marked the position and extent of this homogenost sta med kamnoseki zelo cenjeni lastnosti limestone for the first time,77 it was defined as Tortonian, which is neogenskih apnencev, ki so zaradi nizke starosti (12–16 today equated with Badenian, a regional geologic stage used for the milijonov let, Ma) načeloma manj oziroma redkeje tek- Central Paratethys.78 tonizirani oziroma razpokani od neprimerno starejših in The terms Tuff and Tüferer most probably refer to the greenish-grey bolj krhkih kamnin, ki se med drugim zaradi svoje togosti colour usually characteristic of the tuff, which misled some authors deformirajo drugače. to imply that the limestone contained some volcanic ash as well. Tudi v Emoni nastopajo v manjšem deležu spomeniki iz Massive Neogene limestone has been confirmed in the past quarry neogenskega apnenca. Pojavljanje tega apnenca je Emoni sites79 – at Zalog pri Moravčah, west of Straža on the northern slope sicer najbližje v skrajnem zahodnem delu laške sinklinale v of the ridge south of the ponds and the Stražca stream, as well as 72 73 74 75 Šašel Kos 1997, no. 85, 272–273. Šašel Kos 1997, no. 38, 186–187. Po V. Vodniku (1848, 88) napisi »expressas in petris calcareis, quae Uebergangs Kalkstein (Calcaire de transition) generi adcensentur«. Šašel Kos 1997, no. 38, 188. 76 77 78 79 Premru 1983; Topole 2003; Stražar 1979. Kühnel 1933. Rögl 1996. Stražar 1979, 38–39. 136 Moravški dolini,76 v neposredni bližini Moravč, kjer izdanja drobnozrnat neogenski apnenec badenijske starosti na območju med Moravčami in Rudnikom ter Zalogom pri Moravčah in vasjo Straža. Celotno območje, kjer izdanja drobnozrnati apnenec, meri približno 6 kvadratnih kilometrov. Gre za zelenkastosiv drobnozrnat detritični apnenec s planktonskimi foraminiferami in posameznimi zrni kremena. Sveži kamnini daje sivozeleno barvo mineral glavkonit, ko pa kamnina oksidira na zraku ali v stiku z vodo, bogato s kisikom, se mineral razbarva v rjavkasto oranžno barvo, ki je posledica oksidacije železa v glavkonitu. Zaradi razmeroma nizke koncentracije glavkonita je oksidirana kamnina rumenkaste barve. Raziskovalci 19. stoletja so moravški apnenec imenovali tudi Moräutscher Tuff, Tüfferer Mergel in Moräutscher Kalk. Tako je na geološki karti območja, na kateri sta prvič označena položaj in obseg tega apnenca,77 ta označen kot »Torton«, ki ga danes enačimo z badenijem, regionalno geološko stopnjo, ki se uporablja za centralno Paratetido.78 Masivni neogenski apnenec smo na terenu potrdili na historičnih območjih kamnolomov79 – v Zalogu pri Moravčah, zahodno od vasi Straža v severnem pobočju grebena med ribniki in potokom Stražca ter na območju vasi Rudnik (sl. 5). V Zalogu pri Moravčah je na zahodnem pobočju hriba, severno ob cesti Moravče–Mošenik in vzhodno od potoka Drtiščica, na katerem še danes stojijo ostanki dvorca Warthenberg/Zalog (n. m. 395 m), mogoče ugotoviti z rušo prekrite ostanke večjega kamnoloma. Domnevamo, da so bili tu lomljeni tudi bloki za grajske stavbe,80 vidni v njegovem ohranjenem severnem delu in v številnih hišah in hlevih v okolici, po ustnem izročilu zgrajenih iz grajskih ruševin. Na severnem pobočju hrbta, na koncu katerega se razteza vas Straža, vzporedno z ribniki v dolini severno od tega hrbta, je mogoče ugotoviti sledove pridobivanja apnenca. Prav tako je jugozahodno od vasi Rudnik mogoče opazovati sledove izkoriščanja apnenca. Večino izdelkov iz te vrste apnenca tvorijo v Emoni preprosti, neokrašeni in anepigrafski sarkofagi z nizkimi pokrovi z vogalnimi akroteriji ali brez njih. Pogosti so tudi stebrički in plošče za hipokavst, manj je drugih izdelkov. Znani so na primer fragmentiran korintski kapitel iz insule X81 in fragment malega, domnevno rimskega jonskega Sl. 5: Položaj neogenskega apnenca na območju Moravč (E. Lozić, I. Rižnar). Fig. 5: Neogene limestone in the Moravče area (E. Lozić, I. Rižnar). in the area of the Rudnik village (fig. 5). At Zalog pri Moravčah, the remains of a large quarry now covered with turf are visible to the north of the road from Moravče to Mošenik and to the east of the Drtiščica stream, on the west slope of the hill (395m asl) that holds the remains of the Warthenberg/Zalog Manor. We presume that the ashlar for the manor house80 were quarried here, exposed in the surviving northern part, but also in the numerous houses and stables in the vicinity that the oral tradition claims to have been built from the ruins of the manor. The northern slope of the ridge, at the end of which stands the village of Straža, parallel to the ponds in the valley north of the ridge, revealed indications of limestone quarrying. Such traces have also been observed southwest of the village of Rudnik. This limestone was mainly used in Emona for simple, undecorated and non-epigraphic sarcophagi with low lids with or without corner acroteria, as well as for hypocaust pillars and slabs. It was rarely used for other products; there is a fragment of a Corinthian capital from Insula X,81 a fragment of a small, supposedly Roman Ionic column with a capital,82 several votive and funerary altars83 and a beautiful cinerary urn without a lid and imitating a wicker basket.84 All datable products can be attributed to the 3rd century, which suggests a fairly late, probably Late Roman beginning of use of this stone in Emona. Moravče fine-grained limestone can macroscopically be identified in the sarcophagus now part of the stone collection 76 77 78 79 80 81 Premru 1983; Topole 2003; Stražar 1979. Kühnel 1933. Rögl 1996. Stražar 1979, 38–39. Po Valvasorju zgrajen leta 1570; gl. Stražar 1979, 119. Schmid 1913, 129, Abb. 47. 80 81 82 83 84 Built in 1570 according to Valvasor; see Stražar 1979, 119. Schmid 1913, 129, Abb. 47. MGML Inv. No. S0073566; Müllner 1897, 63, Taf. II 4; Gaspari 2014, Fig. 12. Müllner described it as eigentümlicher in the text, but defined it as Roman in the table. We presume a non-Roman date. AIJ 161, 182; Šašel Kos 1997, Nos. 23, 49. NMS Inv. No. L59. Djurić, Rižnar 137 stebra s kapitelom,82 pa tudi nekaj redkih votivnih in in Mirje,85 in most of the sarcophagi in the lapidarium of the Narodni nagrobnih oltarjev ter lepo oblikovana žara brez pokrova muzej and in the numerous hypocaust pillars and slabs kept in the v obliki pletene košare.84 Vsi izdelki, ki jih je mogoče ča- Mestni muzej86. The lapidarium of the Narodni muzej also keeps sovno določiti, so uvrščeni v 3. stoletje, kar verjetno kaže two sarcophagi of coarse-grained detritic limestone with debris of dokaj pozen začetek rabe tega kamna v koloniji. Moravški Lithothamnium algae, bryozoa, echinoderms, bivalves and other drobnozrnati apnenec lahko makroskopsko prepoznamo biota. The well preserved ash chest from the northern cemetery vsaj v sarkofagu iz lapidarija na Mirju,85 večini sarkofagov of Emona87 is also made of the medium to coarse-grained detritic 83 iz lapidarija Narodnega muzeja Slovenije, pa tudi v števil- limestone with Lithothamnium algae (Lithothamnium limestone) nih stebričkih in ploščah hipokavsta v MGML.86 V lapidariju comparable with the one use for the sarcophagi. The lid of this Narodnega muzeja Slovenije hranijo tudi dva sarkofaga, ash chest is made of white bryozoan limestone with up to several izdelana iz debelozrnatega detritičnega apnenca z drobci centimetres large rounded fragments of bryozoans, detritus of litotamnij, briozojev, iglokožcev in druge biote. Odlično Lithothamnium algae and frequent orbitoids. These lithotypes are all ohranjena pepelnica s severnega grobišča87 je prav characteristic of Badenian and most probably crop out somewhere tako izdelana iz srednje- do grobozrnatega detritičnega in the vicinity of Moravče, but have thus far not been located as the apnenca z litotamnijskimi algami (litotamnijski apnenec), area is mostly covered by turf, forest or crops. ki ga je mogoče primerjati s tistim, uporabljenim za Not all the lithotypes have actually been confirmed in the sarkofage. Pokrov te pepelnice je izdelan iz belega vicinity of Moravče, hence another possibility should be taken into briozojskega apnenca z do nekaj centimetrov velikimi consideration: the coarse-grained Lithothamnium limestone might zaobljenimi fragmenti briozojev, detritom litotamnijskih also come from the Tuhinj syncline around Kamnik, where Badenian alg in pogostimi orbitoidi. Ti litotipi so vsi značilni za limestone is interstratified with clastites.88 badenij in zelo verjetno izdanjajo v bližini Moravč, vendar doslej na terenu še niso bili potrjeni, ker jih prekrivajo Conglomerate travniki, gozd in polja. The Mestni muzej keeps a small fragment of a column shaft89 and Ker vsi litotipi niso bili potrjeni v okolici Moravč, bi bilo two fragmented floor slabs90 of medium-grained conglomerate with treba upoštevati še drugo možnost. Grobozrnat litota- multi-coloured and mainly carbonate pebbles. The sandy-silty matrix mnijski apnenec bi namreč lahko prišel tudi iz Tuhinjske is red to brick red, which renders the stone highly decorative. All sinklinale okoli Kamnika, kjer je badenijski apnenec are without context, but doubtlessly from Ljubljana. Of the same interstratificiran s klastiti.88 conglomerate, the Narodni muzej keeps a fragment of an entablature block with an architrave with two fasciae and a plain frieze above Konglomerat it, while the soffit bears vegetal decoration.91 This unquestionably Mestni muzej v Ljubljani hrani manjši fragment trupa Roman architectural member found somewhere in Ljubljana confirms stebra89 in dve fragmentirani talni obložni plošči,90 vse the Roman use of this rock, which was otherwise much more frequent brez najdiščnih podatkov, vendar nedvomno iz Ljubljane. in post-medieval and modern times across the Gorenjska region and Vsi predmeti so izdelani iz srednjezrnatega konglomerata z in Ljubljana.92 raznobarvnimi, v glavnem karbonatnimi prodniki. Peščeno The rock is Škofja Loka Conglomerate quarried on the hill of Kamnitnik in Škofja Loka; the composition of the conglomerate and 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 MGML akc. št. S0073566; Müllner 1897, 63, Taf. II 4; Gaspari 2014, sl. 12. Müllner ga v besedilu označuje z besedo »eigentümlicher«, na tabeli pa definira kot rimskega. Mi bi se opredelili proti njegovi rimski starosti. AIJ 161, 182; Šašel Kos 1997, nos. 23, 49. NMS inv. št. L 59. Sarkofag iz malega lapidarija na Mirju je bil vzorčen, vzorec pa kaže tesno sorodnost z moravškim apnencem s severnega pobočja grebena vzdolž ribnikov, nekaj sto metrov južno od Zaloga pri Moravčah. Za vzorec se zahvaljujemo MGML in B. Županek. Ti grobo izdelani stebrički, visoki običajno 2 pedes, izvirajo s Schmidovih izkopavanj (Schmid 1913). Domnevamo, da so tam omenjani »Lehmpfeiler« in »Lehmplatten« v resnici prav ti, izdelani iz neogenskega apnenca. Izkopavanje Potniški center Ljubljana 2007–8 (T. Mulh), objavljena fotografija v Emona 2014, sl. 137. Premru 1983. MGML akc. št. S0079971. MGML akc. št. S0078588, izkopavanja Plesničar 1968–70 na emonskem forumu. the origin of its pebbles has already been published by Ramovš.93 We presume that it became popular in Emona in Late Antiquity, when 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 The sarcophagus from the small collection of stones in Mirje was sampled and the results show great similarity with Moravče limestone from the northern slope of the ridge south of the ponds, several hundred metres south of Zalog pri Moravčah. Sampling was kindly permitted by the MGML and B. Županek. These roughly made pillars of Neogene limestone, usually two pedes high, were unearthed during Schmid’s excavations (Schmid 1913), presumably the very same that Schmid mentions as Lehmpfeiler and Lehmplatten. Excavations at Potniški center Ljubljana 2007–8 (T. Mulh), photograph published in Emona 2014, Fig. 137. Premru 1983. MGML Acc. No. S0079971. MGML Acc. No. S0078588, the 1968–70 excavations at the forum directed by Plesničar-Gec. NMS Inv. No. L 216. Ramovš 1954. Ramovš 1968; Čretnik, Golež 2010. 138 vezivo v tem konglomeratu je rdeče do opečnatordeče, kar there was a taste for Mediterranean coloured marbles and other daje kamnini visoko dekorativno vrednost. Narodni muzej decorative rocks in architecture. Mediterranean marbles being costly, Slovenije hrani fragment iz te kamnine izdelanega ogredja they were often replaced by similar rocks, i.e. substitution marbles.94 stebrišča z arhitravom z dvema fascijama ter praznim Škofja Loka Conglomerate is very similar in appearance to a rock frizom nad njim, ki ima spodnjo ploskev okrašeno z vege- that was very popular in Late Antiquity, quarried at Akrini (Kozani, tabilnim okrasom. Ta nedvomno rimskodobni arhitekturni Greece)95 and today known as breccia policroma della vittoria. Its fragment, odkrit nekje v Ljubljani, potrjuje rimskodobno imitation in mosaic can also be found on the well-known floor mosaic rabo kamnine, ki je bila sicer pogosto uporabljana v from Drnovo.96 91 novoveških in modernih arhitekturah na Gorenjskem in v Tuf Ljubljani.92 Kamnina je škofjeloški konglomerat, lomljen na hribu The Mestni muzej keeps at least one fragmented slab97 of a green Kamnitnik v Škofji Loki, katere sestavo prodnikov podaja pyroclastic rock usually determined as Peračica Tuff, with the quarry Ramovš.93 Domnevamo, da je postal v Emoni priljubljen closest to Emona located near Črnivec in the Gorenjska region. v pozni antiki, ko se v arhitekturah nasploh poudarjeno Pieces of this stone were also used in Emona for opus signinum uporablja dekorativne kamnine, mediteranske barvne floors.98 The stone was also used as corner ashlar, as well as marmorje. Zaradi njihove cenovne nedosegljivosti so jih hypocaust pillars and slabs in the Roman complex found at Mošnje marsikje lokalno nadomeščali z njim podobnimi kamnina- in Gorenjska.99 In this region, the tuff was mainly used in the modern mi, nadomestnimi marmorji. Škofjeloški konglomerat je period.100 94 močno podoben v pozni antiki zelo priljubljeni kamnini iz kraja Akrini (Kozani, Grčija),95 znani pod imenom breccia IMPORTED – INTERPROVINCIAL ROCKS policroma della vittoria. Posnemano v mozaični tehniki jo najdemo na znanem talnem mozaiku z Drnovega.96 Aurisina/Nabrežina limestone The earliest stone used in Emona (and Nauportus) for funerary Tuf monuments is not Jurassic limestone or any other locally available Mestni muzej v Ljubljani hrani vsaj eno fragmentirano rock, but the stone most important for Aquileia at least from the ploščo,97 izdelano iz zelene piroklastične kamnine, ki jo early 1st century BCE onwards – Upper Cretaceous Aurisina/Nabrežina običajno označujejo kot peračiški tuf in je bila najbližje limestone (pietra di Aurisina).101 It corresponds with the Lipica Emoni lomljena v bližini Črnivca na Gorenjskem. Koščki iste Formation on the Trieste-Komen plateau.102 Its lithotypes range from kamnine so bili v Emoni uporabljeni tudi pri izdelavi tlakov light grey biomicrites to biosparites, compact, homogeneous and tipa opus signinum.98 Sicer je bil ta kamen uporabljen thick-bedded. They contain the characteristic rudists (a specific tudi v rimski arhitekturi, odkriti v Mošnjah na Gorenjskem, type of Cretaceous bivalves), but also occasional foraminifera na mestu vogalnih kamnov.99 Na Gorenjskem je bila ta and rare bryozoa. Most of these limestone varieties have excellent kamnina v rabi predvsem v novem veku.100 physical properties also appreciated by present-day sculptors and stonemasons. In the Roman period, this limestone was quarried in UVOŽENE – NADPROVINCIALNE KAMNINE the Cava romana at Nabresina/Aurisina/Nabrežina northwest of Trieste/Trst that still shows traces of the Roman quarrying tools on the faces and half-finished products in the discarded material.103 Nabrežinski apnenec The Roman-period complex of the Aurisina/Nabrežina quarry is the Najzgodnejša kamnina, uporabljena v Emoni (Emona) in subject of ongoing research into the materials used at Aquileia,104 v Navportu (Nauportus) za nagrobne spomenike, ni jurski apnenec ali katera koli druga lokalna kamnina. Za te 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 NMS inv. št. L 216. Ramovš 1954. Ramovš 1968; Čretnik, Golež 2010. Russel 2013, 166. Lazzarini 2007, 245–252. Djurić 1976, 565–566. Vel. 45 x 40/21 x 7 cm, PN 3729 ½, najverjetneje plošča za hipokavst. 98 Nova izkopavanja na Slovenski cesti (2015) na območju insule XIII so odkrila manjši tlak s takimi vključki. 99 Lux 2008, Košir 2011, Lavrič 2015.. 100 Za to rabo glej Avguštin 1970–71; Ramovš 1973. 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 Russel 2013, 166. Lazzarini 2007, 245–252. Djurić 1976, 565–566. Size 45 × 40/21 × 7, PN 3729 ½, most probably a hypocaust slab. A floor with such pieces was found in Insula XIII during the 2015 excavation at Slovenska cesta. Lux 2008, Košir 2011, Lavrič 2015. On such use see Avguštin 1970–71; Ramovš 1973. For Aurisina limestone see Carulli, Onofri 1969; Cucchi, Gerdol 1986; Maritan, Mazzoli, Melis 2003; Geositi FVG 2010. See Jurkovšek 2010 with references. Bonetto, Previato 2013, 148. Bonetto, Previato 2013; Previato, Bonetto, Mazzoli, Maritan 2014; Previato 2015. Djurić, Rižnar 139 spomenike je bila uporabljana kamnina, ki je bila vsaj od but it has also provided a fair amount of data on the infrastructure,105 začetka 1. stoletja pr. kr. št. najpomembnejša kamnina as well as the products made of this stone.106 Along the route across Akvileje (Aquileia) – zgornjekredni nabrežinski apnenec the Razdrto and (later) Hrušica Passes, these products arrived to (pietra di Aurisina),101 ki mu na Tržaško-komenski planoti Emona, which seems to be the easternmost point of its distribution. ustreza lipiška formacija.102 Gre za zelo čiste biomikritne The main distribution area of Aurisina/Nabrežina limestone is the Po do biosparitne apnence, kompaktne, homogene, stratifi- Valley at least to Ticinum (present-day Pavia)107 in the west. cirane v debelih plasteh, svetlosive osnove. Značilni fosili The earliest Roman funerary monument from the Ljubljana area, v njih so predvsem rudisti različnih velikosti in podrejeno the tombstone of Titus Caesernius Diphilus,108 dated to the time prior foraminifere in redki briozoji. Ti apnenci imajo odlične to the construction of the city on the left bank of the Ljubljanica,109 petrografske, kemično-mineralne in fizikalno-mehanske is made of Aurisina/Nabrežina limestone. This stone was also used lastnosti, hkrati sta zanje značilni kompaktnost in odlična to make the boundary stone between the territories of Aquileia and obstojnost. Emona found in the River Ljubljanica at Bevke,110 the stela (possibly Apnenec je bil lomljen v kamnolomu Cava romana v a cenotaph) for Titus Iunius Montanus,111 the tombstone for the slave Nabrežini (Nabresina/Aurisina) severozahodno od Trsta, Flavus,112 the small votive aedicula dedicated to Aecorna,113 numer- kjer so bili na stenah odkriti antični sledovi kamnoseškega ous situla-like cinerary urns,114 a Composite capital and a fluted orodja in v odpadnem materialu polizdelki. column shaft from the civil basilica,115 as well as the large fluted 103 Rimskodobni kompleks nabrežinskega kamnoloma je sicer predmet novih raziskav, vezanih na materiale, uporabljane v pilaster kept in the Narodni muzej.116 These monuments reveal that, in the time when the local quarries Akvileji,104 že nekaj časa pa je znanih nekaj podatkov tudi of Jurassic limestone were not yet open, the inhabitants of Emona o tamkajšnji infrastrukturi,105 medtem ko posebej potekajo were supplied with such products by the imports from Aurisina/ raziskave o izdelkih iz tega kamna.106 Ti so po cesti prek Nabrežina, which continued to be imported for some time after the Razdrtega in (pozneje) Hrušice prispeli vse do Emone, ki se zdi njihova najvzhodnejša točka širitve. Sicer so bili izdelki iz nabrežinskega apnenca razširjeni predvsem po celotni Padski nižini vsaj do Ticinuma (mod. Pavia)107 na zahodu. Sploh najzgodnejši rimski nagrobni spomenik z območja Ljubljane, nagrobna plošča Tita Cezernija Diphila (T. Caesernius Diphilus),108 ki je datirana v obdobje pred 105 106 107 108 109 postavitvijo mesta na levem bregu Ljubljanice,109 je izdelan iz nabrežinskega apnenca. Iz tega apnenca so izdelani mejnik iz Ljubljanice pri Bevkah, 110 nagrobna stela (morda kenotaf) Tita Iunia Montana,111 stela sužnja Flava,112 mala votivna kapelica, posvečena Ekorni (Aecorna),113 številne 110 111 112 113 114 115 101 O nabrežinskem apnencu glej Carulli, Onofri 1969; Cucchi, Gerdol 1986; Maritan, Mazzoli, Melis 2003; Geositi FVG 2010. 102 Glej Jurkovšek 2010 s tam navedeno literaturo. 103 Bonetto, Previato 2013, 148. 104 Bonetto, Previato 2013; Previato, Bonetto, Mazzoli, Maritan 2014; Previato 2015. 105 Maselli Scotti 1976; 1982; Flego, Rupel, Župančič 2001. 106 Npr. Cigaina 2013. 107 Glej npr. Gorrini, Robino 2015; Bonetto, Previato 2013. 108 Šašel Kos 1997, no. 3, 122–125. 109 O možnih interpretacijah naselja pred kolonijo na levem bregu reke glej Slapšak 2015 in Šašel Kos 2015 ter tam navedeno starejšo literaturo. 110 Šašel Kos 2002. 111 Šašel Kos 1997, no. 36, 183–185. 112 Šašel Kos 1997, no. 51, 214–216. 113 Šašel Kos 1997, no. 5, 129–130. 116 Maselli Scotti 1976; 1982; Flego, Rupel, Župančič 2001. E.g. Cigaina 2013. See e.g. Gorrini, Robino 2015; Bonetto, Previato 2013. Šašel Kos 1997, No. 3, 122–125. For the possible interpretations of the settlement before the colony on the left bank of the Ljubljanica see Slapšak 2015 and Šašel Kos 2015, with earlier literature. Šašel Kos 2002. Šašel Kos 1997, No. 36, 183–185. Šašel Kos 1997, No. 51, 214–216. Šašel Kos 1997, No. 5, 129–130. NMS Inv. Nos. 65, 73; MGML 510:LJU; 0048561, 0048562, 0048573, 0051186, 0051188. Plesničar-Gec 2006, 46, Fig. 29. Reconstruction published in Gaspari 2014, Fig. 199. Description of the sample of the fluted column shaft from the civil basilica (B. Jurkovšek, I. Rižnar): Fine-grained bioclastic limestone of the ‘unito’ type that contains fragments of rudist shells and miliolids. Grains are angular to poorly rounded. Grains are well sorted and measure up to 2mm. The matrix is washed, the intergranular pores filled up to 95% with transparent calcite cement. The rock is thus porous, the volume of the pores estimated at 5%. The limestone can be ascribed a relatively high energy index (3–4), the light colour indicates a well-aired environment of an open shelf. The fossil content is represented by chronologically uncharacteristic biota (miliolids and rudist fragments are not fossils that would point to a precise age) that indicates a Cretaceous age. In spite of this, if assuming the origin in western Slovenia and the Kras, the stone can be attributed to the Lipica Formation, more precisely its so-called productive horizon or the central part dominated by bioclastic varieties of platform limestone containing the above-enumerated allochems. In the Italian part of the Kras, the Lipica Formation is represented by the upper part of socalled Aurisina limestones known as Calcari di Aurisina in Italian literature. As the name suggests, they can also be found at Aurisina, in the Aurisina quarry itself. The limestones of the productive horizon of the Lipica Formation that also crop out may include lenses or beds of less porous limestones, which are, of course, of a higher quality and particularly useful for architectural members exposed to the weather; the sample discussed here, however, is of a porous limestone variety of the Lipica Formation. NMS Inv. No. L 168. 140 situlaste žare,114 kompozitni kapitel in kanelirani steber iz local quarries were opened.117 Later, Aurisina/Nabrežina products civilne bazilike, were only imported on rare and exceptional occasions. One such 115 pa tudi veliki kanelirani pilaster v NMS. 116 Spomeniki kažejo, da so potrebe po kamnitih izdelkih v času, ko lokalni kamnolomi jurskega apnenca še niso bili odprti, prebivalci Emone zadovoljevali z uvoženimi izdelki exception is the architectural furnishings of the civil basilica dated to the Severan period.118 Together with the products of Aurisina/Nabrežina limestone iz Nabrežine, ki so jih uvažali še nekaj časa po začetku and most probably from the same area, Emona in the early times delovanja emonskih kamnolomov.117 Pozneje so nabre- of the colony also received products of a specific, marble-like rock žinske izdelke uvažali le poredko in izjemoma. Poseben characteristic of karst environments, i.e. calcareous flowstone. One tak primer pomeni arhitektonska oprema civilne bazilike, such product is the already mentioned stela made of reddish-brown datirana v severski čas. flowstone put up by a soldier of Legio XV,119 as well as two other 118 Skupaj z izdelki iz nabrežinskega apnenca so v zgo- products of pink flowstone, one a tombstone for Urbana120 and the dnjem času kolonije prišli, najverjetneje z istega območja, other a small votive inscription dedicated to Aecurna.121 Flowstone tudi izdelki iz posebne, marmorju podobne kamnine, was used also for the decorative architectural elements.122 sicer značilne za kraška okolja – sige. Omenjen je bil že nagrobnik iz rdečkastorjave sige, ki ga je postavil vojak Eastern Alpine white marble XV. legije.119 Temu lahko pridružimo še dva kosa iz rožnate There are a number of known Roman quarries of Eastern Alpine white sige, nagrobnik Urbane120 in mali votivni napis Ekurni marble123, but only those at Gummern124 near Villach/Beljak and, from (Aecurna). the early 2nd century onwards, on the Pohorje Hills125 are interregional 121 Siga je bila uporabljena tudi za dekorativne arhitektonske elemente. 122 and interprovincial and hence possible sources of the products in Emona. The deposits of white marble are located fairly far from Emona, particularly those at Gummern, a connection with which is further hindered by a less convenient transport route. 114 NMS inv. št. 65, 73; MGML 510:LJU; 0048561, 0048562, 0048573, 0051186, 0051188. 115 Plesničar Gec 2006, 46, sl. 29. Rekonstrukcija, objavljena v Gaspari 2014, sl. 199. Opis vzorca iz kaneliranega stebra civilne bazilike (B. Jurkovšek, I. Rižnar): Drobnozrnat bioklastičen apnenec tipa »unito«, ki vsebuje odlomke rudistnih lupin in miliolid. Zrna so oglata do delno zaobljena. Zrna so dobro sortirana in merijo do 2 mm. Matriks je izpran, medzrnske pore pa so do 95 % zapolnjene s prozornim kalcitnim cementom. Kamnina je torej porozna, volumen por pa ocenjujemo na 5 %. Apnencu lahko pripišemo razmeroma visok energijski indeks (3–4), svetla barva pa kaže na dobro prezračeno okolje odprtega šelfa. Fosilni inventar predstavlja zgolj neznačilna biota (miliolide in odlomki rudistov niso fosili, ki bi natančneje določali starost apnenca), ki kaže na kredo. Kljub temu lahko apnenec, če predpostavimo njegov izvor v zahodni Sloveniji oziroma na Krasu, uvrstimo v Lipiško formacijo, natančneje v t. i. produktivni horizont oziroma njen osrednji del, v katerem prevladujejo bioklastični različki platformskega apnenca, ki vsebuje zgoraj naštete alokeme. Na območju italijanskega dela Krasa predstavlja Lipiška formacija ekvivalent zg. delu t. i. nabrežinskih apnencev, ki so v italijanski literaturi poimenovani Calcari di Aurisina. Kot že ime pove, se nahajajo tudi v Nabrežini oziroma prav v nabrežinskem kamnolomu. Apnenci produktivnega horizonta Lipiške formacije, ki izdanjajo tudi v nabrežinskem kamnolomu, lahko vsebujejo tudi leče oziroma plasti manj poroznih apnencev, ki so seveda boljše kvalitete predvsem za arhitekturne elemente, izpostavljene vremenskim vplivom, vendar pa obravnavani vzorec pripada poroznim, torej nekoliko slabšim različkom apnenca Lipiške formacije. 116 NMS inv. št. L 168. 117 Primer nagrobne plošče Vibunnie Matrone (Šašel Kos 1997, no. 60) iz podpeškega apnenca, ki posnema zgodnje nagrobne plošče iz nabrežinskega apnenca, bi lahko kazal na sočasni obstoj dveh kamnoseških produkcij v Emoni. 118 Plesničar Gec 2006, 46. 119 Šašel Kos 1997, no. 38, 186–187. 120 Šašel Kos 1997, no. 58, 226–228. 121 Šašel Kos 1997, no. 4, 127–128. 122 MGML hrani bazo vogalnega polpilastra iz sige; inv. št. 510:LJU; 0059560. Thirteen marble monuments kept in the Narodni muzej126 were sampled and characterised in 2003 by Harald W. Müller.127 The results have shown the typical chronological and quantity ratio between Gummern and Pohorje marbles. The early monuments, i.e. both fragmented Imperial inscriptions from CE 14/15,128 the stela for the Claturnii,129 the funerary altar for L. Rufius130 and the votive altar dedicated to Mater Magna,131 are made of Gummern marble, while the monuments dating from the early 2nd century onwards are predominantly made of Pohorje marble.132 These results confirm the general impression on the importance of the city and the wealth of 117 The tombstone for Vibunnia Matrona (Šašel Kos 1997, No. 60) is made of Podpeč limestone, but imitates the early tombstones of Aurisina/Nabrežina limestone and might thus indicate a contemporaneous activity of two stone productions in Emona. 118 Plesničar-Gec 2006, 46. 119 Šašel Kos 1997, No. 38, 186–187. 120 Šašel Kos 1997, No. 58, 226–228. 121 Šašel Kos 1997, No. 4, 127–128. 122 MGML keeps a basis of a corner half-pilaster made of flowstone; Inv. No. 510:LJU;0059560. 123 Djurić, Müller 2009. 124 Müller 2007. 125 For the distribution along the Rivers Drava and Danube see Djurić 2005; Djurić, Davidović, Maver, Müller 2006; Djurić, Filipović, Müller 2009. 126 Eleven of them were found in Emona: Šašel Kos 1997, Nos. 20, 34, 35, 48, 50, 56, 68, 75, 105, p. 485-L170; NMS Inv. No. L 205 (Istenič 2012). 127 Unpublished; the results were presented at a workshop entitled Naravoslovne raziskave premične arheološke dediščine v Sloveniji 1998–2008, organised by the NMS, 18 February 2009 (B. Djurić, Karakterizacija vzhodnoalpskih marmorjev v Sloveniji: stanje in rezultati). 128 AIJ 170 a, b; CIL III 10768; Šašel Kos 1997, Nos. 34, 35. 129 AIJ 184; CIL III 3858; Šašel Kos 1997, No. 50. 130 AIJ 194; CIL III 3870; Šašel Kos 1997, No. 56. 131 CIL III 14354, 8; Šašel Kos 1997, No. 20. 132 Šašel Kos 1997, No. 68, p. 485-NMS Inv. No. L170; Istenič 2012, NMS Inv. No. L 205. Djurić, Rižnar 141 Vzhodnoalpski beli marmor its inhabitant in the 1st century, when a significantly higher number Rimskih kamnolomov vzhodnoalpskega belega marmorja of monuments was made of more precious, imported stones includ- je znanih veliko,123 vendar se kot nadregionalni in nadpro- ing Gummern marble, while Pohorje quarries only supplied the army vincialni, tisti torej, na katerih izdelke lahko računamo v camp and canabae of Poetovio.133 Emoni, kažejo samo kamnolom v Gummernu124 pri Beljaku in od zgodnjega 2. stoletja naprej kamnolomi Pohorja. The overview of the surviving architectural remains, primarily of column shafts that are heaviest for transport, has shown that 125 Nahajališča belega marmorja ležijo precej daleč od the public and private architecture of Emona was almost devoid Emone in predvsem Gummern je bil od Emone zaradi težje of marble. The marble semi-finished products of bases, capitals, transportne poti bolj oddaljen kot Pohorje. shafts, entablature and the like were only rarely imported to Emona.134 Marble was, however, Eastern Alpine marbles included, used Karakterizacija trinajstih marmornih spomenikov, hranjenih v NMS, 126 ki jo je leta 2003 izdelal Harald W. Müller, 127 je pokazala značilno časovno in količinsko razmerje for decoration as opus sectile wall and floor veneering, as well as associated plinths.135 med gummernskim in pohorskim marmorjem v Emoni. Vsi zgodnji spomeniki, oba fragmentirana cesarska napisa Mediterranean marbles iz leta 14/15,128 nagrobna stela Claturnijev,129 nagrobna Mediterranean marbles, either white or coloured, are poorly repre- ara L. Rufija130 in votivna ara Mater Magnae,131 so izdelani sented in Emona. They have thus far been found as opus sectile iz gummernskega marmorja, medtem ko so spomeniki, flooring, wall veneer and associated plinths,136 as well as statues137 nastali od zgodnjega 2. stoletja naprej, predvsem iz and at least one small votive altar.138 pohorskega marmorja. 132 Ti podatki potrjujejo splošen vtis The opus sectile decoration in at least one of the buildings in o pomenu mesta in premoženju meščanov v 1. stoletju, ko Emona included slabs of marmor lacedaemonium (= porfido verde je bilo precej večje število spomenikov izdelanih iz drago- antico);139 they were unearthed during the 2009–2011 excavations in cenih, uvoženih kamnin, tudi gummernskega marmorja, in a building at Kongresni trg.140 ko so pohorski kamnolomi služili le legijskemu taboru in kanabam Poetovione (Poetovio).133 Pregled ohranjenih arhitekturnih delov, predvsem stebrov, ki so za transport najtežji izdelki, kaže, da javna in privatna arhitektura v Emoni skoraj ne pozna marmorjev. Marmorne polizdelke baz, kapitelov, teles stebrov, delov ogredja ipd. so v Emono uvažali precej redko.134 So pa jih, tudi vzhodnoalpske marmorje, uporabljali v obliki 123 Djurić, Müller 2009. 124 Müller 2007. 125 Za razširjenost vzdolž Drave in Donave glej Djurić 2005; Djurić, Davidović, Maver, Müller 2006; Djurić, Filipović, Müller 2009; 126 Iz Emone jih izvira enajst: Šašel Kos 1997, nos. 20, 34, 35, 48, 50, 56, 68, 75, 105, str. 485 – L 170; NMS inv. št. L 205 (Istenič 2012). 127 Neobjavljeno, rezultati so bili predstavljeni v predavanju na delavnici Naravoslovne raziskave premične arheološke dediščine v Sloveniji 1998–2008, v organizaciji NMS, 18. februarja 2009 (B. Djurić, Karakterizacija vzhodnoalpskih marmorjev v Sloveniji: stanje in rezultati). 128 AIJ 170 a, b; CIL III 10768; Šašel Kos 1997, nos. 34, 35. 129 AIJ 184; CIL III 3858; Šašel Kos 1997, no. 50. 130 AIJ 194; CIL III 3870; Šašel Kos 1997, no. 56. 131 CIL III 14354,8; Šašel Kos 1997, no. 20. 132 Šašel Kos 1997, no. 68, str. 485 – NMS inv. št. L 170; Istenič 2012, NMS inv. št. L 205. 133 Glej npr. Djurić 2008. 134 Korintski kapitel nagrobnega stebra za bronast kip »Emonca«, izdelan iz pohorskega marmorja, je bil namenjen specifičnemu nagrobnemu spomeniku, ne arhitekturi. Je pa v Plečnikovo piramido v obzidju Emone na Mirju vzidan fragment marmornega ogredja (?), ki bi lahko potrjeval sporadično rabo marmornih arhitekturnih elementov v Emoni. Med izkopavanji septembra leta 2015 na Slovenski cesti (območje insule XIII) odkrit fragmentiran marmorni korintski(?) kapitel potrjuje tako rabo. 133 See e.g. Djurić 2008. 134 The Corinthian capital of Pohorje marble found together with the gilded bronze statue of the so-called Emonec (Istenič 2012) formed part of a funerary column and not a building. A sporadic use of marble architectural members for buildings can nevertheless be presumed on the basis of a fragment of a marble cornice now built into Plečnik’s pyramid in Mirje and fragments of a marble Corinthian(?) capital found in September 2015 during the excavations at Slovenska cesta (Insula XIII). 135 The numerous fragments of Mediterranean marble that Plečnik had built into the small stone collection in a room within the city walls in Mirje include those of Eastern Alpine marbles. Wall and floor veneer panels of these marbles were also found during the 2013 excavations at Gregorčičeva 1 (Magelan skupina 2013). 136 See Fn. 124. 137 E.g. the imperial portrait of Constantius Chlorus?; see Osvald 2014. 138 Šašel Kos 1997, No. 4, pp. 127–128; the fine-grained marble may be Carrara bardiglio (pers. comm. W. Prochaska). 139 Lazzarini 2007, 45–69. 140 The information was kindly provided by M. Horvat from the MGML. 142 dekorativnih obložnih (stenskih in talnih) plošč tehnike opus sectile in za vogalne profile.135 Mediteranski marmorji Mediteranski marmorji, beli in barvni, so v Emoni slabo zastopani. Doslej so bili odkriti le v obliki dekorativnih obložnih (stenskih in talnih) plošč (opus sectile) in talnih profilov,136 v obliki kipov,137 vsaj v enem primeru pa tudi v obliki male votivne are.138 Vsaj v enem primeru je bil za okras stavbe v tehniki opus sectile uporabljen marmor lacedaemonium (= porfido verde antico),139 odkrit med izkopavanji v letih 2009–2011 v stavbi na Kongresnem trgu.140 135 Med številnimi fragmenti mediteranskega marmorja, ki jih je J. Plečnik vgradil v mali lapidarij znotraj emonskega obzidja na Mirju, so tudi vzhodnoalpski marmorji. Izkopavanja na Gregorčičevi 1 leta 2013 (Magelan skupina 2013) so med drugim odkrila dele obložnih elementov iz vzhodnoalpskega marmorja. 136 Glej op. 124. 137 Npr. cesarski portret Konstancija Klora (?); glej Osvald 2014. 138 Šašel Kos 1997, no. 4, str. 127–128; finozrnati marmor je morda Carrara bardiglio (ustno W. Prochaska). 139 Lazzarini 2007, 45–69. 140 Za podatek se zahvaljujemo M. Horvatu iz MGML. 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Bojan Djurić Filozofska fakulteta Univerza v Ljubljani Aškerčeva 2 1000 Ljubljana bojan.djuric@ff.uni-lj.si Igor Rižnar Ulica bratov Martinec 40 1000 Ljubljana igor.riznar@telemach.net

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