CHANGING VIEWS OF NUU-CHAH-NULTH CULTURE HISTORY: EVIDENCE OF POPULATION REPLACEMENT IN BARKLEY SOUND Author(s): Alan D. McMillan Source: Canadian Journal of Archaeology / Journal Canadien d'Archéologie, Vol. 22, No. 1 (1998), pp. 5-18 Published by: Canadian Archaeological Association Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41103345 Accessed: 07-04-2016 21:59 UTC REFERENCES Linked references are available on JSTOR for this article: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41103345?seq=1&cid=pdf-reference#references_tab_contents You may need to log in to JSTOR to access the linked references. Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at http://about.jstor.org/terms JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org. Canadian Archaeological Association is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Canadian Journal of Archaeology / Journal Canadien d'Archéologie This content downloaded from 142.58.58.208 on Thu, 07 Apr 2016 21:59:12 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms CHANGING VIEWS OF NUU-CHAH-NULTH CULTURE HISTORY: EVIDENCE OF POPULATION REPLACEMENT IN BARKLEY SOUND Alan D. McMillan ABSTRACT Most reconstructions of Nuu-chah-nulth culture history, including the generalized West Coast culture type, are based primarily on the lengthy cultural sequence known from Yuquot, at the entrance to Nootka Sound. More recent work further to the south has raised questions about past interpretations. Excavations at Ch'uumat'a, in western Barkley Sound, revealed an occupational history spanning much the same time period as Yuquot. Materials from the earlier levels at this site most closely resemble those known from the Strait of Georgia, particularly in the Locarno Beach stage, suggesting a long period of occupation prior to Nuu-chah-nulth arrival. RESUME La plupart des schémas historico-culturels Nuu-chah-nulth, y inclus le type généralisé de la Côte-Ouest, se basent principalement sur la longue séquence culturelle connue du site Yoquot, situé à l'entrée du détroit Nootka. Des travaux récents effectués plus au sud remettent en question les interprétations passés. Les fouilles au site de Ch'uumat'a, situé dans la partie occidentale du détroit Barkely, on révélé une séquence d'occupation qui s'étale sur plus ou moins la même période qu'à Yuquot. Des artefacts trouvés dans les couches anciennes de ce gisement s'apparentent à des objets trouvés sur les rives du détroit de Georgia et plus particulièrement dans les sites de la phase Locarno Beach. Ceci impliquerait une longue période d'occupation avant l'arrivée des Nuu-chah-nulth. INTRODUCTION single barb points; bone fishhook shanks; unilaterally and bilaterally barbed bone nontoggling harpoon heads; bone single 'T'he rugged west coast of Vancouver Island is A the ethnographic homeland of the Nuu- points; bone bipoints; large and small composite toggling harpoon valves of chah-nulth (formerly known as the "Nootka") peoples. Until recently, their precontact culture bone or antler...; sea mammal bone foreshafts; bone needles; bone splinter awls; ulna, tools; whalebone bark beaters; history was known primarily from the major vil- lage site of Yuquot (DjSp-1), at the entrance to Nootka Sound (Figure 1). Large-scale excava- whalebone bark shredders; perforated tion in 1966 produced a large quantity of cultur- tooth and deer phalanx pendants; mussel shell celts; and mussel shell knives. al remains and a series of radiocarbon dates spanning the last 4200 years. Dewhirst (1978, 1980) has argued for cultural continuity throughout this time, interpreting any changes in the archaeological record as reflecting increased adaptation to outer coast environments. In a review of the culture history known for the entire west coast of Vancouver Island, Mitchell (1990) proposed the West Coast culture type. This construct is identified by a distinctive cluster of artifact types, which Mitchell (1990:356) lists as: ... ground stone celts; ground stone fishhook shanks; hand mauls; abrasive stones; unilaterally barbed bone points; Small bone points and bipoints, predominantly parts of composite fishing gear, dominate such assemblages. The absence or rarity of flaked stone tools and flaking detritus is also seen as an identifying trait. In fact, stone implements in general are relatively rare. The major exception is abrasive stones, which were essential in the technology used to produce the numerous ground bone artifacts found and probably also served as a vital part of the woodworking toolkit. Although Mitchell proposed this culture type for the entire west coast of Vancouver Journal Canadien d'Archéologie 22, 1998 5 This content downloaded from 142.58.58.208 on Thu, 07 Apr 2016 21:59:12 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms McMillan Island, it was based primarily on excavated data from Yuquot and nearby Hesquiat Harbour, the locations of the only major archaeological projects in this area at that time. Materials recovered from the Hesquiat Harbour sites closely resemble those from Yuquot, although the earliest deposits encountered date only to about 1 800 B.P. (Calvert 1980; Haggarty 1982). Claims of cultural continuity at these sites, particularly in the lengthy Yuquot sequence, led Mitchell to present this culture type as a relatively unchanging continuum leading directly to the historic Nuu-chah-nulth groups. Even the earliest materials at Yuquot were considered so like historic Nuu-chah-nulth technology that Mitchell (1990:357) characterized the area as one "of rel- atively little change in subsistence and other aspects of technology." Excluded from the West Coast culture type were the materials from Shoemaker Bay (DhSe 2), at the end of the long Alberni Inlet from Barkley Sound (Figure 1). Although this area, around modern Port Alberni, is an important centre of Nuu-chah-nulth culture today, excava- tions at Shoemaker Bay in 1973 and 1974 revealed a different picture for the precontact past (McMillan and St. Claire 1982). Throughout the time period represented by these deposits, extending back as much as 4000 years, the cultural sequence was tied to the Strait of Georgia and was markedly dissimilar to the West Coast culture type known from the outer coast. The earliest component, termed Shoemaker Bay I, is roughly contemporaneous with the Locarno Beach culture type in the Strait of Georgia and exhibits many of the characteristic features of that stage. Such traits include midden inhumation, including cairn burial; abundant chipped stone tools, including stemmed and leaf-shaped projectile points and knives; ' ■P^^^feÈr COLUMBIA N. ^ ^ Figure 1: Western Vancouver Island, showing sites mentioned in the text. 6 Canadian Journal of Archaeology 22, 1998 This content downloaded from 142.58.58.208 on Thu, 07 Apr 2016 21:59:12 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms NUU-CHAH-NULTH CULTURE HISTORY Figure 2: The village site of Ch'uumat'a (DfSi-4). Midden deposits extend into the forested area at the back of the site. A cleared canoe run is visible on the beach in front of the site. ground stone points, including large faceted examples; and quartz crystal and obsidian microblades and microflakes (McMillan and St. Claire 1982). The later component, Shoemaker Bay II, most closely resembles the contemporaneous Strait of Georgia culture type in that region, although several artifact types indicate ties to West Coast sites (McMillan and St. Claire 1982; Mitchell 1990). This archaeological evidence for an earlier Strait of Georgia-related occupation was supported by strong ethnographic traditions of very late Nuu-chah-nulth arrival in the Alberai the Nuu-chah-nulth area. It also fit nicely with the prevailing idea that the West Coast culture type was primarily an outer coast adaptation, only in very late times extending to the far inner reaches of the west coast. New evidence from several sites in Barkley Sound excavated in the 1990s has challenged this established view. A brief salvage excava- tion at Little Beach (DfSj-100), on the outer coast at Ucluelet, was conducted in the fall of 1991 (Areas Consulting Archaeologists 1991; Brolly 1992). The midden deposits were examined by mechanical trenching, along with sever- Valley. This event is well recorded in oral tradi- al small controlled excavation units. This work tions and the ethnographic literature (Sproat exposed a considerable number of burials, some in shallow pits covered with low rock cairns. The main shell midden deposit containing these 1868:179; Boas 1891:584; Carmichael 1922:5164; Drucker 1951:5; McMillan and St. Claire 1982:14; St. Claire 1991:30, 79-81; McMillan 1996:65-66, 290-294). The earlier occupants of the Albemi Valley were acculturated into Nuuchah-nulth language and traditions, although traces of the Salishan language they once spoke persisted well into the 19th century (Boas 1891:584; Sapir 1913:77; 1915:19). This information helped explain the anomalous position of Shoemaker Bay in the archaeological record of burials was dated to 4000 to 3000 years ago, with an overlying darker layer dating to 2500 years. Relatively few artifacts were recovered (n=68), but these include such diagnostic items as a leaf-shaped chipped stone projectile point, a crudely chipped cobble tool, a thick ground slate point fragment, and a fragment of what appears to be a large flanged labret. Such traits most closely resemble those known from Shoemaker Journal Canadien d'Archéologie 22, 1998 7 This content downloaded from 142.58.58.208 on Thu, 07 Apr 2016 21:59:12 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms McMillan 5 '6 i 8 9 A -^rfy ///// / X s*" ^^^^3/^ / / / / / / y^' DfSI4 Ch'uumafa '' nT^^^^^I^Hfi BBOBBèB^BBd one metre contour interval '. ^^^^v^?^ V^ s-^^-C 10 20 m :<;:^Ií^r^W ^^^^ A vertical datumexcavation ■ completed ^^^^^^ rocks units I A boulders 0 partially /^ w excavated units y Figure 3: Map of Ch'uumat'a, showing location of excavation units. 8 Canadian Journal of Archaeology 22, 1998 This content downloaded from 142.58.58.208 on Thu, 07 Apr 2016 21:59:12 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms NUU-CHAH-NULTH CULTURE HISTORY _ N46 W88 ^f***^ ill ! I' 1 1 I ¡! ! I ájjj^ I-H-H-I '^^ffl ^- Ba^ of excavation I Figure 4. Stratigraphie profile of west wall of main excavation trench. Nine radiocarbon age estimates are shown in their closest relationship to this wall. The numbers correspond to the following radiocarbon ages, showing both the conventional radiocarbon date and the calibrated calendar age range (2 sigma, 95% probability). All dates are based on wood charcoal. 1. 720+/-50 cal AD 1240 to 1390 Beta-55798 2. 2510+/-110 cal BC 845 to 380 Beta-98007 3. 2560+/-70 cal BC 815 to 405 Beta-98008 4. 3010+/-70 cal BC 1415 to 1015 Beta-98009 5. 3480+/-80 cal BC 2010 to 1530 Beta-55800 6. 4000+/-140 cal BC 2895 to 2060 Beta-98011 7. 3900+/-60 cal BC 2560 to 2200 CAMS-3967 8. 3810+/-90 cal BC 2470 to 1950 Beta-55801 9. 3760+/-80 cal BC 2450 to 1935 Beta-98012 Bay I and the contemporaneous Locarno Beach Barkley Sound has an earlier history which dif- culture type in the Strait of Georgia. fers from that known from Yuquot. The occurrence of such traits on the outer coast, near the entrance to Barkley Sound, was intriguing, leading the Little Beach excavators to suggest that "a complete revision of our understanding of West Coast history" was required (Areas Consulting Archaeologists 1991 :iii). Larger scale excavation, however, was necessary to assess this suggestion that The Toquaht Project: Excavations at Ch'uumat'a The Toquaht Archaeological Project was also initiated in 1991. All research was conduct- ed in co-operation with the Toquaht Nation, the Nuu-chah-nulth group whose traditional territory encompasses western Barkley Sound. Project Journal Canadien d'Archéologie 22, 1998 g This content downloaded from 142.58.58.208 on Thu, 07 Apr 2016 21:59:12 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms McMillan Table 1 Ch'uumat'a Artifacts Predating 2000 B.P. No. % stone chipped projectile points 2 0.6 chipped schist tools 3 0.9 pieces esquillèes 2 0.6 retouched flakes 3 0.9 flakes/ chipping detritus 26 7.6 hammerstones 2 0.6 ground slate points 2 0.6 other ground slate 6 1.8 celts (and celt preforms) 8 2.4 ground stone "whatzits" 3 0.9 decorated (incised and drilled) object 1 0.3 saw abrasive 1 stones/ 0.3 slabs 24 7.1 bone points, bipoints, pointed fragments 125 36.8 awls 23 needles 6.8 13 3.8 barbed points 3 0.9 toggling harpoon valves 4 1.2 wedges or chisels 5 1.5 bird bone tubes/ other bird bone 4 1.2 decorative bone (pendant, drilled bar) 2 0.6 polished bone "whatzit'7 small bone disks 3 0.9 misc. worked bone, including whalebone 72 21.2 other dentalium mussel split shell shell canine bead 1 0.3 knife 1 0.3 tooth 1 0.3 totals accomplishments include detailed site survey throughout Toquant traditional territory and test excavation at five sites, including the three major ethnographic villages (McMillan and St. Claire 1991, 1992, 1994, 1996). The most extensive excavations, conducted over two sea- sons, were at the large village of T'ukw'aa (DfSj-23), at the entrance to Ucluelet Inlet. This site yielded a large artifact sample that was markedly different from Little Beach, despite the close proximity of the two sites. The assemblage from T'ukw'aa, which can be assigned to 340 100.4 the West Coast culture type, is dominated by numerous small bone points and bipoints, while stone artifacts, with the exception of abrasive stones, are relatively rare and chipped stone is nearly absent (McMillan and St. Claire 1992). The contrast with Little Beach is attributable to different periods of occupation, as the dated deposits at T'ukw'aa all fall within the last 1200 years. In a search for older materials, the Toquaht Project shifted to the village site of Ch'uumat'a (DfSi-4), slightly further into Barkley Sound 10 Canadian Journal of Archaeology 22, 1998 This content downloaded from 142.58.58.208 on Thu, 07 Apr 2016 21:59:12 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms NUU-CHAH-NULTH CULTURE HISTORY Figure 5. Chipped stone artifacts from Ch'uumat'a. (upper row - projectile points, schist knife, pièces esquillées; lower row - andésite and chert debitage; the example on the far right has been reworked as a possible piercer) (Figure 1). Excavation was carried out during base, roughly 4 m from the surface, for 7 m of three field seasons between 1992 and 1996. In its length. Nine radiocarbon dates provide a the first season, three 2 x 2 m units were excathe highly visible, brush-covered, front portion consistent chronology for the trench deposits (Figure 4). A date of 720 B.P. directly underlies the forest humus. Below that, the uppermost of the site (Figure 2). Four metres of shell mid- shell midden stratum is associated with two den deposit were exposed in that unit and a radiocarbon estimates of approximately 2500 vated, including one in the forested area behind radiocarbon date of nearly 4000 years was B.P. Further dates of roughly 3000 B.P. and obtained from its base (McMillan and St. Claire 1992). On the front, brush-covered portion of 3500 B.P. come from progressively lower strata. Finally, four dates from at or near the base of the site, two 2 x 2 m units reached depths cultural deposits cluster between 3760+80 and approaching four metres, with basal dates of about 2500 B.P. Depths of deposit and radiocarbon ages at base decreased in units closer to the beach (McMillan and St. Claire 1994, 1996). In total, approximately 1 15.7 m3 of deposit have been excavated at this site. The 1996 excavations were concentrated at 4000+140 B.P. All dates are given in uncalibrated radiocarbon years; see Figure 4 for the calibrated age ranges. Except for the uppermost date, the trench deposits are contemporaneous with Little Beach and Shoemaker Bay I, as well as with the late Charles and Locarno Beach cul- ture types in the Strait of Georgia. the back of the site, in the forested area with the Although no major discontinuity is evident, deepest deposits and oldest dates. The unit excavated in 1992 was extended into a 2-metre the cultural sequence at Ch'uumat'a can be divided at about 2000 B.P. The earliest stage wide trench (Figure 3). The trench was stepped down at its ends, reaching sterile deposits at its encompasses all the trench deposits, except for the uppermost, largely non-shell, stratum, along Journal Canadien d'Archéologie 22, 1998 n This content downloaded from 142.58.58.208 on Thu, 07 Apr 2016 21:59:12 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms McMillan bon dates of 2510+/110 and 2560+/-70 B.R The Ch'uumat'a examples appear to be identical to those from Little Beach. Cairn burials are also a characteristic of the Lo- carno Beach stage in the Strait of Georgia (Matson and Coupland 1995:161), but are not reported for the West Coast culture type. Chipped stone artifacts are relatively abundant from the ear- lier deposits at Ch'u- umat'a (Figure 5). Two large bifacial projectile points, one leaf- shaped and one stemmed, of basalt and andésite respectively, Figure 6. Ground stone and bone objects, resembling Gulf Islands Complex artifacts, found at Ch'uumat'a. (a - argillite; b, c - limestone; d - bone) with the lowest levels ot the two deepest units in the front portion of the site. Of the site total of 750 artifacts, 340 can be assigned to the earliest stage. Several distinctive artifact types, including all chipped stone objects, are restricted to this early period. Conversely, certain artifacts characteristic of the West Coast culture type, such as stone and bone fishhook shanks, occur only in the later deposits at Ch'uumat'a. Table 1 lists all artifacts from Ch'uumat'a which have been assigned to the period prior to 2000 B.C. The presence of cairn burials is one of the shared traits linking the earlier deposits at Ch'uumat'a with Little Beach and Shoemaker Bay I, as well as with the Strait of Georgia. Two excavated burials, along with a third visible in the trench wall, were clustered together in shallow pits, with concentrations of rounded cobbles extending above the pit surfaces (McMillan and St. Claire 1996). Two charcoal samples immediately adjacent to the burials yielded radiocar- came from the trench excavation. Their place in the stratigraphy sug- gests an age of between 3000 and 3500 B.R Two small pebbles showing bipolar flaking, classified as pièces esquillées, came from even deeper in the trench stratigraphy, dating to around 3500 B.R or slightly earlier. Several chipped schist tools include a complete, roughly circular knife, crudely chipped around its circumference, which came from a layer in the trench dated to about 2500 B.R The remaining items in this cat- egory are debitage from flaking activities. Those from the trench excavation consist of one broken and battered pebble of vein quartz and 12 flakes (two of vein quartz, two of quartzite, two of chert, and six larger flakes of andésite or basalt). All date to between about 2500 and 3500 B.R In addition, 18 flakes, all of green chert, came from several layers near the base of two units in the front portion of the site dating between 2000 and 2300 B.R Three of the chert flakes show evidence of edge retouch, in one case resulting in a sharp projection which prob- 12 Canadian Journal of Archaeology 22, 1998 This content downloaded from 142.58.58.208 on Thu, 07 Apr 2016 21:59:12 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms NUU-CHAH-NULTH CULTURE HISTORY ably served as a piercer. Including detritus, chipped stone makes up 10.6% of the artifact total from deposits predating 2000 B.P. at Ch'uumat'a. Although this figure is low compared to Locamo Beach sites in the Strait of Georgia region (Maison and Coupland 1995: Table 6-2), it is significant considering the virtual absence of chipped stone from Yuquot. The projectile points and schist knife have close parallels among the Shoemaker Bay I artifacts, as well as in Locarno Beach sites. Some of the ground stone artifacts suggest similar ties. Several fragmentary ground slate implements include the tip of a thick faceted projectile point, one of the diagnostic artifacts of the Locarno Beach Figure 7. Incised and drilled schist object from base of deposits at Ch'uumat'a. culture type (Mitchell 1990:341; Matson and Coupland 1995:156). Celts from this period tend to be small to medium in size, rectangular in cross-section, extensively shaped and flatpolled, similar to those described for Locarno Beach contexts (Mitchell 1990:341) and unlike the round-polled "pebble celts" which are most common in the earlier stages at Yuquot (Dewhirst 1980). One of the early Ch'uumat'a celts, however, is of the round-polled "pebble celt" variety. One small bit fragment of nephrite also suggests ties to the Strait of Georgia, as the closest major source area for this material is along the Fraser River, in the coastal mountains between Hope and Lillooet (Darwent 1996). Also from this time period are several carefully shaped ground stone and bone objects of unknown function (Figure 6). They have a general similarity to artifacts from the Strait of Georgia region collectively termed Gulf Islands Complex items (or "whatzits"), which are highly distinctive artifacts in some Locarno Beach assemblages. Dahm (1994) argues that these are items of personal adornment, worn in, or sus- pended from, holes in the lips, ears, and nose. The Ch'uumat'a examples, however, are not made of the characteristic soapstone for that complex (Duff 1956) and do not closely match specific types established for the Strait of Georgia (Dahm 1994). One complete specimen, of black argillite, has flaring sides, parallel top and bottom, and one concave face (Figure 6a). It resembles artifacts in Dahm's "flared" catego- ry, as well as one illustrated by Duff (1975:3435) from a Gulf Island site, although it is lacking the central channel which characterizes several of these examples. Another is a white limestone "plug", circular in cross-section, with converging sides and a flat base and top. An additional white limestone artifact, broken at its base, is a thin flattened curving object with a squared projection or "tab" on its upper surface. A fourth object, of dense highly-polished bone, is characterized by pronounced flattened flanges at its ends, although much of one has broken away (Figure 6d). A channel or groove runs the length of the object, making it somewhat similar to the "slide" category of Gulf Island Complex Journal Canadien d'Archéologie 22, 1998 13 This content downloaded from 142.58.58.208 on Thu, 07 Apr 2016 21:59:12 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms McMillan artifacts illustrated by Dahm (1994). Also of dense highly-polished bone are two small disks, Ch'uumat'a, compared to 42.6% of the Little one round in cross-section with flat faces and eral facets on each face (McMillan and St. Claire 1992:Figure 57). The first four artifacts Shoemaker Bay I. Poor preservation of organics in the lower strata at Shoemaker Bay, plus Little Beach's small artifact sample and unique status as a burial site, obscure meaningful compar- came from the trench excavation, from a stratum isons. The ratio of bone to stone in the artifact faceted sides, the other a flattened oval with sev- dated to about 2500 B.P., making them contemporaneous with late Locarno Beach examples. Beach assemblage and only 13.3% in assemblages at Little Beach and early The two bone disks came from near the base of Ch'uumat'a, however, would appear to be considerably higher than at Locarno Beach sites in one of the front units, from a level between the Strait of Georgia (Matson and Coupland radiocarbon dates of roughly 2000 and 2300 1995: Table 6-2). B.P. In addition, a flat polished and incised object of greenish-grey schist (Figure 7) was excavated from near the base of the trench deposits. One face of this large fragment is incised with a design, following the shape of its scalloped decorative edge, which may be interpreted as a feather pattern. One small, biconically-drilled hole remains. This object was found in situ on an area of heavily burned shell and ash, with a small amount of charcoal which yielded a radiocarbon age of 4000+140 years. Somewhat similar fragments of schist and shale, with incised designs associated with decorative indented edges, came from equivalent time periods at the Glenrose site on the Fraser River (Matson 1976). Pratt (1992) identifies these as a characteristic trait of the Charles culture type, which precedes Locarno Beach in the Strait of Georgia at the time of the date on the Ch'uumat'a specimen. In general, a significant number of cultural traits from the deposits predating 2000 B.P. at Ch'uumat'a show closer resemblance to materi- als from the Strait of Georgia, particularly in the Locarno Beach stage, than those from equivalent time periods at Yuquot. However, several distinctive traits of Locarno Beach components, such as quartz crystal microblades and microflakes, which are present at Shoemaker Bay, are lacking in the Ch'uumat'a assemblage. In addition, small bone points and bipoints, which dominate West Coast culture type assemblages, including the later Toquaht materials, are also the most common artifacts in the early Ch'uumat'a deposits, making up 35.6% of the total. In all, bone and antler artifacts comprise 74.1% of the pre-2000 B.P. artifact total at Other Archaeological Evidence Surface collections from several unexcavat- ed and undated sites in Barkley Sound and environs also feature abundant chipped stone and other artifacts more closely resembling those known from the Strait of Georgia than the West Coast culture type as it is presently understood. Chipped stemmed and leaf-shaped projectile points, along with a variety of other chipped and ground stone tools, are in a collection from one such site (DeSg-10), near Bamfield in eastern Barkley Sound. Another large leaf-shaped biface is a beach find from Toquaht territory (McMillan and St. Claire 1991:69). A review by Mackie (1992), based on collections and records at the Royal British Columbia Museum, identified numerous implements collected in Nuuchah-nulth territory that appear to have their closest parallels in the archaeological sequence for the Strait of Georgia. These anomalous items include a zoomorphic sandstone bowl and an anthropomorphic steatite carving from the Clayoquot Sound area, as well as chipped obsid- ian leaf-shaped projectile points from both Clayoquot Sound and the head of Ucluelet Inlet (Mackie 1992). In addition, a ground stone object from Clayoquot Sound closely resembles Gulf Islands Complex artifacts from the Strait of Georgia described by Duff (1956; his "Type D") and Dahm (1994; her "solid rectangular," although the Clayoquot Sound object lacks the drilled holes of her examples). In addition, similar materials have been obtained from several excavated sites to the south of Barkley Sound, in the ethnographic territories of the Ditidaht and Makah, the close rel- atives of the Nuu-chah-nulth. Chipped stone tools, including a basalt contracting-stem pro- 14 Canadian Journal of Archaeology 22, 1998 This content downloaded from 142.58.58.208 on Thu, 07 Apr 2016 21:59:12 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms NUU-CHAH-NULTH CULTURE HISTORY jectile point and point preform, dominate the small artifact sample (33 items) from a 1 x 1 m homeland on northern Vancouver Island, where test unit dug in 1996 at DdSc-12, near Port Renfrew. A single radiocarbon date of ily separates the northern (or "Kwakiutlan") lan- 4120+130 B.R came from near its base includes the Nuu-chah-nulth (Thompson and Kinkade 1990:47; Foster 1996:81). From this (Dahlstrom and Wilson 1996). Further parallels a major division in the Wakashan language fam- guages from the southern branch, which come from the extensive excavations at the supposed origin point, both divisions are Hoko River site (45CA213), in Makah ethnographic territory across Juan de Fuca Strait on the Olympic Peninsula (Croes 1995). A series of radiocarbon dates places occupation at this site between about 2800 and 2200 B.R, overlap- thought to have expanded into their historic ter- ping in time with the early Ch'uumat'a deposits. Although bone and antler artifacts have not been Continued southward expansion later gave rise to the southernmost Wakashans, the Ditidaht ritories. As the groups which became the Nuuchah-nulth moved south along the outer west coast, they left a chain of dialects from Kyuquot Sound to just south of Barkley Sound. preserved, such lithic implements as chipped and Makah. These languages differ only slight- leaf- shaped and stemmed projectile points, chipped schist knives, faceted ground slate ly from Nuu-chah-nulth and lack internal dialec- points, and vein quartz chipping detritus link recently from their northern relatives. The Makah are thought to have arrived in their historic homeland in relatively late times, replacing an earlier Chemakuan population (Kinkade and Powell 1976; Thompson and Kinkade 1990:47; Elmendorf 1990:440). Kinkade and Powell Hoko River with the early periods at Ch'uumat'a and Shoemaker Bay, as well as the Locarno Beach culture type. DISCUSSION Models of cultural change requiring population movements have not found much favour among archaeologists in recent decades (Adams et al. 1978; Anthony 1990). In addition, ties to historically-known ethnolinguistic groups are notoriously difficult to demonstrate from the archaeological record. Croes and Hackenberger (1988) have argued that temporal stages defined on differing artifact assemblages are best interpreted as broad plateaus in economic adaptation which extend across large areas, providing little insight into cultural affiliation or ethnicity. The differences evident, however, between Yuquot, with its record of cultural continuity to the his- toric Nuu-chah-nulth, and the early Barkley Sound sites (Ch'uumat'a, Little Beach, and Shoemaker Bay) suggest that the occupants of these two areas were culturally distinct prior to about 2000 years ago. Assemblages typical of the West Coast culture type in later deposits indicate that the earlier occupants of Barkley Sound, who were culturally related to those in the Strait of Georgia region, were replaced by Nuu-chah-nulth populations. This archaeological inference draws support from linguistic evidence suggesting expansion of Nuu-chah-nulthspeaking peoples in relatively late times. Linguists have placed the proto- Wakashan tal divisions, suggesting that they separated only (1976) point out that some major place names used by the Makah have Chemakuan origins, and estimate that the Makah arrival on the Olympic Peninsula occurred about A.D. 1000. Wessen (1990:421), reviewing the archaeology of the Makah region, questions this late date, but not the assumption that the Makah are arrivals from the north. In this scenario, as the Nuu-chah-nulth (including those who later became the ancestors of the Ditidaht and Makah) expanded into already-occupied regions, the earlier populations would have been displaced or absorbed. However, this does not preclude the modern Nuu-chah-nulth of the Barkley Sound area from considering the remains discussed here as those of their ancestors, as the Nuu-chah-nulth spread seems to have been accomplished by "linguistic capture" or cultural assimilation of the earlier residents. Strong ethnographic traditions confirm that at least two of the modern groups were originally Salishan, but were acculturated during a late stage of Nuu-chah-nulth and Ditidaht expansion. These include the Opetchesaht, one of the two Nuu-chah-nulth political units in the Alberai Valley (Boas 1891:584; Sapir 1915:19; McMillan and St. Claire 1982:13-14), and the Journal Canadien d'Archéologie 22, 1998 15 This content downloaded from 142.58.58.208 on Thu, 07 Apr 2016 21:59:12 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms McMillan Ditidaht- speaking Pacheedaht near Port Renfrew (Clamhouse et al. 1991:289). Assessment of this scenario is hampered by the paucity of excavated and dated sites with deposits of sufficient age. Only five sites on the entire west coast of Vancouver Island have yielded excavated materials predating 2500 BP. Of these, only Yuquot and Ch'uumat'a provide well-dated sequences covering the last 4000 years. The differing nature of the excavated materials from the earlier periods at these two sites, plus the linguistic evidence for Nuu-chah- nulth expansion from northern Vancouver Island, support the contention that Nuu-chahnulth arrival in Barkley Sound and to the south was a relatively recent event. REFERENCES Adams, William Y., Dennis P. Van Gerven, and Richard S. Levy 1978 The Retreat from Migrationism. Annual Review of Anthropology 7:483-532. Anthony, David W. 1990 Migration in Archaeology: The Baby and the Bathwater. American Anthropologist 92:895914. Areas Consulting Archeologists Ltd. 1991 Archaeological Investigations at Little Beach Site, Ucluelet, B.C. 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Unpublished M.A. thesis, Department of Anthropology and Sociology, University of British Columbia. St. Claire, Denis E. 1991 Barkley Sound Tribal Territories. In Between Ports Alberni and Renfrew: Notes on Westcoast Peoples, E.Y. Arima et al. editors, dd. Journal Canadien d'Archéologie 22, 1998 17 This content downloaded from 142.58.58.208 on Thu, 07 Apr 2016 21:59:12 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms McMillan 13-202. Canadian Museum of Civilization, Mercury Series, Canadian Ethnology Service Paper 121, Ottawa. Sapir, Edward 1913 A Girl's Puberty Ceremony Among the Nootka Indians. Royal Society of Canada, Proceedings and Transactions, Series 3, pt. 2:6780. Canadian Archaeological Association in Saskatoon, Sask. Alan D. McMillan Department of Anthropology and Sociology Douglas College, New Westminster, B.C. V3L 5B2 and 1915 Abnormal types of Speech in Nootka. Geological Survey of Canada, Memoir 62:1-21. Department of Archaeology Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, B.C. V5A 1S6 Sproat, Gilbert Malcolm 1868 Scenes and Studies of Savage Life. Smith, Elder and Co., London. (Reprinted as The Nootka: Scenes and Studies of Savage Life, edited by Charles Lillard, Sono Nis Press, Victoria, 1987.) Thompson, Laurence C. and M. Dale Kinkade 1990 Languages. In Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 7: Northwest Coast, edited by Wayne Sutiles, pp. 30-51. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. Wessen, Gary C. 1990 Prehistory of the Ocean Coast of Washington. In Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 7: Northwest Coast, edited by Wayne Suttles, pp. 412-421. Smithsonian Institution, Washington. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Major funding for the Toquant Archaeological Project came from the Government of British Columbia through the B.C. Heritage Trust. The Toquant Nation also provided major financial support, as well as administrative assistance through their office in Ucluelet. Douglas College and Simon Fraser University assisted with equipment, lab space, and administrative support. All fieldwork was co-directed by Alan McMillan and Denis St. Claire. Chief Bert Mack of the Toquant Nation provided encouragement and support. Greg Monks, University of Manitoba, is the project faunal analyst. Artifact drawings are by Gillian McMillan. CJA reviewers R.G. Matson and Aubrey Cannon offered helpful comments on the initial manuscript. A preliminary version of this paper was presented to the 30th Annual Meeting of the 18 Canadian Journal of Archaeology 22, 1998 This content downloaded from 142.58.58.208 on Thu, 07 Apr 2016 21:59:12 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms