CENTURY LISA VOIGT, « ILLUSTRATING BRAZIL IN SIXTEENTHANTWERP », Le Verger – bouquet VIII, septembre 2015. ILLUSTRATING BRAZIL IN SIXTEENTH-CENTURY ANTWERP Lisa VOIGT (The Ohio State University) In 1558, the renowned French printer in Antwerp Christopher Plantin published a Dutch translation of Hans Staden’s Warhaftige Historia, an account of the German soldier’s captivity among the Tupinambá Indians of southeastern Brazil. Staden’s account was already an editorial success, having been printed four times in Marburg and Frankfurt in 1557. 1 Also in 1558, Plantin reprinted another account of travel to Brazil: the French cosmographer André Thevet’s Singularitez de la France Antarctique, which like Staden’s account had first been published the year before, in Paris.2 Staden and Thevet nearly coincided in real life, a few years before their texts convened in Plantin’s print shop in 1558. After being rescued by the trading ship of French captain Guilhaume de Monet, Hans Staden arrived in France in early 1555; later that same year, André Thevet departed for Brazil on Nicholas de Villegnanon’s expedition to found la France Antarctique in the bay of Rio de Janeiro. Eve Duffy and Alida Metcalf speculate that the subsequent voyage Captain Monet wanted Staden to join (which he, however, declined) may have been Villegnanon’s, and that Staden may have even provided valuable information about Brazil to Villegnanon in exchange for the money he received from Captain Monet (73-74).3 Whether or not he met Staden himself in France, Thevet apparently encountered one of Staden’s captors in Brazil, the chief Cunhambebe (rendered by Staden as Konyan Bebe and Thevet as Quoniambec)—of whom, Thevet writes, he may speak “pour l’avoir veu, ouy & assés à loisir remarqué” (661v). 4 Thevet’s claim of firsthand experience and his portrait of Cunhambebe serve a mutually authenticating function in Les vrais pourtraits et vies des homes illustres grecz, latins et payens (1584), together opposing the errors and “lies” of François de Belleforest and Jean de Léry that Thevet goes on to denounce (Fig. 1). It was also in 1555—the year of Staden’s arrival in France and Thevet’s departure for Brazil— that Christopher Plantin began publishing, after first working as a bookbinder when he moved to Antwerp from his native France in 1548 or 1549. Plantin’s editions of Staden and Thevet are among his earliest publications, and as such they feature woodcut illustrations; it was only in the 1570s that Plantin embraced the more difficult and costly intaglio technique that led to his fame as “the leading publisher of books with engraved illustrations in all of Europe” (61).5 Perhaps surprisingly, given the shared subject matter of Brazilian plants, 1 2 3 4 5 STADEN Hans, Warachtige historie ende beschrivinge eens lants in America ghelegen…, Antwerp, Plantin, 1558. Joseph SABIN lists two issues published by Andreas Kolbe in Marburg and two by Weigand Han in Frankfurt in 1557 in his Bibliotheca Americana: A Dictionary of Books Relating to America, from Its Discovery to the Present Time, Amsterdam, N. Israel, 1962, pp. 114-16. THEVET André, Les Singularitez de la France Antarctique, autrement nomée Amerique, & de plusieurs terres & isles decouvertes de nostre temps, Antwerp, Plantin, 1558. STADEN Hans, Warhaftig Historia und beschreibung eyner Landtschafft der Wilden Nacketen Grimmegen Manschfresser Leuthen… Andreas Kolbe, Marburg, 1557. See DUFFY Eve M. and METCALF Alida C., The Return of Hans Staden, Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2011, pp. 73-74. THEVET André, Les vrais pourtraits et vies des homes illustres grecz, latins et payens, Paris, Kervert & Chaudière 1584. Frank LESTRINGANT points out the connection between Staden’s captor, “Konyan Bebe,” and Thevet’s “Quoniambec” in Mapping the Renaissance World: The Geographical Imagination in the Age of Discovery, trans. David Fausett, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1994, p. 53. BOWEN Karen L. and IMHOF Dirk, Christopher Plantin and Engraved Book illustrations in Sixteenth-Century Europe, Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University Press, 2008. 1 CENTURY LISA VOIGT, « ILLUSTRATING BRAZIL IN SIXTEENTHANTWERP », Le Verger – bouquet VIII, septembre 2015. animals, and peoples as well as the expense of creating new woodblocks, Plantin did not use any of the same illustrations in his editions of the two texts. Instead, the woodcuts created for both editions are in large part derived from the illustrations in the original publications. In a recent article about the re-use of illustrations in travel accounts, Elio Brancaforte and I argue that the lack of recycling in this case suggests an audience demand for unique, textually specific images, since “[r]ecycling images between the two editions—for surely he hoped to sell them to the same readers—would have undercut the illustrations’ authenticating function” (390).6 In that article, we focus on image recycling in travel accounts in order to assess the tension between generic exoticism and ethnographic particularity in early modern depictions of foreign peoples and places. Surprisingly, we find a remarkable degree of textual and ethnographic specificity where one might least expect it: in cases where the illustrations created for one travel account were re-used to represent a voyage to an entirely different geographic locale. Here, I build on this line of inquiry by focusing on the tension between exoticism and authenticity in Plantin’s illustrations for two travel accounts to the same destination. Travel accounts in fact represent only a tiny percentage of Plantin’s extensive publications. His extraordinary output of 2,450 works published over 34 years in the business —an average rate of 72 per year—is dominated by religious, humanistic, and scientific texts; according to one count, travel narratives are among the 55 works of geography published by Plantin, thus constituting less than 2% of his publications. 7 However, the Staden and Thevet editions seem to be part of an early interest in travel literature on Plantin’s part—particularly in reprinting and translating travel accounts whose popularity had already been established. Among his first publications in 1555 is a reprint of the French naturalist Pierre Belon’s Les observations de plusieurs singularitez et chose mémorables trouvées en Grèce, Asie, Iudée, Egypte, Arabie, et autres pays estranges. A year later, in 1556, Plantin published a French translation of Leo Africanus’s Historiale description de l’Afrique, tierce partie du monde; and in 1558—the same year as his editions of Thevet and Staden—Plantin published a French translation of the Portuguese Francisco Álvares’s account of his voyage to Ethiopia in 1515, Historiale description de l’Ethiope. All of these editions include illustrations of foreign flora, fauna, and people. The interest in accounts of foreign places is not at all surprising in the polyglot metropolis and center of international trade that was mid-sixteenth-century Antwerp. Among the largest cities in Europe at the time, the population of around 100,000 included “at least a 1000 foreign merchants” who were permanent residents (38). 8 Indeed, on his way home to Germany Staden himself passed through Antwerp, where he informed an important merchant (Gaspar Schetz, whose family was of German origins) of a French attack on his agent’s ship in Rio de Janeiro.9 6 7 8 9 VOIGT Lisa and BRANCAFORTE Elio, “The Traveling Illustrations of Sixteenth-Century Travel Narratives,” PMLA, vol. 129, n. 3, 2014, p. 365-398. DE NAVE Francine and VOET Leon, Plantin-Moretus Museum, Antwerp, Brusssels, Ludion-Cultura Nostra, 1989, pp. 20-21. SOLY Hugo, “Social Relations in Antwerp in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries,” Antwerp: Story of a Metropolis, 16th-17th century, dir. Jan Van er Stock, Gent, Snoeck-Ducaju & Zoon, 1993, pp. 37-47. See also, in the same volume, DE NAVE, Francine, “A Printing Capital in its Ascendancy, Flowering, and Decline,” pp. 87-95. STADEN Hans, Hans Staden’s True History: An Account of Cannibal Captivity in Brazil, ed. and trans. Neil L. Whitehead and Michale Harbsmeier, Durham, N.C., Duke University Press, 2008, p. 145. As Duffy and Metcalf explain, “Staden then headed for Antwerp, where he stayed at the house of Jasper Schetz, who owned a sugar plantation in São Vicente. This plantation was managed by Peter Rösel, whom Staden knew; and it was Rösel’s ship that Captain Monet had attacked in Brazil, after Staden, working as his go-between, failed to negotiate a surrender” (74). Gaspar Schetz’s father, Erasmus, was originally from Aachen; the family firm he founded in Antwerp continued after his death in 1550 as “Gaspar Schetz and Brothers.” Gaspar Schetz held the post of royal merchant from 1555-1561. See HARRELD Donald J., High Germans in the Low Countries: German Merchants and Commerce in Golden Age Antwerp, Leiden, Brill, 2004, pp. 57-58, 82. Plantin dedicated his 1561 French edition of Olaus Magnus’s Histoire des pays septentrionaus to Gaspar Schetz (“Iaspar Schetz Chevalier, 2 CENTURY LISA VOIGT, « ILLUSTRATING BRAZIL IN SIXTEENTHANTWERP », Le Verger – bouquet VIII, septembre 2015. Thus after starting to publish in 1555, reprinting popular travel accounts may have seemed to Plantin like a safe way to launch his new business. Indeed, with the publication of the two accounts of Brazil in 1558, Plantin capitalized on—and contributed to—a small midcentury boom in works on Brazil, including the four German editions of Hans Staden (two in Marburg and two in Frankfurt) and the first edition of Thevet, all published in 1557. All of these follow on the famous tableau vivant of Brazilian Indians in Henri II’s royal entry into Rouen in 1550, illustrations of which were included in a festival account published in 1551. 10 Plantin also may have concluded that both texts’ ample illustrations of foreign peoples, animals, and plants contributed to their appeal. By including illustrations—which was not done in the 1568 English edition of the Singularitez by Thomas Hacket—Plantin corroborates Thevet’s declaration of the value of printed images for representing faraway places: Pource qu’il n’est possible à tout home de voir sensiblemente toutes choses, durant son âge, soi ou pour la continuelle mutation de tout ce que est en ce monde inférieur, ou pour la longe distance des lieux et pays, Dieu a donné moyen de les pouvoir représenter, non seulement par écrit, mais aussi par vrai portrait, par l’industrie et labeur de ceux qui les ont vues. (270)11 In contrast to the English edition, Plantin took seriously Thevet’s claims to accurate representation in both word and image, as when the author claims that everything is depicted “vivement au naturel par portrait le plus exquis qu’il m’a été possible” (321). The important role of the illustrations in Staden’s account is also highlighted in Thomas Dryander’s preface, which lauds the author’s “considerable expense of printing this work and cutting the blocks [for the woodcuts]” (15).12 On one hand, the illustrations in both accounts certainly contribute to the exoticization of Brazil and its inhabitants by emphasizing the foreign and unusual. Of the many “wonderful and strange things” in Brazil—as Thomas Hacket rendered the Singularités of Thevet’s title—one of the first Brazilian customs mentioned by Thevet is the preparation of an intoxicating drink by “filles vierges” who chew and spit out manioc root. 13 Thevet calls this “superstition” “la plus étrange qu’il est possible” (114). The illustrations of this practice in Plantin’s editions of both Thevet and Staden are modeled on those that appear in the original accounts, all of which capitalize on nudity, femininity, and—especially in the more vivid depiction of vomiting in the Thevet illustrations—disgust, in order to evoke indigenous savagery (Figs. 2-5). Plantin’s edition of Thevet is a somewhat cruder version which inverts the design of the original, showing that the print was copied without accounting for the reverse orientation of the woodblock. Such a mistake seems surprising for the master blockcutter Arnauld Nicolai, whose monogram appears on some of the woodcuts in this edition. 14 10 11 12 13 14 Signeur de Grobandonck, Heyst, &c. Conseiller et Facteur General du Roi en ces Pays Bas”) and his 1558 edition of Francisco Alvares’s Historiale description de l’Ethiope to Gaspar’s brother Baltasar. Olaus Magnus’s text features illustrations by the same woodcutter as Plantin’s edition of Thevet, Arnauld Nicolai. ANON., C’est la deduction du sumptueux ordre plaisantz spectacles et magnifiques theatres, dresses, et exhibes par les citoiens de Rouen ville…, Rouen, Jean le Prest, 1551. THEVET André, Le Brésil d’André Thevet: Les singularitez de la France Antartique (1557), Ed. Frank Lestringant, Paris, Chandeigne, 1997. On these illustrations see Duffy and Metcalf, who argue that the Marburg illustrations result from “an unusual collaboration between Staden, an artist, and a woodcutter” (112). THEVET, André, The New Founde Worlde, or Antarctike, wherein is contained wonderful and strange things, as well of humaine creatures, as Beastes, Fishes, Foules, and Serpents, Trees, Plants, Vines of Golde and Silver…, Henrie Bynneman, London, 1568. See VOET Leon, The Plantin Press (1555-1589): A Bibliography of the Works printed and published by Christopher PLantin at Antwerp and Leiden, Antwerp, Van Hoeve Amsterdam, 1982, Vol. V, p. 2193-2195. Arnauld Nicolai was a member of St. Luke’s Guild of artists and printers since 1550/51, and worked regularly for 3 CENTURY LISA VOIGT, « ILLUSTRATING BRAZIL IN SIXTEENTHANTWERP », Le Verger – bouquet VIII, septembre 2015. However, it may have been an assistant or apprentice who did the actual work, as was the case in another book for which Plantin asked Nicolai to prepare the illustrations around the same time (1556-58).15 The image of the women making the beverage in Plantin’s edition of Staden is also derived from the Marburg original, where it illustrates Book II, Chapter 15 of Staden’s text, entitled “How they prepare their drinks that they use to become intoxicated.” The illustration in Plantin’s edition brings the scene indoors and rearranges the elements in a more complex way than a simple reversal of the orientation (Fig. 5). This woodcut appears no less than five times in Plantin’s edition of Staden, more than any other image—a form of recycling within the text that reflects a generic use of illustrations rather than the representation of a particular custom or group of people. It seems as if Plantin or someone in his print shop determined that the most exotic of the images—naked women performing a strange ritual—would be the most attractive to readers, regardless of its relevance to the accompanying text. Nevertheless, it is important to note that this illustration was clearly prepared for and also appears in its “proper” place—Book II, Chapter 15—and that it conforms quite closely in content to the original Marburg illustration (large pot being stirred by a woman over a fire; three women drinking and pouring liquid into two smaller pots; women seated, hands to their mouths, around a large plate). Indeed, the rearrangement of elements in this and other illustrations in Plantin’s edition of Staden involves far more than an inversion, and suggests that a great deal of care and attention to detail was taken with the woodcuts copied from the original Marburg edition. In several cases, the illustrations created for Plantin’s edition even correct the mistaken orientation of the Marburg originals. On the list of errata at the end of Warhaftige Historia, Staden notes that “five woodcuts were [accidentally] turned around during the production of the moulds” (145). Although he does not identify which woodcuts were “turned around,” one of them is certainly the battle with “White Moors” at Cape Ghir, Morocco, one of the first stops of the Portuguese fleet on which Staden is sailing (22; Fig. 6-7). Others may be in chapters 12 and 18, as the modern editors of Staden suggest (145). These illustrations depict Bertioga (rendered Bergiaco in the illustration and Brikioka in the text), the island of São Vicente (where Staden was shipwrecked), and the island of Santo Amaro (where he was captured) (Fig. 8-9). In this case, the illustrations for Plantin’s edition—that is, the “copies”—correspond more closely to the actual location of these locales than the original. Perhaps Gaspar Schetz or another merchant with Brazilian connections—or Staden himself—relayed information to Plantin’s woodcutter about the correct geography of these islands and settlements. Another type of reorientation can be found in Book I, Chapter 5, “How we sailed away from Prannenbucke to a country called Buttugaris, and encountered a French vessel with which we battled” (29) (Fig. 10-11). This reorientation must have been deliberate rather than a mistake, since it is a 90-degree clockwise shift rather than the 180-degree reversal that results from copying a paper image onto a woodblock. Though its precise motivation is unknown, it adds depth to the scene and involves a greater use of perspective than the almost birds-eye view that we see in many of the original, Marburg illustrations. We can see a similar shift to add depth and perspective in other illustrations, such as the one in Chapter 20 (Fig. 12-13). Some of the copied illustrations in the Plantin edition of Staden seem to offer simplified versions of the original. For example, in Chapter 22 Staden describes how a woman shaved his eyebrows as part of the preparation for ritual cannibalism (Fig. 14-15). On the left of the Marburg illustration we also see Staden being dragged around by women, another part of 15 Plantin from 1555 to 1568; see VAN DER STOCK Jan, Printing Images in Antwerp: The Introduction of Printmaking in a City, Fifteenth Century to 1585, Rotterdam, Sound and Vision Interactive, 1998, p. 275, and VOET Leon, The Golden Compasses: A History and Evaluation of the Printing and Publishing Activities of the Officina Plantiniana at Antwerp, Amsterdam, Vangendt & Co, 1972, vol. II, pp. 197, 200. See VOET, The Golden Compasses, p. 196 n. 1. 4 CENTURY LISA VOIGT, « ILLUSTRATING BRAZIL IN SIXTEENTHANTWERP », Le Verger – bouquet VIII, septembre 2015. the ceremony, whereas the Antwerp illustration moves this part to the background. Rather than simply representing a shift toward greater generalization or abstraction, this reorientation serves to make the image less confusing than the Marburg one, which seems to depict Staden simultaneously in two different locations. A more radical shift in perspective, to a much more distant view, is evident in the illustration for Chapter 28, “How they led me to their highest king called Konyan Bebe [Cunhambebe], and how they dealt with me there” (Fig. 16-17). In Plantin’s illustration for this chapter, neither Staden nor Cunhambebe are identifiable, as they are in the Marburg original. However, a figure of Staden similar to that of the Marburg illustration—with legs bound— reappears later in Plantin’s edition in a surprising place: in Chapter 11 of the second, more “ethnographic” book of Staden’s account, entitled “What they eat for bread; what their fruits are called; and how they plant and prepare them so that they are edible” (Fig. 18). The Marburg illustration for this chapter is evidently much more appropriate to this content (Fig. 19). The Antwerp image used here seems more likely to have been made for Book I, Chapter 28, which describes how the Cunhambebe’s son “tied my legs in three places, and I was then forced to hop through the hut with my feet pressed together. They laughed about it and said: here comes our food hopping along” (64). Did Plantin or a member of his staff, having chosen the more distant image of the village for Book I, Chapter 28, then need a place for the “hopping food” image and decide to place it near the references to indigenous food in Book II, Chapter 11? Again, an image that seems entirely irrelevant to the accompanying text—and thus designed to fulfill merely an exoticizing function—may not have been as arbitrary in its creation or placement as it appears. This tension appears to be resolved in favor of ethnographic specificity in the case of this composite image included first in Book II, Chapter 16, entitled “What the adornment of the men looks like, how they paint themselves, and what their names are” (Fig. 20). The illustration depicts, as described in the text, a man with three face piercings, the stones of which are also shown in isolation; a feathered ornament called an Enduape, which they “tie to their buttocks when they set out to wage war against their enemies or when they have a celebration” (120); and the maraca (Tammaraka) that all men have but that is particularly used by the pajé or soothsayers, as related in a subsequent chapter (Book II, Chapter 23). These are the same accoutrements as those worn by Cunhambebe in both Thevet’s Vrais pourtraits (Fig. 1) and Staden’s Marburg edition (Fig. 16). All of these objects, as well as a hammock seemingly stretched out over a fire—Staden writes that when they sleep, they “always keep with a fire burning nearby” (111-112)—appear in different illustrations in Book II of the Marburg edition (Fig 20-24). Was this composite image created for Plantin’s edition simply to save time or money? Regardless of the motivation, it shows the care taken in reproducing ethnographic details of the Marburg illustrations, and indeed the comprehensive familiarity that the printer and artist responsible for the illustrations had with the original images and their connection to the text. That is, the composite image indicates a concern for ethnographic and textual specifity, in spite of what at first glance looks like a departure from the original illustrations. We are very far indeed from the apparently careless copying that may have resulted in the reversal of the images in Plantin’s edition of Thevet. In his editions of Staden’s and Thevet’s accounts of Brazil, Christopher Plantin may not have recycled previously used woodblocks like the Frankfurt publisher of Staden, Weigand Han, but he did take other “shortcuts” that, as Rudolf Hirsch points out, helped printers to minimize the expense of producing illustrations, such as copying “wood cuts of other printers” and repeating “the same cut for different scenes in the same book” (49). 16 Yet as we have seen, reproductions could be chosen or designed with care and bear a close relationship to the 16 HIRSCH Rudolf, Printing, Selling and Reading, 1450-1550, Wiesbaden, Otto Harrassowitz, 1967. 5 CENTURY LISA VOIGT, « ILLUSTRATING BRAZIL IN SIXTEENTHANTWERP », Le Verger – bouquet VIII, septembre 2015. accompanying text. Explaining what he calls the “ethnographic impulse” in sixteenth-century Europe, Joan Pau-Rubiés comments on the “curiosity” about foreign peoples and places that pushed travel writing far beyond the concerns of merchants, administrators, pilgrims and missionaries, transforming travel literature and its ethnography into a marketable commodity […]. Readers could be well educated, and therefore interested in precision and novelty, or less cultured, and perhaps be content with a more fantastic account that appealed to existing cultural prejudices rather than to scientific ideals. In both cases the entertainment value of the genre, often supported by engraved illustrations, functioned at the level of the mind and the imagination, widening its appeal. (5)17 Before the rise of engraved book illustrations—which occurred, in large part, thanks to the work of Christopher Plantin—woodcuts made travel accounts marketable to the wide range of readers mentioned by Rubiés, sometimes tapping into their interest in the exotic (as in images of cannibalism, naked women, men with facial piercings), other times serving as visual evidence to back up the author’s claims to veracity (as in Thevet’s “vrai portrait”). Indeed, the “copied” illustrations of Brazil and its inhabitants in Plantin’s editions of Staden and Thevet indicate that the appeal to generic exoticism did not outweigh the demand for ethnographic and textual specificity in sixteenth-century Antwerp. Looking at the ways in which illustrations of foreign peoples and places were not only created, but also recycled, copied, and transformed, can offer insight into the interests and expectations of European reading publics. BIBLIOGRAPHY Works [ÁLVARES, Francisco.] Historiale description de l’Ethiopie, contenant vraye relation es terres, & pais du grand Roy, & Empereur Prete-Ian…, Antwerp, Plantin, 1558. ANON., C’est la deduction du sumptueux ordre plaisantz spectacles et magnifiques theatres, dresses, et exhibes par les citoiens de Rouen ville…, Rouen, Jean le Prest, 1551. MAGNUS Olaus, Histoire des pays Septentrionaus, ecrite par Olaus le Grand…, Antwerp, Plantin, 1561. STADEN Hans, Hans Staden’s True History: An Account of Cannibal Captivity in Brazil, ed. and trans. Neil L. Whitehead and Michale Harbsmeier, Durham, N.C., Duke University Press, 2008. —, Warachtige historie ende beschrivinge eens lants in America ghelegen…, Antwerp, Plantin, 1558. —, Warhaftig Historia und beschreibung eyner Landtschafft der Wilden Nacketen Grimmegen Manschfresser Leuthen…, Marburg, Andreas Kolbe, 1557. 17 RUBIÉS, Joan-Pau. “Travel Writing and Ethnography.” Travellers and Cosmographers: Studies in the History of Early Modern Travel and Ethnology, Aldershot and Burlington, Ashgate, 2007, 1-39. 6 CENTURY LISA VOIGT, « ILLUSTRATING BRAZIL IN SIXTEENTHANTWERP », Le Verger – bouquet VIII, septembre 2015. THEVET André, Le Brésil d’André Thevet: Les singularitez de la France Antartique (1557), Ed. Frank Lestringant, Paris, Chandeigne, 1997. —, Les Singularitez de la France Antarctique, autrement nomée Amerique, & de plusieurs terres & isles decouvertes de nostre temps, Antwerp, Plantin, 1558. —, Les vrais pourtraits et vies des homes illustres grecz, latins et payens, Paris, Kervert & Chaudière, 1584. —, The New Founde Worlde, or Antarctike, wherein is contained wonderful and strange things, as well of humaine creatures, as Beastes, Fishes, Foules, and Serpents, Trees, Plants, Vines of Golde and Silver…, Henrie Bynneman, London, 1568. Critical Texts BOWEN Karen L. and IMHOF Dirk, Christopher Plantin and Engraved Book Illustrations in Sixteenth-Century Europe, Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University Press, 2008. DE NAVE, Francine, “A Printing Capital in its Ascendancy, Flowering, and Decline,” Antwerp: Story of a Metropolis, 16th-17th century, dir. Jan Van er Stock, Gent, Snoeck-Ducaju & Zoon, 1993, pp. 87-95. DE NAVE Francine and VOET Leon, Plantin-Moretus Museum, Antwerp, Brusssels, LudionCultura Nostra, 1989. DUFFY Eve M. and METCALF Alida C., The Return of Hans Staden, Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2011. HARRELD Donald J., High Germans in the Low Countries: German Merchants and Commerce in Golden Age Antwerp, Leiden, Brill, 2004. HIRSCH Rudolf, Printing, Selling and Reading, 1450-1550, Wiesbaden, Otto Harrassowitz, 1967. LESTRINGANT Frank, Mapping the Renaissance World: The Geographical Imagination in the Age of Discovery, trans. David Fausett, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1994. RUBIÉS, Joan-Pau. “Travel Writing and Ethnography.” Travellers and Cosmographers: Studies in the History of Early Modern Travel and Ethnology, Aldershot and Burlington, Ashgate, 2007, pp. 1-39. SABIN Joseph, Bibliotheca Americana: A Dictionary of Books Relating to America, from Its Discovery to the Present Time, Amsterdam, N. Israel, 1962. SOLY Hugo, “Social Relations in Antwerp in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries,” Antwerp: Story of a Metropolis, 16 th-17th century, dir. Jan Van er Stock, Gent, Snoeck-Ducaju & Zoon, 1993, pp. 37-47. VAN DER STOCK Jan, Printing Images in Antwerp: The Introduction of Printmaking in a City, Fifteenth Century to 1585, Rotterdam, Sound and Vision Interactive, 1998. VOET Leon, The Golden Compasses: A History and Evaluation of the Printing and Publishing Activities of the Officina Plantiniana at Antwerp, Amsterdam, Vangendt & Co, 1972. —, The Plantin Press (1555-1589): A Bibliography of the Works printed and published by Christopher PLantin at Antwerp and Leiden, Antwerp, Van Hoeve Amsterdam, 1982. VOIGT Lisa and BRANCAFORTE Elio, “The Traveling Illustrations of Sixteenth-Century Travel Narratives,” PMLA, vol. 129, n. 3, 2014, p. 365-398. Lisa Voigt, “Illustrating Brazil in Sixteenth-Century Antwerp” 7 CENTURY LISA VOIGT, « ILLUSTRATING BRAZIL IN SIXTEENTHANTWERP », Le Verger – bouquet VIII, septembre 2015. Fig. 1. Woodcut of Cunhambebe, André Thevet, Les vrais pourtraits et vies des hommes illustres grecz, latins et payens, 1584 (source: Wikimedia Commons) Fig. 2. Woodcut (Ch. 24), Andre Thevet, Les singularitez de la France Antartique, Paris, Maurice de La Porte, 1558 (source: gallica.bnf.fr / Bibliothèque nationale de France) 8 CENTURY LISA VOIGT, « ILLUSTRATING BRAZIL IN SIXTEENTHANTWERP », Le Verger – bouquet VIII, septembre 2015. Fig. 3. Woodcut (Ch. 24), Andre Thevet, Les singularitez de la France Antartique, Antwerp, Plantin, 1558 Fig. 4. Woodcut (Book II, Ch. 15), Hans Staden, Warhafftig Historia, Marburg, Kolbe, 1557 (source: Universidade de São Paulo/Biblioteca Digital de Obras Raras, http://www.obrasraras.usp.br) Fig. 5. Woodcut, Hans Staden, Warhachtige Historie, Antwerp, Plantin, 1558 (source: Google Books) 9 CENTURY LISA VOIGT, « ILLUSTRATING BRAZIL IN SIXTEENTHANTWERP », Le Verger – bouquet VIII, septembre 2015. Fig. 6. Woodcut (Book I, Ch. 2), Hans Staden, Warhafftig Historia, Marburg, Kolbe, 1557 (source: Universidade de São Paulo/Biblioteca Digital de Obras Raras, http://www.obrasraras.usp.br) Fig. 7. Woodcut (Book I, Ch.2), Hans Staden, Warhachtige Historie, Antwerp, Plantin, 1558 (source: Google Books) 10 CENTURY LISA VOIGT, « ILLUSTRATING BRAZIL IN SIXTEENTHANTWERP », Le Verger – bouquet VIII, septembre 2015. Fig. 8. Woodcut (Book I, Ch. 18), Hans Staden, Warhafftig Historia, Marburg, Kolbe, 1557 (source: Universidade de São Paulo/Biblioteca Digital de Obras Raras, http://www.obrasraras.usp.br) Fig. 9. Woodcut (Book I, Ch. 18), Hans Staden, Warhachtige Historie, Antwerp, Plantin, 1558 (source: Google Books) 11 CENTURY LISA VOIGT, « ILLUSTRATING BRAZIL IN SIXTEENTHANTWERP », Le Verger – bouquet VIII, septembre 2015. Fig. 10 Woodcut (Book I, Ch. 5), Hans Staden, Warhafftig Historia, Marburg, Kolbe, 1557 (source: Universidade de São Paulo/Biblioteca Digital de Obras Raras, http://www.obrasraras.usp.br) Fig. 11. Woodcut (Book I, Ch. 5), Hans Staden, Warhachtige Historie, Antwerp, Plantin, 1558 (source: Google Books) 12 CENTURY LISA VOIGT, « ILLUSTRATING BRAZIL IN SIXTEENTHANTWERP », Le Verger – bouquet VIII, septembre 2015. Fig. 12. Woodcut (Book I, Ch. 20), Hans Staden, Warhafftig Historia, Marburg, Kolbe, 1557 (source: Universidade de São Paulo/Biblioteca Digital de Obras Raras, http://www.obrasraras.usp.br) Fig. 13. Woodcut (Book I, Ch. 20), Hans Staden, Warhachtige Historie, Antwerp, Plantin, 1558 (source: Google Books) 13 CENTURY LISA VOIGT, « ILLUSTRATING BRAZIL IN SIXTEENTHANTWERP », Le Verger – bouquet VIII, septembre 2015. Fig. 14. Woodcut (Book I, Ch. 22, Hans Staden, Warhafftig Historia, Marburg, Kolbe, 1557 (source: Universidade de São Paulo/Biblioteca Digital de Obras Raras, http://www.obrasraras.usp.br) Fig. 15. Woodcut (Book I, Ch. 22), Hans Staden, Warhachtige Historie, Antwerp, Plantin, 1558 (source: Google Books) 14 CENTURY LISA VOIGT, « ILLUSTRATING BRAZIL IN SIXTEENTHANTWERP », Le Verger – bouquet VIII, septembre 2015. Fig. 16. Woodcut (Book I, Ch. 28), Hans Staden, Warhafftig Historia, Marburg, Kolbe, 1557 (source: Universidade de São Paulo/Biblioteca Digital de Obras Raras, http://www.obrasraras.usp.br) Fig. 17. Woodcut (Book I, Ch. 28), Hans Staden, Warhachtige Historie, Antwerp, Plantin, 1558 (source: Google Books) 15 CENTURY LISA VOIGT, « ILLUSTRATING BRAZIL IN SIXTEENTHANTWERP », Le Verger – bouquet VIII, septembre 2015. Fig. 18. Woodcut (Book II, Ch. 11), Hans Staden, Warhachtige Historie, Antwerp, Plantin, 1558 (source: Google Books) Fig. 19. Woodcut (Book II, Ch. 11), Hans Staden, Warhafftig Historia, Marburg, Kolbe, 1557 (source: Universidade de São Paulo/Biblioteca Digital de Obras Raras, http://www.obrasraras.usp.br) 16 CENTURY LISA VOIGT, « ILLUSTRATING BRAZIL IN SIXTEENTHANTWERP », Le Verger – bouquet VIII, septembre 2015. Fig. 20. Woodcut (Book II, Ch. 16), Hans Staden, Warhachtige Historie, Antwerp, Plantin, 1558 (source: Google Books) Fig. 21. Woodcut (Book II, Ch. 11), Hans Staden, Warhafftig Historia, Marburg, Kolbe, 1557 (source: Universidade de São Paulo/Biblioteca Digital de Obras Raras, http://www.obrasraras.usp.br) Fig. 22. Woodcut (Book II, Ch. 16), Hans Staden, Warhafftig Historia, Marburg, Kolbe, 1557 (source: Universidade de São Paulo/Biblioteca Digital de Obras Raras, http://www.obrasraras.usp.br) 17 CENTURY LISA VOIGT, « ILLUSTRATING BRAZIL IN SIXTEENTHANTWERP », Le Verger – bouquet VIII, septembre 2015. Fig. 23. Woodcut (Book II, Ch. 16), Hans Staden, Warhafftig Historia, Marburg, Kolbe, 1557 (source: Universidade de São Paulo/Biblioteca Digital de Obras Raras, http://www.obrasraras.usp.br) Fig. 24. Woodcut (Book II, Ch. 23), Hans Staden, Warhafftig Historia, Marburg, Kolbe, 1557 (source: Universidade de São Paulo/Biblioteca Digital de Obras Raras, http://www.obrasraras.usp.br). 18