(PDF) (Book) Historical Dictionary of the Russo-Japanese War

Every war leaves an imprint in history, but few have had such a pervasive impact in so many respects as the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905. Politically, it fatally weakened the Russian Empire while allowing Japan to follow more dangerous paths. Diplomatically, it shook the power balance in Europe and reshaped it in the form of two coalitions, leading to World War I. With regard to the art of warfare, it emphasized the use of trench warfare and machine guns on land and the deployment of battleships and the use of torpedoes at sea. Yet, despite its importance at the time, it has become very much a forgotten war. So now, about a century after it took place, is a very appropriate time to remind us with a Historical Dictionary of the Russo-Japanese War that provides considerable breadth and depth of coverage based on Japanese, Russian and Western sources. The breadth is accomplished through a wide-ranging introduction, a detailed chronology and an extensive bibliography. The depth comes in the hundreds of entries on military and political leaders, major battles and lesser encounters, tactics and strategy as well as the weaponry and of course the causes and consequences. The result is the first major reference work on the Russo-Japanese War in English and the largest in any language. REVIEWS “… as a standard reference, Kowner’s dictionary does an admirable job of providing readers with balanced readable reference work on the Russo-Japanese War.” John W. Steinberg, Journal of Military History 70 (2006), 1149. “… Kowner provides what must be the most thorough reference account of the Russo-Japanese War produced in the English language. … The Historical Dictionary of the Russo-Japanese War will be the reference source of choice for any library where the conflict is the subject of study or research. It also belongs in libraries specializing in military history or East Asian or Russian/Slavic studies.” Tony Chalcraft, Reference Reviews 20, no. 7 (2006), 52. “An effort is made to cover the historical significance of the war in terms of both the causes and effects. Not only people, battleships, weapons, and events, but also special topics such as “prisoners of war,” “propaganda,” “military intelligence, and “medical treatment” are found among the entries. Recommended for college and research libraries.” Junko Stuveras, College and Research Libraries 67 (2006), 474. “One of the great merits of this book is the editor’s ability to extract and define these current [that will profoundly impact later events], which suddenly places the war in a new, more meaningful context. … The Historical Dictionary of the Russo-Japanese War will be an indispensable addition to libraries of colleges, universities, and communities seeking to expand their titles in military history. It is especially important because, as noted above, the work is the first such reference volume in English.” John B. Romeiser, ARBA (2007), 271. “Kowner has worked prodigiously over the past decade to mark the conflict’s centenary by organizing an international conference, writing a 600-page history and several articles, as well as editing two volumes on the topic, and he is therefore well suited to the task. … Kowner’s dictionary provides balanced and accurate coverage. He is also careful to point out questions that remain contentious among historians. … It is also unfortunate that the dictionary was unavailable 15 years ago, when I began my own research on the topic. It would have saved me a lot of work.” David Schimmelpenninck van der Oye, Journal of Slavic Military Studies 20 (2007), 775-776. “Among the [fourteen] works reviewed, R. Kowner's Dictionary treats the events of 1904-05 most extensively. Based on Western, Russian and Japanese sources, the author approaches the topic very widely. … Such an extensive work from the pen of a single author, even if this could be based on the advice of numerous colleagues, is an almost a superhuman accomplishment.” Gerhard Krebs, Nachrichten der Gesellschaft für Natur- und Völkerkunde Ostasiens/Hamburg (OAG) 183-184 (2008), 193.

Historical Dictionary of the Russo–Japanese War Rotem Kowner Historical Dictionaries of War, Revolution, and Civil Unrest, No. 29 The Scarecrow Press, Inc. Lanham, Maryland • Toronto • Oxford 2006 SCARECROW PRESS, INC. Published in the United States of America by Scarecrow Press, Inc. A wholly owned subsidiary of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc. 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lanham, Maryland 20706 www.scarecrowpress.com PO Box 317 Oxford OX2 9RU, UK Copyright © 2006 by Rotem Kowner All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Kowner, Rotem. Historical dictionary of the Russo–Japanese War / Rotem Kowner. p. cm. — (Historical dictionaries of war, revolution, and civil unrest; no. 29) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-0-8108-4927-3 (hardcover: alk. paper) ISBN-10: 0-8108-4927-5 1. Russo–Japanese War, 1904–1905—Dictionaries. I. Title. II. Series. DS517.K68 2006 952.02'1—dc22 2005010131 ∞ ™ The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992. Manufactured in the United States of America. To my father, Leon Kowner Contents List of Illustrations ix Editor’s Foreword (Jon Woronoff) xi Preface xiii Acknowledgments xvii Reader’s Notes xix Acronyms and Abbreviations xxiii Maps xxvii Chronology xliii Introduction 1 THE DICTIONARY 25 Appendix 1: War Documents 441 Appendix 2: Glossary of Port Arthur Site Names 461 Appendix 3: Military Ranks 463 Appendix 4: Naval Balance in East Asia on the Eve of the War 465 Appendix 5: Naval Balance in East Asia on the Eve of the Battle of Tsushima 469 Bibliography 471 Index 537 About the Author 567 vii Illustrations MAPS 1. The war arena. 2. The naval arena. 3. Manchuria and North Korea. 4. The battle arena (Liaotung peninsula). 5. Korea. 6. Landing and advance of the Japanese Army. 7. Battle of the Yalu. 8. Battle of Nanshan. 9. Battle of Telissu. 10. Naval battle of the Yellow Sea. 11. Battle of Liaoyang 12 Seige of Port Arthur. 13. Battle of Sha-ho. 14. Battle Mukden. 15. The voyage of the Baltic Fleet. 16. Naval battle of Tsushima. xxvii xxviii xxix xxx xxxi xxxii xxxiii xxxiv xxxv xxxvi xxxvii xxxviii xxxix xl xli xlii PHOTOS (Follows page 296) 1. Clockwise, from upper left: Emperor Meiji, Katsura Tarô, Itô Hirobumi, and Yamagata Aritomo. 2. Clockwise, from upper left: Terauchi Masatake, Ôyama Iwao, Nogi Maresuke, and Tôgô Heihachirô. ix x • ILLUSTRATIONS 3. Clockwise, from upper left: Tsar Nicholas II, Sergei Witte, Aleksei Kuropatkin, and Aleksandr Bezobrazov. 4. Clockwise, from upper left: Evgenii Alekseev, Stepan Makarov, Zinovii Rozhestvenskii, and Anatolii Stoessel. 5. Clockwise, from upper left: Theodore Roosevelt, Emperor William II, King Kojong, and Arthur Balfour. 6. Japanese battleship Fuji (top) and Russian battleship Retvizan (bottom). 7. Russian cruiser Bayan (top) and Japanese destroyer Akebono (bottom). 8. Russian infantry. 9. Japanese military engineers. 10. Russian artillery during the battle of Liaoyang. 11. Japanese battery of 280-millimeter howitzers used during the siege of Port Arthur. 12. A view of the harbor of Port Arthur a few days before the surrender of the fort. 13. Japanese troops entering the city of Mukden following their victory at the battle of Mukden. 14. Tsar Nicholas II reviewing a warship of the Baltic Fleet before its departure to Asia. 15. Rear Admiral Nikolai Nebogatov taken by a Japanese boat upon his surrender at the battle of Tsushima. 16. Japanese and Russian representatives convening during the Portsmouth Peace Conference, among them Komura Jutarô (third from the left), Takahira Kogorô (fourth from the left), Roman Rosen (second from the right), and Sergei Witte (third from the right). Editor’s Foreword The Russo–Japanese War, which occurred a century ago, pitted one of the major Western powers against an emerging but amazingly dynamic nation in Asia. It affected the balance of power in Europe, causing shifts that were played out over the next several decades. For the loser, it had far-reaching repercussions that could hardly have been expected and that changed Russia into an entirely different country. For the winner, the consequences seemed more positive—for Japan if not for its neighbors—until it went too far. The war introduced a number of firsts, including the use of machine-gun and trench warfare; the laying of mines and launching of torpedoes; and the deployment of cruisers, destroyers, and battleships. The Russo–Japanese War was regarded as decisive, yet today it is all but forgotten. This book is an element in recovering this influential conflict from oblivion, in connection with its centenary. This Historical Dictionary of the Russo–Japanese War consists of two basic elements. The most obvious is a recounting of the actual war, which is accomplished mainly in the introduction and dictionary, with its hundreds of entries about people both military and political, specific weapons and tactics, military units, virtually all of the warships, major battles, and many smaller encounters. The other element is the general background of the war, in the sense of examining its causes, the various diplomatic and political shifts, and the consequences that followed in its wake. This extended period of before, during, and following the Russo–Japanese War is examined in the chronology. Essential references are detailed in the bibliography. There exist a limited number of specialists on the Russo–Japanese War. Both Soviet and Japanese scholars were more concerned with postwar events. Rotem Kowner is presently the chair of the Department of East Asian Studies at the University of Haifa, Israel. He is also a coorganizer of a major international conference, “The Russo–Japanese xi xii • EDITOR’S FOREWORD War and the 20th Century: An Assessment from a Centennial Perspective.” Although Professor Kowner had already written extensively on the conflict, this book goes considerably further—probably further than he originally expected. While often technical, it is written in an accessible style, making it an invaluable resource not only for other specialists but also the general public. Jon Woronoff Series Editor Preface While the central place of the Russo–Japanese War in modern history is still not recognized sufficiently by contemporary historians, its observers at the time were overwhelmed by its dramatic battles and shortlived political impact. Indeed it was an epic and almost conclusive triumph of the underdog over the mighty; it featured successful military leaders, such as Admiral Tôgô Heihachirô and General Nogi Maresuke, who would be venerated for generations, and failed leaders, such as Tsar Nicholas II, who were to be despised; it was a war with real territorial gains but also political repercussions around the world; it had tangible monuments to victory, such as Port Arthur, where the legacy of the heroic battles might be revered. Yet for all that, the Russo–Japanese War has somehow sunk into oblivion in our collective memory. The Russo–Japanese War was indisputably the biggest and most significant conflict in the first decade of the 20th century. The object of the war was control of northeast Asia in general and Korea in particular, areas not then deemed of great importance, but the war’s implications resounded across the world. The war was fought between tsarist Russia and imperial Japan—two nations which at the time were at the end of a process of expansion and growth. Their interaction has affected their histories directly and indirectly even to the present day. Both underwent many changes after the war, and they reached their peak only several decades later. The rivals did not fight alone. Behind each stood allies with different perceptions of the world. Russia, a large and expansionist absolute monarchy, represented traditional European power and was supported by Germany and France. Japan was the first non-Western nation to have achieved modernization and was backed by Great Britain. Being an Asian nation, non-“white” Japan became a model for imitation and admiration by most peoples under or threatened by colonial rule. xiii xiv • PREFACE Japan’s unexpected victory changed the course of modern history in a moment. During the conflagration, significant shifts were already noticeable in the ranking of the European powers, which had stayed constant for almost a century until then. The sudden fall of Russian power and the rise of Germany as an alternative led to alliances that were hardly imaginable a decade earlier. Two years after the war, a new order of power in Europe was established, which led to the outbreak of World War I and remained almost intact until 1945. In the Russo–Japanese War, the United States became, for the first time, an involved and balancing political power, yet this status set the United States on a collision course with Japan over control of the Pacific Ocean. This war had considerable repercussions in East Asia, then inhabited by a third of the world’s population. Japan became a regional superpower, and its victories on the battlefields of Manchuria were merely an appetizer for further expansion. In China, the war was a catalyst for the revolution of 1911 and for modernization, while Korea lost its independence, to regain it only at the end of World War II, and only as a divided nation. Finally, many nations viewed the Russo–Japanese War as the first evidence in the modern age that an Asian nation, which just a few decades earlier had begun a process of modernization, was able to overcome a European nation by force of arms alone. This victory infused a spirit of nationalistic ambition into nations subject to European rule throughout the world. However, the war did not aid them directly in fulfilling those ambitions; on the contrary, it only strengthened the imperialistic ambitions of Japan. In this historical dictionary, I have sought to bring to light a broader view than usually provided regarding the place and importance of the Russo–Japanese War in modern history. Based on Western, Japanese, and Russian sources, this book covers not only the battles, weaponry, and major personalities of the war, but also various international events and conflicts, agreements, schemes, and projects that led to the war. It is especially concerned with the political, social, and military consequences of the conflict, typically until the outbreak of World War I, less than a decade later, and occasionally even later. The core of this book is nearly 600 main-text entries, ranging in length from about 100 to 2,000 words. Arranged alphabetically, they cover virtually every aspect of the Russo–Japanese War. Items for which there are specific entries are bolded where first mentioned in the Introduction and in the Dictionary PREFACE • xv entries. Breaking such a major event down to a dictionary-like sequence is bound to have some apparent limitations, but also advantages. I hope, though, that readers and users of this book, especially those who do not know Russian or Japanese, will be able to benefit from its novel aspects and draw an altogether new and more accurate picture of the war and its consequences. Acknowledgments In researching a book of this type, one inevitably incurs debts of various sorts, some of which I will never be able to repay. During this project, I was fortunate to discuss various issues related to this book with numerous colleagues and participants at two conferences on the Russo–Japanese War that I took part in organizing. Among these remarkable scholars, I am especially grateful to Yitzhak Shichor, BenAmi Shillony, Harold Zvi Schiffrin, Ian Nish, Aron Shai, Yigal Sheffy, Philip Towle, Jonathan Frankel, Gad Gilbar, Ury Eppstein, Bernd Martin, Dani Gutwein, Peter Berton, Guy Podaler, Richard Smethurst, Joseph Henning, Oliver Griffin, Seok Hua-jeong, Patrick Beillevaire, Thomas Otte, Yulia Mikhailova, Jan Kusber, Tilak Sareen, Monika Lehner, Anna Frajlich-Zajac, and Paul Norbury, for sharing with me their knowledge and insights about the Russo–Japanese War. I would like to thank my research assistants at the University of Haifa, Ido Blumenfeld, Ran Snir, Gideon Elazar, and Felix Brenner, for their dedication and help in gathering materials, translating, and editing. Ido Blumenfeld and Dikla Berliner were more than instrumental in helping to draw the maps for this book. Their assistance, as well as the insistence of the series editor, Jon Woronoff, served as a catalyst in starting this project. The advice provided and materials shared by Inaba Chiharu, Shôbo Haruhiko, Ishii Kazuo, and Mark Conrad were invaluable in locating and deciphering Japanese and Russian sources and concepts. I remain, however, solely responsible for the writing, interpretations, and possible mistakes in this book. The financial support provided by the Research Authority at the University of Haifa and the lasting encouragement of the Dean of Research, Prof. Moshe Zeidner, were also essential and are highly appreciated. Murray Rosovsky was indispensable, as usual, in providing painstaking proofreading and expert editing. The research environment facilitated xvii xviii • ACKNOWLEDGMENTS by Ogawa Toshiki and the University of Tsukuba, as well as the generous hospitality in Japan provided by the Shôbo and Dewaraja families, was beneficial for the completion of this project. No dedication can do justice to the patience of loved ones. Without my wife, Fabienne, and our three daughters, Jasmine, Emmanuelle, and Narkisse, this book would not have been possible. I want to let them know just how valuable and sustaining their support and love have been over this period. The book is dedicated to my father, Leon Kowner—a teacher and a friend, who has shared with me his clear perception and profound knowledge of military history since my childhood in long and patient discussions, who bought me numerous military history books that at first I could not read but could only enjoy the photos, and who steadily taught me the value of total history and its far-reaching importance. Reader’s Notes The writing of this dictionary involved great difficulties in transliteration and occasionally even translation of many of the entries. Not only is the script of each belligerent’s language not Latin, but the war was waged on the territory of China and Korea, where other non-Latin scripts are in use. Further, in the century that has elapsed since the war, that territory has changed hands and regimes, and many of the place names have changed, often more than once. Place names in Manchuria and Korea during the early 20th century posed perhaps the greatest problem for this book, as they do for any historian who wishes to write about the war. Each belligerent often had its own name for the various localities; the English-speaking world had a third name; and the local people had a fourth or fifth (especially in Manchuria). Many of these names were changed after the war, for political reasons or due to a change in the transliteration system. An example is the southern harbor, fortress, and site of a great siege, known in the West as Port Arthur after 1860. The local Chinese population called the place Lüshun. The Russians, who leased the site during 1898–1904, called it Port Artur. The Japanese, who occupied it from 1905 to 1945, called it Ryojun. After World War II, the Soviet Union controlled the harbor for a decade and reverted to Port Artur. In 1955, the Chinese regained control of the area and reverted to their old name for it, Lüshun. In the following years, the Chinese united the city with the adjacent city of Dalien (or Dalian; Talien in old Chinese transliteration, Dalny in English, Dairen in Japanese, Dalnii in Russian), and today they are often known together as Lüta. These historical, linguistic, and political shifts have been taken into account throughout the book, but they involved several editorial decisions to make it as systematic as possible. xix xx • READER’S NOTES NAMES OF PEOPLE The names of people mentioned in the book follow several transliteration systems. Transliterations of Russian names, written originally in the Cyrillic alphabet, adhere to the modified form of the U.S. Library of Congress. Exceptions are names so familiar in English that they are written in the commonly accepted way so as not to mislead the reader (e.g., Nicholas II rather than Nikolai II); likewise, Russian names of German origin appear in the form usual in that period in the English literature (with the original German name in brackets). Japanese names are written according to the Hepburn transliteration system and in consultation with the Kodansha Encyclopedia (1983 edition). The circumflex used in some of the Japanese names indicates a long vowel. Chinese names are written according to the Pinyin transliteration system (with the Wade-Giles transliteration in brackets), while Korean names follow the McKuhn and Reischauer transliteration system. As commonly accepted in the East Asian tradition and in academic writing in English, all East Asian names appear with the family name first, followed by the personal name. Along with the above usages, many of the entry heads are followed by additional transliteration options in brackets. Notably, some of the Japanese first names have two different readings; one follows the Japanese reading (kunyomi) and one the so-called Chinese reading (onyomi). NAMES OF PLACES Names of locations in Manchuria and China are written according to the Wade-Giles transliteration system. While today the Pinyin transliteration system is in growing use, most books in European languages dealing with this period, and certainly all books written during the war itself and in the half a century that followed, apply the Wade-Giles system or similar traditional systems. Moreover, many of the place names in Manchuria and the names of battle sites are not in use today, partly because they were from local dialects or non-Chinese languages. Therefore, the use of current Chinese names or of old names in Pinyin transliteration may mislead the reader and make it impossible to identify these places. However, to allow the reader to identify the battle sites READER’S NOTES • xxi and link them with present-day locations, the Pinyin transliterations are added in brackets, as well as the name in Japanese (written in italics), and the name in Russian if it differs substantially from the English name. Place names in Japan are written according to the Hepburn transliteration system, in consultation with the Kodansha Encyclopedia (first edition) and the fourth edition of the Kenkyusha Japanese–English dictionary. Finally, names of places of current special importance are written in the present transliteration, such as Tokyo (which a century ago was written Tokio and is transliterated fully as Tôkyô) and Beijing (Peking, Peiping). DATES The dates in the book are written according to the Gregorian calendar (the calendar which is commonly used today in the West and most of the world, including Russia), rather than either the Julian calendar, which was used in tsarist Russia until 1918, or the modern Japanese calendar, which is still in use today. The Julian calendar, used in many books on Russian history, was 12 days “behind” the Gregorian calendar during the 19th century and 13 days “behind” during the 20th century. Japan adopted the Gregorian calendar in 1873 but also began about that time to number years serially from the year in which a reigning emperor ascended the throne (the entire era). Therefore, the date of the outbreak of the war, which occurred on 26 January 1904 according to the Julian calendar in Russia, and on the 8th day of the second month of the 37th year of the Meiji era in Japan, appears in this book as 8 February 1904. MEASUREMENT UNITS The units of measurement in this book are given by the metric system, but to facilitate the text for those unfamiliar with it, units current in the United States appear in brackets. The description of the battles at sea pose a special problem because most fleets, including those of countries that had long since switched to the metric system, continued using traditional non-metrical units of measurement. Therefore, units of measurement that have additive professional meaning and were used for xxii • READER’S NOTES general description (such as the caliber of guns) are provided as well in brackets. The displacement of ships is given in English tons (1 ton = 1,016 kg), even though no accepted unit for measuring and recording the displacement of battleships existed prior to the Naval Conference in Washington in 1922. Therefore, all measurements were related to “normal” displacement or to the displacement at the planning stage. ARMAMENT AND ARMOR Technical data regarding warships and guns are written in abbreviated form. Thus the inscription 4 ! 305mm/40 [12in.] (2 ! 2) means four guns of bore diameter 305 millimeters (12 inches) and barrel length 40 calibers (i.e., 12.20 meters), and the guns are arranged in two turrets of two guns each. The inscription TT (2AW 2sub) means four torpedo tubes, two of them above water and two submerged. For the various abbreviations, the reader is advised to consult the list of acronyms and abbreviations. RANKS Ranks of the military figures are given according to the British system at the beginning of the 20th century. This is done to simplify the usage of different terms for the armies and navies referred to in the discussion, and to adhere to the names of the ranks as they appear in the contemporary literature in English on the war. Names of ranks of military and naval officers in both pre–World War I tsarist Russia and imperial Japan are listed with their corresponding British ranks in appendix 3. Acronyms and Abbreviations AAG ADC Adm AG App. Ass. AW AX BB BCE Brig Gen Brit. Capt CBE CC Cdr C-in-C cm CO Col Comp. CoS CR CT cyl DAG DD Deg assistant adjutant general (British army) aide-de-camp admiral adjutant general (British army) appointed assistant above water Auxiliary vessel; transport ship battleship before Christian era brigadier general British captain Commander of the Order of the British Empire (award) cruiser commander commander-in-chief centimeter(s) commanding officer (commander) colonel complement (all of a ship’s personnel required to operate the ship) chief-of-staff armored cruiser conning tower cylinder(s) deputy adjutant general (British army) destroyer degree(s) xxiii xxiv • Dep. Displ. E. est. Fin. Fr. ft GB Gen Ger. GG GOC grt HMS hrs HTE ihp IJA IJN in. IRA IRN It. Jpn. KC KCB km kt LBD lbs Lt Lt Cdr Lt Gen m m/sec Mac. Maj ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS deputy displacement (the weight of water, in long tons, displaced by a ship) east established Finnish French foot, feet Great Britain general German governor-general general officer commanding (British army) gross registered tonnage His/Her Majesty’s Ship hours horizontal triple expansion indicated horsepower Imperial Japanese Army Imperial Japanese Navy inch [2.54 centimeters], inches Imperial Russian Army Imperial Russian Navy Italian Japanese Krupp compound Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath (award) kilometer(s) knot [1.853 kilometers per hour], knots length, beam, draft (measurements of size of a ship) pounds [1 pound = 0.454 kilogram] lieutenant lieutenant commander lieutenant general meter(s) meters per second machinery major ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS Maj Gen max. mi ML mm MN MP N. NCO nm OBB OCR pdr PG PM Pref. QF QMG R Adm r/min RN Rus. Sp. sq sub t TB TT USA USN USS v. V Adm VTE WWI WWII y • xxv major general maximum mile [1.609 kilometer], miles minelayer millimeter(s) naval mine(s) member of parliament north non-commissioned officer nautical mile [1.853 kilometers], nautical miles obsolete battleship (during the war) or coastal defense battleship protected cruiser pounder gunvessel and third-class cruiser prime minister Prefecture (Japanese administrative district) quick fire quartermaster general rear admiral rounds per minute British Royal Navy Russian Spanish square submerged ton(s) torpedo boat torpedo tube(s) United States of America United States Navy United States Ship vice vice admiral vertical triple expansion World War I World War II yard [0.9144 meter], yards The war arena. The naval arena. Manchuria and northern Korea. The battle arena (Liaotung peninsula). Korea. Landing and advance of the Japanese army. Battle of the Yalu. Battle of Nanshan. Battle of Telissu. Naval battle of the Yellow Sea. Battle of Liaoyang. Siege of Port Arthur. Battle of Sha-ho. Battle of Mukden. The voyage of the Baltic Fleet. Naval battle of Tsushima. Chronology Prewar Events (1854–1904) 1854 31 March: United States and Japan sign the Treaty of Kanagawa. 1855 7 February: Russia and Japan sign the Shimoda Treaty; division of the Kuril Islands and joint control over Sakhalin. 1858 19 August: Russia and Japan sign a trade and navigation treaty. 1875 7 May: Russo–Japanese Exchange Treaty. Japan receives full control of the Kuril Islands while Russia receives full control of Sakhalin. 1876 February: Japanese naval force led by Kuroda Kiyotaka heads for Korea and negotiates the unequal Treaty of Kanghwa. The treaty opens Korean ports and allows for Japanese settlements on the peninsula. 1884 4 December: Progressive forces in the Korean government assisted by the Japanese minister stage a coup d’état in Seoul. Chinese military intervention suppresses the rebels and restores the king to the throne. 1885 5 April: China and Japan sign the Tientsin [Tianjin] Convention, which provides for the removal of their respective forces from Korean soil. 1891 11 May: In the Otsu Incident, a Japanese policeman wounds the Russian crown prince, Nicholas, in an assassination attempt during the prince’s visit to Otsu, Japan. 31 May: Construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway starts. xliii xliv • CHRONOLOGY 1894 February: Outbreak of the Tonghak rebellion in Korea. 21 July: Japanese troops seize the Korean royal palace and install a puppet regent, while Japanese warships sink a Chinese troopship en route to Korea. 1 August: Formal declaration of the First Sino–Japanese War. October: Japanese forces cross the Yalu River into Chinese territory. 1 November: Tsar Alexander III dies; his son Nicholas II ascends the throne. 21 November: Japanese forces take Port Arthur. 1895 17 April: Japan and China sign the Shimonoseki Treaty, ending the First Sino–Japanese War. 23 April: Russia, Germany, and France submit an ultimatum to Japan, known as the Three-Power Intervention, to withdraw from the Liaotung peninsula. 8 October: Korean Queen Min is assassinated in Seoul by members of the Japanese legation. 8 November: A complementary treaty for the withdrawal of Japanese forces from China and Manchuria is signed. 1896 10 February: Korean King Kojong flees to the Russian legation (remains there until 20 February 1897). 3 June: Conclusion of the Li–Lobanov agreement, granting Russia the right to build the Chinese Eastern Railway through Manchuria. 9 June: Conclusion of the Yamagata–Lobanov agreement. 8 September: A Russo–Chinese agreement for the construction of the Chinese Eastern Railway. 1897 3 December: Germany seizes Kiaochow in Shantung peninsula. 14 December: Russia informs Germany that it intends to seize Port Arthur. 1898 27 March: China grants Russia 25-year leases to the ports of Dalny and Port Arthur. 25 April: Conclusion of the Nishi–Rosen agreement. 10 December: Under the Treaty of Paris that concludes the Spanish–American War, Spain cedes the Philippines to the United States. 1899 Early: The secret society of the Harmonious Fists (the Boxers) steps up attacks on Chinese converts along the Shandong–Heibei border. September: U.S. Secretary of State John Hay announces the OpenDoor Policy regarding China. 1900 10 June: The Boxers enter Beijing. 9 July: Russian army forces enter Manchuria. 4 August: Russian forces occupy Niuchuang. 14 August: The Boxers’ siege lifted from the Foreign Legations quarter in Beijing. Autumn: Russian forces occupy the entire territory of Manchuria. Introduction THE ORIGINS OF THE RUSSO–JAPANESE WAR From a broad historical perspective, the Russo–Japanese War was the flash point of prolonged friction between two expanding powers. From the west the Russian empire had been encroaching eastward for centuries, whereas from the east the Japanese empire had been expanding in the direction of the Asian mainland for three decades. The encounter between these two nations in the killing fields of Korea and Manchuria, areas that both sides were eager to control, was the first and most memorable confrontation between them. Both belligerents were growing empires that tended during the premodern era to spread outward to new regions and to expand their borders. Still, Russia had more experience in the activity of territorial expansion. The Russian yearning for territorial expansion into East Asia was centuries old, pursued with economic, religious, and adventurous passion. In the 16th century, the area of Russia extended as far as the Ural Mountains. Beyond was Siberia, populated by tribal peoples who were unable to stem Russian intrusion. The Tatars cut off the Russian fur trade in the border areas in 1578, but a year later an expedition of Cossacks, led by an adventurer named Ermak (Yermak), was dispatched to renew it. In the following years, this expeditionary force pressed eastward for about 1,000 kilometers and, in less than a century, Russian explorers reached the Amur River. At about the same time as Ermak’s expedition, Japanese forces under the command of Toyotomi Hideyoshi strove to seize Korea and even China. Their failure, however, ended Japanese involvement in Asian affairs for almost three centuries. A few decades later, the fear of European-Christian involvement in the internal affairs of Japan drove the second shogun of the Tokugawa dynasty to a policy of long years of iso1 2 • INTRODUCTION lation (Sakoku, 1640–1854). During that time, Japan maintained a continuous policy of non-involvement in Asian affairs, except for admitting a limited number of Chinese and Korean traders, as well as annual visits of Dutch merchant ships at the port of Nagasaki. For the time being, the Japanese need for territorial expansion was satisfied by the slow advance northward within the northern part of the Honshu mainland and the island of Ezo (now Hokkaido). In 1697 Russian explorers arrived at Kamchatka, where they encountered for the first time a Japanese national and took him to Moscow. In the early decades of the 18th century, Russian hunters, researchers, and government officials penetrated the Kuril Islands northeast of Ezo. In 1739 Russians set foot for the first time on Japanese soil, and in 1792 a Russian expedition returned to Ezo but was not allowed entry. In 1804 a Russian flotilla arrived in Nagasaki; when not granted permission to enter the port, it shelled the villages in the area and attacked Japanese settlements in the Kuril Islands and in the adjacent elongated island of Sakhalin. Exactly a century before the Russo–Japanese War, tension between these two nations arose for the first time. In the following half-century, Russo–Japanese relations calmed down, although Japan continued to bar Russian visits. In 1853, however, Tsar Nicholas I decided to dispatch another delegation to Nagasaki under the command of Vice Admiral Evfimii Putiatin, which did not complete its mission due to the outbreak of the Crimean War. Its timing, however, was exceptional, as in February 1854 an American flotilla under the command of Commodore Matthew Perry succeeded in forcing the shogun regime to end Japan’s long period of isolation. A year later, Russia and Japan signed the first of three prewar Russo–Japanese Treaties, which included a temporary compromise regarding the division of Sakhalin. In 1868 a revolution known as the Meiji Restoration broke out in Japan, during which the shogun regime was replaced by an oligarchy of young samurai from the periphery. In consequence the Japanese nation entered into an accelerated process of modernization. That same year, the Japanese annexed Ezo and changed its name to Hokkaido. During much of the second half of the 19th century, Russia and Japan maintained fairly stable relations, while both of them at the same time strengthened their hold in the region. In 1860 the Russians founded the city of Vladivostok on the shores of the Pacific Ocean. But they con- THE ORIGINS OF THE RUSSO–JAPANESE WAR • 3 tinued to look for an all-year-round open port of their own and therefore kept trying to expand southward. In 1875 Japan and Russia signed the second prewar Russo–Japanese treaty (the “exchange agreement”) that set out once again their common borders. Partly pushed into an imperial struggle, the Japanese oligarchy was quick to examine ways not only to prevent the conquest of Japan by Western forces but also to strengthen its position in the eyes of the West. Its inability to change the unequal treaties signed by the shogunal representatives after the opening of the country led many in Japan to the conclusion that the road to regain national respect was by forming new relations with its neighbors in East Asia—China and Korea. In 1873 Japan felt internal pressures to take over Korea, but the debate was resolved with a pragmatic call for temporary restraint. To palliate the militant circles, a Japanese naval force landed in Formosa (Taiwan) in 1874 and forced the opening of Korea in 1876. During the 1870s, Japan expanded its territory by annexing the Ryukyu Islands in the southwest, the Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands in the south, and the Kuril Islands in the north. Japanese military activities worried the Chinese, who decided to restore their now-weakened influence on Korea, and the 1880s were marked by a growing struggle in that country between China and Japan. From Japan’s viewpoint, any attempt thereafter by a foreign power to take control of Korea was to be considered a casus belli. Such a power was China in 1894, and Russia a decade later. To prevent such escalation in Korea, in 1885 Japan and China signed the Tientsin [Tianjin] Convention. The status quo between Russia and Japan began to show cracks in 1891, the year the Russians announced the laying of the Trans-Siberian Railway from European Russia to the Pacific Ocean, a distance of about 9,200 kilometers. Russians often defined this project as a cultural mission—bringing civilization in general and Christianity in particular to the peoples of Asia. But it was too expensive an enterprise for purely cultural purposes. This ambitious project, with all its branches, was to change the face of East Asia. As the construction of the line progressed, it became clear that its military goals had implications that were no less far-reaching. Once completed, the line was expected to assist, whenever necessary, in the rapid mobilization of military forces to East Asia. In St. Petersburg and in the capitals of Europe, observers saw it as a bridgehead for Russian expansion in East Asia. Major interest in the project was shown by 4 • INTRODUCTION Russia’s crown prince Nicholas, who in 1890 set out on a long trip to East Asia. His final destination was Vladivostok, where he was to lay the cornerstone for the railway terminal. On his way, the crown prince, who three years later became Tsar Nicholas II, visited Japan. There he was attacked by a fanatic policeman (the Otsu Incident), which may have affected his attitude toward Japan. The Crucial Decade: The First Sino–Japanese War and Its Aftermath In the decade before the Russo–Japanese War, a political vacuum was created in Korea, into which Russia was drawn. Ironically perhaps, it was Japan that contributed to this vacuum. The question of Japanese and Chinese hegemony in Korea led to the outbreak of the First Sino–Japanese War in the summer of 1894. While for China this was just another war in a series of struggles to maintain the integrity of its borders, for Japan it was the first war against a foreign country in modern times. The impressive military victories of the Japanese army and navy aroused great joy in Japan, but in Europe they caused grave fears about the power of this country in particular and the ascendancy of East Asian nations in general. During the war, the German emperor, William II, invented the term “yellow peril,” which quickly entered the international vocabulary as the hidden threat of the East Asian nations against Western civilization. Japan’s victory was finalized diplomatically in the Treaty of Shimonoseki, according to which China was forced to cede Formosa and the Liaotung peninsula, with the harbor and fort of Port Arthur in its tip. Russia was alarmed by the notion of Japanese control in this peninsula, a gateway to Manchuria and the Chinese capital, Beijing. Less than a week later, on 23 April 1895, Russia managed to obtain the support of France and Germany, and together they relayed a message to Japan, “advising” it to restore to China the territories it had conquered in southern Manchuria, “for the sake of peace in the Far East.” Under the explicit ultimatum of this Three-Power Intervention, Japan decided to give up the Liaotung peninsula. The enlarged indemnities it eventually received from China were no compensation, and the surrender to the threats of the powers was regarded as a national degradation. THE ORIGINS OF THE RUSSO–JAPANESE WAR • 5 After the defeat of China, Russia became the main rival of Japan, not only because of its involvement in the Three-Power Intervention, but by reason of its expansionist ambitions in East Asia. Japan was aware of the Trans-Siberian Railway project, but the focus of the Russo–Japanese rivalry centered at that time on Korea, whose king was beginning to view the Russians as his saviors. Russia, together with the United States, objected to the plans to grant the Japanese exclusive rights in Korea, and they induced the other powers to demand Korean concessions in the peninsula, such as a franchise for mining and for railway tracks. The position of Japan began to deteriorate, and in the summer of 1895 its agents attempted abortively to turn the country into a Japanese protectorate. On 8 October 1895, several members of the Japanese legation in Seoul, dressed in local garb and led by the Japanese minister to Korea, Miura Gorô, entered the palace and carried out the assassination of Queen Min, the most vehement opponent of Japanese presence in Korea. In February 1896, when Japanese troops landed near the capital to assist in another revolt, King Kojong found sanctuary in the building of the Russian legation in Seoul, which was surrounded by 200 Russian marines for its protection. Many Koreans interpreted the “internal exile” of their monarch as an uprising against the Japanese presence and began to act accordingly. Japanese advisers were expelled from their positions, collaborators were executed, and the new cabinet was constituted of persons regarded as pro-Russian. A year after the First Sino–Japanese War had ended, Russian involvement in Korea was greater than ever before, while Japan fell back to its prewar position. In Tokyo, prominent figures such as Yamagata Aritomo claimed that Japan had to accept Russian hegemony in Korea for the time being and avoid a situation in which Japan might have to confront all the Western nations on this issue. In May 1896, the representatives of Russia and Japan signed a memorandum in which the latter recognized the new Korean cabinet. The two nations also agreed to station the same number of troops in Korea. A month later, this memorandum was ratified as the Yamagata-Lobanov Agreement during Yamagata’s visit to Moscow for the coronation ceremony of Nicholas II. The Russians also invited to the coronation ceremony the Chinese statesman Li Hongzhang, who was bribed to sign the Li–Lobanov agreement. The core of the agreement was mutual aid in the event of 6 • INTRODUCTION Japanese aggression, but it was unclear how valid it was and who in the Chinese imperial court knew about it. However, one clause in the agreement was implemented at once: Li’s consent to grant Russia the concession to build a significant shortcut for the Trans-Siberian Railway line across Manchuria to Chita [Cita], which led to a substantial increase in Russian involvement in the region. The landing of German troops in Kiachow Bay on the Shantung peninsula in November 1897 caused the Chinese to invite the Russians, as a counter-measure, to temporarily occupy Port Arthur. From a Japanese perspective, the lease of Port Arthur by Russia was a critical step. With the memories of the evacuation still vivid, public agitation in Japan compelled the Russians to offer the Japanese a free hand in Korea in return for similar freedom in Manchuria. For the first time, the Japanese now formulated the doctrine of Manchuria–Korea exchange, which quickly resulted in the Nishi–Rosen agreement signed in May 1898. The Russians’ desire for compromise was motivated by the need to buy time, a factor that was to underlie their policy toward the Japanese until the war. After it absorbed Manchuria, Russia began to envisage a continuous maritime link between Port Arthur and Vladivostok. This necessitated the control if not the subjugation of Korea, which Japan considered vital to its own empire. Henceforward the clash between the two nations was only a matter of time, as both sides were to increasingly view the competition for rail concessions, commercial expansion, and regional dominance as a zero-sum game that only one of them could win. Russia indeed began to show greater interest in Korea in 1899, but the Boxer Uprising that spread throughout the north of China during 1900 momentarily restrained the simmering rivalry. Both Japan and Russia dispatched troops to aid in suppressing the Chinese rebellion. Russia, forced to abandon Korea, used this opportunity to occupy Manchuria with military forces. With the joint intervention over, the time was ripe for the Japanese to settle the struggle over Korea. Fearing that the impending completion of the Trans-Siberian Railway would bring the Russians back into Korea, the militant cabinet of Katsura Tarô pushed fiercely for a Russian evacuation of Manchuria. Although their negotiations with the Russians soon proved futile, the Japanese were more successful in their talks with Great Britain. The Anglo–Japanese Treaty, signed on 30 January 1902, provided Britain THE ORIGINS OF THE RUSSO–JAPANESE WAR • 7 with a strong Asian ally that could assist it in the struggle against Russian expansion on several fronts across Asia. For Japan, however, the treaty ensured that Russia would be isolated in case of another conflict with Japan, and in this way the treaty prevented this local confrontation from becoming an all-out European war, contrary to what occurred in 1914. The Final Year: The Descent toward War From the Japanese viewpoint, Russia’s reluctance to withdraw from Manchuria was fully in line with their knowledge of its renewed interest in Korea. In February 1903 the Russians requested Korea to grant franchise for a Russian railway enterprise from Seoul northward to the border of the Yalu River. In June the general staff of the Imperial Japanese Army concluded that Japan should not disregard Russia’s failure to keep to its commitment to withdraw from Manchuria, but that it should resort to military means if negotiations failed. Because of the sense of emergency, the Imperial Council also met in Tokyo on 23 June 1903 but seemed more willing to compromise. In the spring of 1903, a Russian enterprise known as the Yalu River Timber Concessions set up its main office on the Korean side of Yalu delta. In an attempt to bring the hardliners together and to encourage Russian activity in Korea, on 12 August 1903 the tsar appointed Admiral Evgenii Alekseev to the new position of viceroy of the Far East region, residing in Port Arthur. Alekseev was supposed to be directly in charge of Russian interests in the region, although his authority was not fully defined. Two weeks later, the tsar completed his round of appointments. Finance Minister Sergei Witte, the architect of the Trans-Siberian Railway and a political dove, fell out of favor and was dismissed, whereas two adventurous and militant figures rose to power: the energetic Aleksandr Bezobrazov and his cousin Aleksei Abaza, secretary of the newly formed “Special Committee for the Far East.” These two, as well as a number of prominent figures in St. Petersburg known collectively as the Bezobrazov Circle, urged a more adamant policy and the securing of additional concessions in Korea. Although the TransSiberian Railway was near completion, only a few in St. Petersburg believed that the Japanese intended to go to war. War Minister Aleksei Kuropatkin and Foreign Minister Vladimir Lamsdorf also submitted 8 • INTRODUCTION their resignations but were persuaded to withdraw them. From then on, their moderating influence was muted and Russian foreign policy was fashioned through two voices that were more aggressive than before, one from the capital and the other from Port Arthur. The shift in Russian policy had an effect on relations with China. In the autumn Alekseev halted negotiations over the Russian withdrawal from Manchuria and instead held a grand parade in Mukden. In September, Japanese and Russian representatives began negotiations in Tokyo. The Russian response, which was given at the beginning of October, disappointed the Japanese. It included an offer to turn the northern part of Korea beyond the 39th parallel into a neutral zone in return for removing Manchuria from Japan’s sphere of interest. The Russians did not include in their proposal any obligation regarding the withdrawal of their forces. On 30 October the Japanese representatives offered amendments to the Russian proposal, limiting the neutral zone in Korea, moving its western borderline into Manchurian territory, and demanding recognition of their commercial rights in Manchuria. Japanese decision-makers were aware that the Russians were trying to buy time. Moreover, the tsar was absent from the capital until November 1903, allegedly preoccupied with more urgent diplomatic issues in the European arena and in distress due to his wife’s illness. At the beginning of December, Japanese opposition factions grouped together in Tokyo against the government of Katsura, claiming it was not doing enough to counter the Russian threat. An opportunity for action came on 11 December when the Russian minister in Tokyo, Roman Rosen, delivered his government’s response. It did not contain any significant change from the former proposal and refrained from mentioning Manchuria, an area regarded as a matter for China and Russia alone. It rejected the Japanese exchange formula of Korea for Manchuria without any alternative compromise offer. In Tokyo a sense that there was no diplomatic solution to the crisis prevailed, although on 21 December another proposal, stated as the final one and containing the issue of Manchuria, was delivered to Russia. Simultaneously, the oligarchy in Tokyo sought to build a broad consensus for going to war over Manchuria if the Japanese proposals on Korea were rejected; Japanese preparations for war continued unabated. During December the First and the Second Fleets of the Imperial Japanese Navy were combined under a joint command; toward the end of the month, comprehensive THE ORIGINS OF THE RUSSO–JAPANESE WAR • 9 discussions took place at different military levels regarding the approaching war against Russia. In St. Petersburg, matters proceeded calmly. On 28 December the tsar met with several of his ministers to discuss the Japanese proposals. The general attitude at the meeting was a desire to avoid war, at least for the time being, on the assumption that time was in Russia’s favor and that the Trans-Siberian Railway would soon be fully functional and would aid in any future war effort. Besides, there was a general sense of confidence as to the power of Russia to withstand a Japanese attack, considering the relatively large number of forces in the region since the entry into Manchuria. Even though there was no agreement over the response to the Japanese proposal, it was decided to make an effort to calm Japan, and a message in that spirit was indeed sent by Rosen on 6 January 1904. The Russian message reiterated the need to create a neutral zone in Korea and that Japan should recognize Manchuria as being outside Japan’s sphere of interest. It also intimated that Russia would not interfere with Japan or any other power taking full advantage of the rights granted them in the area according to their agreements with China, “except for the founding of settlements.” It is quite probable that before the Boxer Uprising the Russian response would have satisfied the Japanese. But as things stood, in early 1904 the general mood in Tokyo was that the Russians were not willing to compromise and that they could not be trusted. The winter gave the Japanese an advantage because the port of Vladivostok was frozen and naval vessels could not sail. On 12 January another meeting of the Imperial Council determined that Russia had not made any significant concessions over Korea and was not willing to enter into negotiations regarding Manchuria while trying to build up its military strength there. The next day Japan sent the Russians an ultimatum, stating its readiness to accept their proposals regarding Manchuria if Russia agreed to similar conditions regarding Korea. The Japanese ultimatum reached St. Petersburg on 16 January but was not given immediate attention and was probably not understood as an ultimatum. On 2 February 1904 Kurino Shin’ichirô, the Japanese ambassador at St. Petersburg, informed his government that the Russians had no intention of replying. The same day the tsar approved a Russian counterresponse to the ultimatum, which was conveyed to Tokyo via Port Arthur. The response did indeed include a reference to Manchuria, but 10 • INTRODUCTION it contained no significant change in the Russian position, despite the feeling among Russian historians later that the response was “generous.” The message reached Tokyo only on 7 February, although its gist had already been forwarded by the Japanese ambassador. It was too late. During the previous week the Japanese army made final preparations for war. On 6 February, Kurino announced the rupture of diplomatic relations and began preparations to leave St. Petersburg. That day too the Russian ambassador was called to the residence of the Japanese foreign minister and received an identical announcement. In it Japan accused Russia of delaying its response in an inexplicable manner and stated that it was difficult to reconcile the military actions of Russia with its declared intentions of peace. Military Balance and War Plans In purely numerical terms, Japan’s venturing into war against Russia was compared, at least in the eyes of the world press at that time, to David facing Goliath. But when the prewar military balance is examined, the seemingly unbridgeable differences between the rivals is seen as a product of widespread illusions rather than careful analysis. Granted, the Russian standing army was more then three times greater than the Imperial Japanese Army, and the Imperial Russian Navy was far larger than its rival. Nonetheless, in East Asia the Russian military presence was fairly limited, and only the Russian Pacific Fleet was roughly of similar strength to the Imperial Japanese Navy (see appendix 4). At the beginning of the war, in fact, and during certain significant stages, Japan enjoyed a qualitative and at times even a quantitative advantage in the number of soldiers and the number of vessels at its disposal. Nevertheless, Japan had to exploit its superiority rapidly, and it could not afford to fail, because failure at any stage of the war could yield up the local advantage to Russia. The Japanese war plans, prepared separately by the army and the navy, played a central role in shaping the course of the battle. The first premise of the plan was that in a war against the Russians in northeast Asia, Japan would benefit from its short supply lines and from the ability to array its forces rapidly along the front. The war scenario proposed an opening blow by the Japanese against the harbors of Port Arthur and Vladivostok that would put the Pacific Fleet totally out of action. Next THE ORIGINS OF THE RUSSO–JAPANESE WAR • 11 the army could overrun the relatively small Imperial Russian Army units in Manchuria before it could muster any reinforcements by the still unfinished Trans-Siberian Railway. The plan recognized that Japan could not eliminate the Russian threat forever, but it assumed that even partial success would bring the Russians to the negotiating table, around which Japan could use Manchuria as a bargaining chip. The Russian war plans were by nature defensive, and they allowed for a scenario in which the Japanese would be the first aggressors, trying to invade Manchuria. The Russian plans were constantly subject to change, and were still not complete when war broke out. Their first draft had been prepared in 1895 after the show of Japanese strength in the First Sino–Japanese War. They were updated to suit the changing realities in 1901 and again in 1903. The updated plan on the eve of the war stated that in case of Japanese attack, the Imperial Russian Army would protect both Port Arthur and Vladivostok, and deploy defensively behind the Yalu River, with particular emphasis on the region of Mukden. It was also planned to send reinforcements to the region, and once the Russian forces attained numerical superiority, they would go on the offensive. The war was supposed to conclude with an invasion of the Japanese home islands, although there was no detailed plan beyond an initial deployment of the Russian defense. The final version of the plan was based on Russian control of the sea and on a land struggle lasting long enough for reinforcements to arrive overland. THE COURSE OF THE WAR On the morning of 6 February 1904, the day diplomatic relations between Japan and Russia were broken off, the Japanese Combined Fleet under the command of Admiral Tôgô Heihachirô sailed for the shores of Korea. Opposite the port city of Chemulpo, in the vicinity of Seoul, the force split into two. Most of the warships made for Port Arthur, while a small naval force under Rear Admiral Uryû Sotokichi remained to protect the landing operations of the army in Chemulpo on the night of 8 February. On the following morning the forces of the First Army took control of the Korean capital. From outside the neutral port, a Japanese naval force demanded that the Russian naval detachment depart from it. Following a short engagement outside the harbor, known 12 • INTRODUCTION as the battle of Chemulpo, the Russian cruiser Variag and the gunvessel Koreets returned to the port. Their crews scuttled the vessels rather than hand them over to the enemy. In Port Arthur, 10 Japanese destroyers attacked the Russian warships in the harbor with torpedoes but did not inflict much damage. On 10 February, Japan declared war (see appendix 1), whereupon a 19-month war officially began. In the first two months of the war, Japan occupied the entire Korean peninsula with virtually no Russian opposition. While Russia hoped that Japan would be content with this territory, the latter was determined to cross the Yalu River and invade Manchuria. The mid-scale engagement between the two belligerents along this river from 1 to 5 May 1904 produced the first major defeat of the Imperial Russian Army. Generally, the battle of the Yalu marked the start of the Russian defeat by the Japanese and was to be remembered as such for decades to come. It was the first time in the modern age that an Asian force overcame a European force in a full-scale clash. The contemporary psychological impact of the rout on the Russian land forces was so great that in retrospect some writers have viewed this as the decisive battle of the war. The Japanese Takeover of the Liaotung Peninsula Within a month of the crossing of the Yalu River by the Japanese First Army, the Second, Fourth, and Third Armies landed along the southern coast of the Liaotung peninsula. At this stage, Field Marshal Ôyama Iwao, commander-in-chief of the Japanese Manchurian Army, turned to Liaoyang, the point where he planned to have his armies converge. Defeating the Russians around the city, he assumed, would enable him to take control of all the Liaotung peninsula and to overpower the defenses of Port Arthur. An initial step in accomplishing this goal was the Japanese success in cutting off the garrison in Port Arthur from the rest of the Russian Manchurian Army in the north. The Japanese chose the hills of Nanshan, the narrowest passage connecting the Kwantung peninsula to the Liaotung peninsula. The battle of Nanshan was fought on 26 May 1904, and in its aftermath the Russian forces abandoned the nearby port of Dalny. While the Third Army under General Nogi Maresuke was designated to lay siege to Port Arthur, the main Japanese forces turned northward, en route to Liaoyang, and on 14–15 June 1904 they engaged Rus- THE ORIGINS OF THE RUSSO–JAPANESE WAR • 13 sian forces in Telissu. The quick, disastrous defeat in the battle of Telissu ended Russian attempts to move south, and consequently the Russian commander, General Aleksei Kuropatkin, resumed his defensive strategy. On 24–25 July 1904, Japanese and Russian forces engaged in the battle of Tashihchiao. Units of the two belligerents fought again a week later, on 30–31 July 1904, farther north, and this battle of Hsimucheng resulted in another Russian retreat. Finally, on 25 August 1904, the battle of Liaoyang was joined. This was the biggest land engagement so far, fought near the city of Liaoyang, where Kuropatkin had set up a new defense line during his “planned withdrawal” up the Liaotung peninsula. Not only did he regard the site as suitable for “a decisive battle,” but the viceroy, Evgenii Alekseev, assumed that Russia’s Manchurian Army had at last accumulated sufficient forces for its first victory over the Japanese, thereby breaking the siege of Port Arthur. Liaoyang was also the point at which Ôyama planned to have his three armies converge. Defeating the Russians around the city, he assumed, would enable him to overpower the defenses of Port Arthur. At that stage the two belligerents were convinced that the impending collision at Liaoyang would determine the outcome of the war. Instead, the battle determined only that the decisive moment would occur later and elsewhere. Altogether the two forces numbered close to 300,000, a figure exceeded at that time only by the battle of Sedan of 1870. On 3 September, when the battle ended, the Russians retreated and Kuropatkin established his headquarters in Mukden. The Japanese victory was not complete, as the Russians managed to retreat with confidence and to postpone the decisive battle to another occasion. Just over a month later, another large-scale land battle broke out near the Sha River (Sha-ho), on the route to Mukden. The battle of Sha-ho was fought from 10 to 17 October 1904, and it too ended in a Russian retreat. Tactically the overall results were not decisive, and the Russians re-formed just south of Mukden on the Sha River. The Siege of Port Arthur From the onset of the war it was apparent that Port Arthur had not only strategic importance but also great symbolic significance, since it represented Russian power in East Asia. Despite Port Arthur’s separation from the rest of the Russian army in Manchuria, the almost intact 14 • INTRODUCTION units of the Pacific Fleet in its harbor remained a constant threat to Japanese naval hegemony. In the first months of the war, the Imperial Japanese Navy attempted in vain to impose a naval blockade on the harbor. It used altogether 21 blockships and simultaneously began mining operations of the port that led to the sinking of the Russian flagship Petropavlovsk together with the illustrious commander of the Pacific Fleet, Vice Admiral Stepan Makarov. On 10 August 1904 the Japanese Combined Fleet and the Russian Pacific Fleet in Port Arthur engaged in their most important battle during the war, known as the battle of the Yellow Sea. It was a consequence of the intensifying Japanese siege of Port Arthur and the growing pressure on the Russian naval force in Port Arthur to escape to Vladivostok. Following the death of Rear Admiral Vilgelm Vitgeft caused by two Japanese shells, the Russian warships returned to their harbor. Thereafter the Japanese actions continued undisturbed by any Russian naval intervention until the arrival of the Baltic Fleet nine months later. Japanese determination to take this principal naval base and fortress at all costs resulted in one of the greatest sieges in history. It lasted about seven months and cost both sides over 100,000 casualties. The siege began once the Imperial Japanese Army gained control of southern Manchuria following the seizure of Nanshan. Consequently the Third Army assumed the task of conquering the site, and following the crucial fall of 203-Meter Hill in November 1904, the fort surrendered on 2 January 1905. With the takeover of the fort, the Third Army headed north and joined the main Japanese land forces for the decisive confrontation against the Russian Manchurian Army in the vicinity of Mukden. The Final Battles: Mukden and Tsushima The final major land engagement and the largest single battle of the Russo–Japanese War occurred in the vicinity of the city of Mukden. The two deeply entrenched forces faced each other for several months. The Russians were the first to move. On 25–29 January 1905, there was a short engagement known as the battle of Sandepu, which ended in great losses but without a significant change in the lines. Both forces were then reinforced during the interlude until the decisive battle of Mukden, fought between 23 February and 10 March 1905. This was the largest engagement in military history until then, and it ended in a THE ORIGINS OF THE RUSSO–JAPANESE WAR • 15 Russian retreat. Both sides suffered horrific casualties. Following the battle, both forces were spent and needed much time to reorganize and replace the casualties. The Japanese forces in particular lacked additional sources of manpower, and the government began more earnestly to seek an end to the conflict through negotiation. Nevertheless, the war was still far from over, since a Russian naval reinforcement consisting of the Baltic Fleet, and renamed the Second Pacific Squadron, was heading toward the shores of Japan under the command of Vice Admiral Zinovii Rozhestvenskii. The decision to dispatch this fleet was made in June 1904, although its first units sailed only in October. When Port Arthur fell in early January 1905, most of the warships had already rounded the Cape of Good Hope. Still, the epic voyage of the Baltic Fleet continued five months more, until its 52 warships approached the Tsushima Straits. The Russians encountered the well-prepared Japanese Combined Fleet under the command of Admiral Tôgô Heihachirô, and two great forces clashed on 27–28 May 1905. The outcome of the battle of Tsushima was decisive. It was not only the most devastating defeat suffered by the Imperial Russian Navy during its entire history, but also the only truly decisive engagement between two fleets of battleships in modern times. All the Russian battleships were lost; only a few of the surviving Russian warships managed to escape. Three vessels alone completed the voyage and arrived safely in Vladivostok. Following the battle, the Russian government’s hopes of somehow reversing the military situation in East Asia were shattered. Now it was compelled to enter into peace negotiations, which resulted in the Treaty of Portsmouth, signed a little more than three months later. Political and Social Features of the War in Russia and Japan Public opinion in Japan and Russia on the war differed substantially, and consequently it had a great effect on the conduct of the war by the two sides. In Japan the war was perceived as vital to the preservation of national sovereignty and a cause for patriotic mobilization. The public supported the war wholeheartedly and was ready for human sacrifice and economic hardship. Since the turn of the century, associations such as the Kokuryûkai and the Tairo Dôshikai, and groups such as the one leading to the Seven Professors Incident, pushed for expansion in Asia 16 • INTRODUCTION and urged the government to take a hard line against Russia. This militant approach prevailed among the Japanese public and was manifested most extremely in the Hibiya Riots, soon after the disappointing terms of the Treaty of Portsmouth were revealed. Only a tiny minority of Japanese opposed the war, for humanistic motives, as manifested by Uchimura Kanzô and to a certain extent by the poet Yosano Akiko, or for socialist motives, as manifested by the Heiminsha members. In Russia the war broke out with subdued public support, which waned still more as soon as the people realized that this remote conflict was irrelevant to their own troubles. The most significant internal event in Russia during the war was the Revolution of 1905, which adversely affected Russia’s military capability generally and fostered the tsar’s willingness to end the war and to accept the Portsmouth Peace Conference. While the origins of the revolution can be found decades earlier, Russia’s successive defeats in the first half of the war brought to the surface strong discontent among the rising urban middle class and industrial workers. On 22 January 1905, three weeks after the surrender of the fortress of Port Arthur, tsarist troops opened fire on a non-violent demonstration in St. Petersburg, resulting in a massacre known as Bloody Sunday. The tsar’s promise in March to summon a “consultative assembly” was insufficient to calm the mounting agitation, and throughout the spring and early summer of 1905 there were strikes, severe civil disturbances, such as the Lodz Uprising, and assassinations of political figures. In the army and navy there were many mutinies, the most notorious being the Potemkin mutiny that broke out aboard a warship of the Black Sea Fleet. The revolutionary activities continued also after the conclusion of the Treaty of Portsmouth. At the end of October, all European Russia was paralyzed by a general strike, directed in the capital by the first workers’ soviet (council). The tsar eventually yielded on 30 October and issued the October Manifesto, granting Russia a constitution and promising a legislative Duma. The revolution then began to calm down, although in some locations, notably in Moscow, riots and mutinies continued until early 1906. The War and the World Upon the declaration of war on 10 February 1904, the Japanese government sent a message to various governments announcing its deci- THE ORIGINS OF THE RUSSO–JAPANESE WAR • 17 sion. In the following 12 days, it received declarations of neutrality from 18 nations, including all the great European powers and the United States. Neutral nations were expected to fulfill their obligations strictly and not to succor either of the two belligerents. During the war the issue of neutrality thus arose, particularly in regard to war contraband and internment of warships. Although the Russo–Japanese War has not lingered long in the collective memory of humanity, it had much exposure at the time. The war attracted many renowned war correspondents such as Jack London, Frederic Villiers, and Maurice Baring, who reported its progress to avid readers in the West, using radio transmission for the first time. More than in any war before, the conflict in Manchuria also attracted a large number of military observers, who were dispatched to the front by non-belligerent governments to observe the war for military purposes. All in all, over 80 officers from the armed forces of 16 different nations observed the conflict from both sides. Many of them were to enjoy distinguished military careers and rose to become leading military figures in their respective armies and navies, especially during World War I. These observers included renowned military figures such as Lieutenant General (at the time of the Russo–Japanese War) Ian Hamilton, Captain (Royal Navy) Ernest Troubridge, and Lieutenant Colonel James Haldane from Great Britain; Major General Arthur MacArthur and Captain John Pershing from the United States; Captain Carl Hoffmann from Germany; and Major Enrico Caviglia from Italy. The Conclusion of the War The peace initiative that brought the two belligerents to the negotiating table was the brainchild of U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt, who in February 1905 sent messages to the two governments informing them of his readiness to serve as mediator. Following the battle of Mukden, the Japanese oligarchy was increasingly willing to end the hostilities, as they could not reach a decisive victory on land and the war had depleted Japan’s economy and human resources. In Russia the war had very little support among the public, but the political leadership, especially the tsar, were prepared to continue the fight on the assumption that time would be in their favor. This attitude too changed following the defeat at the battle of Tsushima. Still, the obstinate stance of the tsar 18 • INTRODUCTION forced the Japanese to give their opponents a defiant reminder that the military option was well in hand. Following Roosevelt’s suggestion, they did not hesitate to invade Sakhalin in July 1905. After the conquest of Sakhalin, their troops were deployed in a position to capture Vladivostok. The two belligerents eventually met in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, and from the very start of the negotiations it became clear that the issue of reparations would be the bone of contention, since both parties saw it not only as having serious economic significance but also as a symbolic issue. Between 9 and 30 August, 12 sessions were held, in which Russia’s chief plenipotentiary, Sergei Witte, became gradually convinced that Japan desperately wanted peace. He consequently presented Russia’s “last concession,” which included recognition of Japanese control over the southern half of Sakhalin but no indemnity or any other financial compensation. A refusal, he believed, might place the blame for the breakdown of the talks on Japan. Japan indeed yielded to Witte’s ultimatum, and on 5 September 1905 the two nations signed the Treaty of Portsmouth, according to which Korea became a Japanese protectorate. Japan also won control of the Kwantung peninsula and the southern half of Sakhalin, while Russia removed all its armed forces from Manchuria. When news of the peace agreement reached Tokyo, 30,000 demonstrators amassed and the Hibiya Riots broke out, leading to the declaration of temporary martial law in the capital. REPERCUSSIONS AND LEGACY OF THE WAR The Balance of Power in the West During the Russo–Japanese War and soon after, significant geopolitical changes began to crystallize in Europe, leading to a new balance, or rather imbalance, of power. Critically, the defeat of Russia undermined the military balance that had endured in Europe since the Napoleonic era, principally due to the emergence of Germany as an unequalled military and industrial power, which became a source of apprehension in France, Great Britain, and later Russia. To face the German threat, these nations overcame their colonial differences and formed the Anglo–French Entente (Entente Cordiale), signed during the first stages of the war, while Russia joined them three years later to form the THE ORIGINS OF THE RUSSO–JAPANESE WAR • 19 Triple Entente of 1907. These changing circumstances were one of the underlying motives for the German landing in Tangiers in March 1905 and the ensuing Moroccan Crisis, which served as a message to France that Germany would take up arms if its imperialistic ambitions were not respected. In 1907, two years after the war ended, a new balance between the European powers was created and remained in force until the outbreak of World War I. The impulse to an all-European war was not irreversible, but on the diplomatic front no change occurred in the power relationships over the next decade, and no new alignment was formed to avert a major conflict in Europe. The Russo–Japanese War was not the only cause of the Revolution of 1905 in Russia, but it served as its main catalyst. While the upheavals in Russia prevented the government from acting with full force against Japan, the war outside Russia made it difficult to respond resolutely to the turmoil within. Above all, the Russian defeat had a psychological effect on the public, who for the first time witnessed the weakness of the autocratic regime. The urban population and even the peasants were susceptible to the speeches of the revolutionaries, and the people’s belief in the tsar began to wane. The direct outcome of the war was Nicholas II’s readiness to set up a legislative council called the Duma, and to grant the people a constitution. The first Duma was received in the palace of the tsar in 1906, but from the very start it struggled to obtain political and civil rights, and to implement plans that were not included among the concessions of the tsar at the end of 1905. The struggle for less autocratic rule during the war led to the formal dissolution of the Duma within a few months, although it continued to function up to the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917. The tsar’s inability to cope simultaneously with a foreign enemy and an internal rebellion, as evident in the Russo–Japanese War, was to recur with even greater intensity after 1914, and to lead to his downfall three years later. Even on the European periphery of the Russian empire, such as in Finland and Poland, there were clear signs of rebellion and change. Toward the end of 19th century, the Russians tightened their control over the semi-independent duchy of Finland, but the Revolution of 1905 in Russia sparked a national awakening among the Finns. Following demonstrations and a general strike, the status quo that had been in force in Finland until 1899 was restored, and the rights of the local parliament were reinstated. Divided between Russia, Germany, and Austro–Hungary, 20 • INTRODUCTION Poland experienced a surge of hope for independence during the war. In 1905 two movements fighting for the unification of Poland were founded, and a year later 36 Polish delegates were elected to the Duma. The Russo–Japanese War was accompanied by keen international awareness of the increasing importance of the United States, which had emerged earlier as a leading economic power but still lacked the skills and experience to exploit its economic achievements for decisive international influence. Despite its initial sympathetic attitude toward Japan, the United States was interested in balancing and weakening both belligerents, so as to sustain its own economic involvement in East Asia. Maintaining its neutrality throughout the war, the United States eventually acted as a mediator. The conclusion of the war at the Portsmouth Peace Conference was nonetheless the achievement of the American president, Theodore Roosevelt, who later received the Nobel Prize for peace for his efforts. While demanding that Japan maintain the OpenDoor Policy in Manchuria, and return this territory to Chinese sovereignty, the Americans were reluctant to enter into conflict with Japan, and recognized Japanese control over Korea in the Katsura–Taft agreement. The goodwill on both sides of the Pacific, however, could not prevent the looming American–Japanese confrontation as the United States continued in its ascent to global supremacy. In 1907 the Americans updated their “Orange Plan” to protect the waters of the Pacific Ocean against the Japanese menace, for fear that their rival would take control of American outposts in the Philippines and Hawaii, and might even blockade the Panama Canal. American apprehension of Japan, slightly premature but not unrealistic, tightened the restrictions on Japanese immigration to the United States and was the first step of a hostile policy toward Japan in the 1920s. The Russo–Japanese War was therefore the beginning of “Cold War”-like relations that steadily deteriorated and erupted in a full-blown military confrontation in December 1941. The balance of power among the nations was also upset in the military sphere. Rather than a typical “colonial war,” the Russo–Japanese War served as a dress rehearsal for World War I. As a conflict between two large and modern powers, it attracted the attention of all the larger armies and navies. The military observers dispatched to the front witnessed a number of large-scale battles and recorded their conclusions in thick volumes. The Russo–Japanese War provided overwhelming proof THE ORIGINS OF THE RUSSO–JAPANESE WAR • 21 for those who still doubted the importance of firepower as the dominant factor in military combat, and some of the sharper observers did not have to wait for Verdun to realize the deadly and decisive effect of intensive artillery in general and the machine gun in particular. Nonetheless, even after the war, supporters of the offensive still maintained that initiative and fighting spirit, as shown by the Japanese, could break through any line of defense. So it came about that European armies’ indifference to adopting fresh tactical or strategic approaches, considering the dramatic increase in firepower in warfare, begot such carnage a decade later. In the naval arena as well, the war was followed by drastic transformations, although it did not result in a disturbance of the naval balance among the major powers. The loss of a significant part of the Imperial Russian Navy, the third largest in the world before the war, put the British Royal Navy, the biggest fleet in the world, in a far stronger position at the end of the war than it had enjoyed throughout the previous two decades. Great Britain was concerned now by the rapid growth of the German Imperial Navy, and expected that the construction of the dreadnought, a revolutionary class of battleship, would ensure it the upper hand. With the commission of HMS Dreadnought in 1906, more than 100 battleships of earlier classes became obsolete and a new naval arms race began in the world. While submarines did not take part in this war, both sides successfully employed torpedoes, mines, and radio transmitters. Implications of the War on Asia and the Colonial Empires The Russo–Japanese War also had far-reaching implications for East Asia. They resulted from the victory of Japan and its rise to power on the one hand, and from the decline in the power of Russia on the other. Russia had posed a direct threat to Chinese and Korean sovereignty, but also helped to maintain equilibrium by acting against Japan’s expansionist ambitions after the defeat of China in 1894–1895. It was only after defeating Russia that Japan was viewed by others, and especially by itself, as equal to all other imperial powers active in East Asia; only then did it become, at least from a military perspective, the strongest power in the area. With the end of the war, the number of businessmen and private entrepreneurs who went from Japan to Manchuria in search of new 22 • INTRODUCTION business opportunities began to soar. The victory over Russia not only did not curtail military requirements, but even increased them. With the occupation of territories on the Asian mainland, this created among the decision-makers in Japan an exaggerated sense of the need to strengthen the army and establish a strategic infrastructure. Two years after the war, a national security plan was formulated in Japan that defined Russia, France, and for the first time the United States as possible national foes. At that time they all had normal relations with Japan, but they also had interests in East Asia and in the Pacific Ocean that were viewed by the decision-makers in Japan as opposed to their national security. As a lesson in history, the war was firm evidence that the modern Japanese nation was invincible. With the removal of the existential threat against Japan, together with the overwhelming proof of the success of the modernization, Japanese intellectuals put their minds to questions of national identity. During the following years, they made a concentrated effort to redefine the essence of being Japanese and developed a national discourse. This activity laid the foundations for the bitter racial struggle that the Japanese waged against the West three decades later. In China the war prompted widespread political activities that led six years later to the Revolution of 1911 and the elimination of the Qing dynasty after reigning for 267 years. Already in 1905 the foundations for a constitutional monarchy were laid, and at the same time the first modern political movement was established. Sensing the undermining of its power, the government began in the following years to introduce several reforms that included an attempt to establish elected assemblies and to eradicate opium smoking. During the war the Chinese public manifested solidarity with the Japanese, and regarded them as brothers in a racial struggle. Many Chinese went to Japan to study and regarded it as a role model for a successful modernization process. Within three years, however, this sentiment changed to deep suspicion toward the Japanese, who not only displayed profound disrespect for the Chinese but were determined to wrest the entire territory of Manchuria from them. The Japanese presence in Manchuria indeed led to increased friction with the Chinese population in Manchuria but also to a Japanese desire to interfere in Chinese affairs elsewhere. This was expressed in the notorious Twenty-one Demands document which the Japanese submitted to the Chinese government a decade after the war, and which was im- THE ORIGINS OF THE RUSSO–JAPANESE WAR • 23 plemented fully through Japan’s conquest of China during the long war that broke out in 1937. Such a move would have seemed fantastic at the end of the 19th century, but with historical hindsight it had evidently begun to take shape already during the Russo–Japanese War. Korea was perhaps affected the most by the war. It gradually lost its sovereignty until it was finally annexed by Japan in 1910. From a Korean point of view, the end of the war marked the beginning of a period of oppression and a Japanese attempt to destroy the identity of the Korean people—a period that ended only with the fall of Japan in 1945. The annexation of Korea has left its mark on the nation to the present day. The fracturing of its society and national identity during the 35 years of Japanese domination made possible the territorial division of Korea, no less than the political contest between American and Soviet forces in the country that created a capitalist regime in the southern half and a communist regime in the northern. This political division still characterizes the two states of the Korean peninsula at present. Not only is there great hostility between them, which endangers the peace in the area, but North Korea still bears a grudge against Japan for its occupation, and similar sentiments exist in South Korea, even if muted. The war was also a catalyst for many new radical movements and organizations all over Asia. Spanning a political and ideological spectrum from socialists to nationalists, anarchists, and even communists, these movements were a source of many striking developments that characterized Asia politically in the following decades. The war contributed to the radicalization of moderate socialist movements in the area, to the delegitimization of parliamentary democracy, and to emphasis on national issues. Extremist movements sprang up during the war in China and Japan, but also in colonial countries such as Vietnam and the Philippines. In the ensuing years they worked for the independence of their countries, albeit with no great success at that time. The echoes of the war reached even to the Middle East. During the war, when Sun Yixian [Sun Yat-sen], the first president of the future Republic of China, was making a passage down the Suez Canal, Russian ships with wounded soldiers from the front on their decks were likewise passing through. A local person who met Sun asked him if he was Japanese. “The joy of this Arab, as the son of a great Asian race,” he noted, “was unbounded.” The victory of a developing Asian country over a big European power was perceived as a symbol and model for the prospect 24 • INTRODUCTION that an Arab nation could break free from foreign rule. National movements across the Arab world, which at that time was almost entirely under the rule of the Ottoman empire, saw the war as a sign that they could win their independence. One year after the war, a revolution began in Iran, which for the first time put a constitutional government in power. This revolution was partially the result of the weakening of Russia, but it was also due to the knowledge that the victor was an Asian power with a constitution, and that the vanquished was the only European power without a constitution. Two years later a revolution began in Turkey. There too, Japan served as a model of a country that had succeeded in adopting modern technology without losing its national identity. As a global turning point, the role of the war is recognizable in the new definition of race relations in the world. This was the first modern conflict in which an “Eastern,” “non-white” nation overcame a “Western,” “white” nation. For the first time the myth of the superiority of the white man was shattered. For this reason, the Japanese victory had powerful reverberations among the nations then under Western rule, and even more so among future revolutionaries. In the Indian sub-continent, for instance, which was then under British rule, there was much gloating, not only at Russia as a longtime colonial threat, but also because of the victory of an Asian country over a European power. Years later Jawaharlal Nehru, who was to become the first prime minister of India, recalled how the war helped to reduce “the feeling of inferiority from which we all suffered.” In Vietnam also, which was then under French control, the nationalist Phan Boi Chau believed that the outcome of this battle “opened up a new world.” As a modern nation with significant military power, Japan won international recognition for the first time, and this paved the way 15 years later for its obtaining a permanent seat on the Council of the League of Nations. Japan’s victory in the Russo–Japanese War, therefore, upset the hegemony enjoyed by the European nations since the industrial revolution. The Dictionary –A– ABAZA, ALEKSEI MIKHAILOVICH (1853–?). Russian naval officer and administrator who served as director of the Special Committee for the Far East during the Russo–Japanese War and was an influential figure in formulating Russian policy in East Asia. Abaza began his naval career in 1873 and thereafter held various sea and shore duties. Recruited in 1898 by Grand Duke Aleksandr Mikhailovich, together with his cousin Aleksandr Bezobrazov he joined an enterprise known as the Yalu River Timber Concessions in northern Korea to expand Russian influence in the region. In 1902 Abaza was promoted to rear admiral, and a year later he was made director of the newly formed Special Committee for the Far East. With the right to report directly to Tsar Nicholas II, he de facto replaced the foreign minister in issues related to Russian involvement in East Asia. Similar to other members of the Bezobrazov Circle, he was convinced of Japan’s military weakness and opposed territorial compromise. Although the Special Committee was abolished soon after the war, Abaza retained much power in the Department of the Navy. In 1908 Foreign Minister Aleksandr Izvolskii accused him, together with other leading members of the Bezobrazov Circle, of major responsibility for defeat in the war, a view that lingered in tsarist and Soviet historiography. ADMIRAL NAKHIMOV. Russian armored cruiser that took part in the Russo–Japanese War. She was the only ship of the relatively old Admiral Nakhimov class. and her design was based on drawings of HMS Imperious and Warspite. She was originally rigged as a brig but was equipped with new boilers and rearmed in 1889. At the outbreak of 25 Index Note: Bold page numbers refer to the term’s dictionary entry. Abaza, Aleksei, 7, 25, 68, 70 Abdul Hamid, Sultan, 397 Abdur Rahman, Amir, 27 Admiral Nakhimov, 25–26, 97, 394, 470 Admiral Seniavin, 26, 280, 394, 470 Admiral Ushakov, 26–27, 127, 280, 420, 470 Adzuma. See Azuma Afghanistan, 27–28, 37, 157–158, 161, 387 Ai River, 422–423, 424 Akashi, 28, 85, 119, 465, 467, 469 Akashi, Motojirô, 28–29, 108, 235, 439 Akitsushima, 29, 120, 174, 466, 470 Akiyama, Saneyuki, 30, 31 Akiyama, Yoshifuru, 31, 227 Al Din, Muzaffar, 161 Alaska, 404 Aleksandr I, Tsar, 57 Aleksandr II, Tsar, 32, 68, 116, 320, 329–330 Aleksandr III. See Imperator Aleksandr III Aleksandr III, Tsar, 232, 257, 284, 317, 330, 383 Aleksandrovskii, Sergei, 31 Alekseev, Evgenii, 7–8, 13, 32, 33, 70–71, 132, 201, 206, 299, 308, 373, 410, 432, 438 Alekseev, Mikhail, 33, 138 Aleksei Aleksandrovich. See Romanov, Aleksei Aleksandrovich Algeciras Conference, 37, 243 Ali Shah, Mohammad, 162 Almaz, 34, 59, 394, 470 American Civil War, 213, 216, 228, 235, 238, 360, 380, 386, 398, 404 Amur Flotilla, 34 Amur River Society. See Kokuryûkai Amur River, 1, 35, 145, 187, 210, 329, 385 Amur, 34, 112, 142, 165, 238, 467 Andô, Sadayoshi, 35, 106 Andong. See Antung Anglo–French Entente (Entente Cordiale), 18, 35, 37, 56, 100, 113, 123, 130, 134, 202, 242, 277, 290, 419 Anglo–Japanese Alliance, 36, 37, 56, 71, 129, 133, 144, 158, 179, 188, 192, 202, 215, 220, 323, 324–325, 427 Anglo–Japanese Treaty, 6, 36, 37, 215, 255 537 538 • INDEX Anglo–Russian Entente, 28, 37–38, 110, 130, 134, 158, 162, 168, 333, 386, 398 Aniwa Bay, 339 Anti-Russia Society. See Tairo Dôshikai Antung, 35, 38, 99, 227, 263, 424 Araki, Sadao, 38–39, 226 Argentina, 176, 260 Arima, Ryôkitsu, 39, 293–294 Arisaka Type 30 rifle, 39, 40, 82, 159, 247, 248, 319, 343 Arisaka Type 31 gun, 40, 49, 343 Arisaka Type 38 rifle, 39, 40, 159, 249, 319, 343 Arisaka, Nariakira, 39, 40 armament. See weaponry Armenia, 33, 286 armored cruisers, 51, 65, 97–98, 118, 119, 256, 257–258, 278, 339, 379, 393, 412 arms race. See naval arms race Army of the Yalu. See Army, Japanese Fifth Army officers, Imperial Japanese. See Akashi, Motojirô; Akiyama, Yoshifuru; Andô, Sadayoshi; Araki, Sadao; Arisaka, Nariakira; Asada, Nobuhiro; Fukushima, Yasumasa; Fushimi, Sadanaru; Haraguchi, Kanezane; Hasegawa, Yoshimichi; Hayashi, Senjûrô; Honjô, Shigeru; Iguchi, Shôgo; Iida, Shunsuke; Inoue, Hikaru; Inoue, Yoshika; Kan’in, Kotohito; Katsura, Tarô; Kawamura, Kageaki; Kideshi, Yasutsuna; Kodama, Gentarô; Kuroki, Takemoto; Matsui, Iwane; Matsumura, Mohan; Matsunaga, Masatoshi; Mazaki, Jinzaburô; Murata, Tsuneyoshi; Nakamura, Satoru; Nishi, Kanjirô; Nishimura, Sukeyoshi; Nogi, Maresuke; Nozu, Michitsura; Ogawa, Mataji; Oku, Yasukata; Ôkubo, Haruno; Ôsako, Naomichi; Ôsako, Naotoshi; Ôshima, Hisanao; Ôshima, Yoshimasa; Ôyama, Iwao; Sakurai, Tadayoshi; Samejima, Shigeo; Shimose, Masachika; Tachibana, Koichirô; Tachibana, Shûta; Tanaka, Giichi; Tatsumi, Naobumi; Terauchi, Masatake; Tsuchiya, Mitsuharu; Tsukamoto, Katsuyoshi; Uchiyama, Kojirô; Ueda, Arisawa; Uehara, Yûsaku; Ugaki, Kazushige; Yamada, Nobuyoshi; Yamagata, Aritomo; Yamanashi, Hanzô Army officers, Imperial Russian. See Alekseev, Mikhail; Belyii, Vasilii; Bezobrazov, Aleksandr; Bildering, Aleksandr; Bogdanov, Aleksei; Bot’yanov, Mikhail; Brusilov, Aleksei; Danilov, Vladimir; De Witte, Konstantin; Denikin, Anton; Fleischer, Nikolai; Fok, Aleksandr; Gaponov, Leontii; Gerngross, Aleksandr; Gershelman, Sergei; Glebov, Nikolai; Gorbatovskii, Vladimir; Grekov, Vladimir; Grippenberg, Oskar; Gurko, Vasilii; Irman, Vladimir; Ivanov, Nikolai; Kashtalinskii, Nikolai; Kaulbars, Aleksandr; Keller, Fedor; Kondratenko, Roman; Kuropatkin, Aleksei; Kutnevich, Nikolai; Launits, Mikhail von der; Linievich, Nikolai; Mannerheim, Carl; Maslov, Ignatii; Meyendorf, Feofil; Mishchenko, Pavel; INDEX Mylov, Sergei; Orlov, N. A.; Rennenkampf, Pavel von; Sakharov, Victor; Sakharov, Vladimir; Samsonov, Aleksandr; Selivanov, Andrei; Skugarevskii, Arkadii; Smirnov, Konstantin; Stakelberg, Konstantin; Stoessel, Anatolii; Topornin, Dmitrii; Tretyakov, Nikolai; Tserpitskii, Konstantin; Volkov, Vladimir; Zarubaiev, Nikolai; Zasulich, Mikhail; Zhilinskii, Yakov Army units, Imperial Japanese. See Manchurian Army, Japanese; Army, Japanese Fifth; Army, Japanese First; Army, Japanese Fourth; Army, Japanese Second; Army, Japanese Third; Division, Imperial Guards; Division, Japanese Army 1st; Division, Japanese Army 2nd; Division, Japanese Army 3rd; Division, Japanese Army 4th; Division, Japanese Army 5th; Division, Japanese Army 6th; Division, Japanese Army 7th; Division, Japanese Army 8th; Division, Japanese Army 9th; Division, Japanese Army 10th; Division, Japanese Army 11th; Division, Japanese Army 12th; Division, Japanese Army 13th; Division, Japanese Army 14th; Division, Japanese Army 15th; Division, Japanese Army 16th; Kwantung Army Army units, Imperial Russian. See Manchurian Army, Russian; Manchurian Army, First: Manchurian Army, Second; Manchurian Army, Third; Eighth European Army; Corps, Fifth • 539 Siberian Army; Corps, First European Army; Corps, First European Army; Corps, First Rifle Army; Corps, First Siberian Army; Corps, Fourth European Army; Corps, Fourth Siberian Army; Corps, Nineteenth European Army; Corps, Second Rifle Army; Corps, Second Siberian Army; Corps, Seventeenth European Army; Corps, Seventh Siberian Army; Corps, Sixteenth European Army; Corps, Sixth Siberian Army; Corps, Tenth Siberian Army; Corps, Third Siberian Army; Cossacks Army, Imperial Japanese, 4, 7, 10, 14, 28, 31, 35, 38, 39, 40, 41–43, 45, 46, 47, 48, 56, 67, 79, 80–81, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 115, 117, 122, 125, 126, 137, 139, 140, 141, 143, 145, 149, 150, 152, 156, 160, 170, 175, 180–181, 182, 186, 192, 196, 197, 201, 210, 215, 220, 222, 225, 226, 227, 228, 232, 234, 241, 247, 248, 263, 265, 268, 269–270, 272, 273, 276, 288, 295, 299, 301–302, 308, 311, 319, 339–340, 336, 365, 366, 370, 372, 374, 375, 390, 401, 402, 416, 426, 428–429, 443–444 Army, Imperial Russian, 11, 12, 13, 33, 35, 43–45, 48, 55, 62, 67, 68, 71, 76, 77, 78–79, 81, 92, 93, 94, 95, 99, 100, 108, 121, 128, 130–131, 132, 135, 137, 139, 150, 156, 162, 165, 173, 176, 180–181, 184, 188, 190, 197, 210, 212, 215, 216, 220, 221, 225, 228–229, 232, 234–235, 240, 248, 250, 257, 285, 300, 302, 308, 312, 315, 319, 339, 341, 356, 358, 359, 540 • INDEX 388, 392, 408, 416–417, 422, 424, 435, 436, 438, 443, 444, 445, 463 Army, Japanese Fifth, 42, 45, 47, 48, 106, 115, 180–181, 220, 245, 341, 401, 424 Army, Japanese First, 11, 12, 38, 42, 46, 84, 95, 103, 106, 141–142, 148, 160, 175, 176, 182, 197, 201, 205–207, 212, 220, 240, 245, 263, 266, 268, 273, 282, 312–313, 315, 348–350, 422–423, 426, 436 Army, Japanese Fourth, 35, 42, 46, 47, 104–105, 106, 139, 151, 182, 202, 205–207, 220, 245, 247, 268, 270, 348, 402 Army, Japanese Second, 32, 42, 46–47, 88, 98, 103, 104, 105, 139, 148, 151, 152, 182, 202, 205–207, 220, 242, 245, 250, 269–270, 272–273, 274, 276, 285, 294, 295, 342, 348, 350, 366, 372, 373, 402, 423, 429 Army, Japanese Third, 12, 14, 42, 47–48, 56, 58, 98, 103, 105, 106, 126, 131, 143, 202, 207, 220, 244–246, 248, 265–266, 270, 273, 278, 295–296, 299, 340, 390, 400, 411, 414, 432 Arthur, William C., 290 artillery, 21, 40, 41–42, 43–45, 48–50, 52, 56, 64, 67–68, 72, 82, 83, 91, 114, 115, 128, 146, 150, 158, 162, 182, 207, 216, 222, 232, 251, 258, 273, 294, 296, 312, 326, 347, 366–367, 372–373, 386, 400, 401, 422–423 artillery, Japan, 40, 41–42, 48, 146, 182, 251, 273, 347, 372, 373, 400, 401 artillery, Russia, 43–45, 50, 52, 67–68, 72, 82, 114, 115, 162, 207, 232, 258, 296, 312, 326, 422–423 Asada, Nobuhiro, 103 Asahi, 50, 118, 142, 146, 231, 241, 269, 280, 393, 425, 465, 466, 469 Asama, 51, 84–85, 97, 119, 149, 166, 379, 393, 465, 466, 469 Ashmead-Bartlett, Ellis, 413 Askold, 51, 97, 278–279, 317, 421, 433, 438, 467 Aurora, 52–53, 113, 196, 271, 468, 470 Australia, 79, 148, 214 Austro-Hungary, 19, 53–54, 65, 129–130, 134, 201, 260, 285, 288–289, 332, 365, 369, 397–398 Avacha Bay, 277 Avelan, Fedor, 54, 72, 113, 326, 330 Azuma, 27, 54–55, 119, 125, 168, 193, 393, 465, 466, 469 Baikal Lake, 43, 55, 67, 200, 232, 384 Balfour, Arthur, 55–56, 59, 109, 133 Balkan Wars, 61, 121, 129 Balkans, 38, 53, 130, 332, 398 Balloons, 48, 56, 138, 250, 311 Baltic Fleet, 14, 15, 26, 27, 29, 30, 34, 52, 57–58, 58–60, 69, 72, 74 ,76, 107, 109, 113, 114, 115, 118, 127, 131–132, 154, 155, 166, 167, 184, 185, 194, 195–196, 209, 217, 244, 252, 257, 258, 271, 272, 274, 277–279, 279, 279, 280, 295, 298, 300, 317, 324, 326, 346, 355, 358–359, 362, 364, 394, 411, 416, 431–433, 437 Baltic Fleet, the voyage of the, 15, 26, 27, 34, 52, 57, 58–60, 100, 107, 109, 113, 115, 121, 123, 127, 130, 131, 154, 155, 167, 184, 185, 252, 258, 271, 272, 274, 279, 326, 346, 355, 362, 364, 391, 411, 413, 437 INDEX barbed wire, 250, 386 Baring, Maurice, 17, 61, 413 Barry, Thomas Henri, 61–62, 236 Battle of Chemulpo (1904). See Chemulpo, Battle of Battle of Hsimucheng (1904). See Hsimucheng, Battle of Battle of Liaoyang (1904). See Liaoyang, Battle of Battle of Mukden (1905). See Mukden, Battle of Battle of Nanshan (1904). See Nanshan, Battle of Battle of Sandepu (1905). See Sandepu, Battle of Battle of Sha-Ho (1904). See Sha-ho, Battle of Battle of Tannenberg (1914). See Tannenberg, Battle of Battle of Tashihchiao (1904). See Tashihchiao, Battle of Battle of Telissu (1904). See Telissu, Battle of Battle of the Korean Straits (1904). See Korean Straits, Battle of the Battle of the Sea of Japan (1905). See Tsushima, Battle of Battle of the Yalu (1904). See Yalu, Battle of the Battle of the Yellow Sea (1904). See Yellow Sea, Battle of the Battle of Tsushima (1905). See Tsushima, Battle of Battle of Ulsan (1904). See Korean Straits, Battle of the Battle of Wafangkou (1904). See Telissu, Battle of battlecruisers, 62–63, 97, 117, 325, 388 battleships, 15, 21, 34, 54, 57, 59, 62, 64–66, 74, 91, 97–98, 101, 110–111, 118, 134, 164–165, 171, • 541 176, 213, 216, 231, 233, 238–239, 255–256, 257–258, 264, 277–279, 280, 281, 291, 293, 299, 305, 306, 316, 325, 327, 331, 347, 362, 391–394, 404 417, 430, 431–433 battleships, Japanese. See Asahi; Fuji; Fuso; Hatsuse; Mikasa; Shikishima; Yashima battleships, Russian. See Admiral Seniavin; Admiral Ushakov; Borodino; General Admiral Graf Apraksin; Imperator Aleksandr III; Imperator Nikolai I; Kniaz Potemkin Tavricheskii; Kniaz Suvorov; Navarin; Orel; Osliabia; Peresviet; Petropavlovsk; Pobieda; Poltava; Retvizan; Sevastopol; Sissoi Velikii; Tsessarevich Bayan, 66, 97, 165, 278, 409, 467 Baykal, Lake. See Baikal, Lake bayonets, 41, 67, 158–160, 243, 319 Bedovii, 327, 394 Beijing, 4, 67, 77–78, 83, 133, 149, 188, 199, 210, 214, 219, 244, 282, 334–335, 377 Beijing, Treaty of, (1905). See Peking, Treaty of Belgium, 243, 260, 345 Belyii, Vasilii, 67–68, 296, 298 Bengal, 157–158 Bezobrazov Circle, 7, 25, 32, 68, 70, 198, 201, 286, 420 Bezobrazov, Aleksandr, 7, 25, 68–69, 70–71 Bezobrazov, Petr, 69, 152, 356, 395–396, 412 Bilderling, Aleksandr, 71–72, 77, 94, 206, 221, 245, 349 Binhi satsugai jiken. See Min, assassination of Queen Birilev, Aleksei, 72–73, 279 542 • INDEX Bismarck, Otto von, 53, 129, 387, 418 Björkö, Treaty of, 73, 130, 201, 332, 419 Black Dragon Society. See Kokuryûkai Black Sea Fleet, 16, 32, 69, 73–74, 77, 118, 121, 134, 135, 185, 217, 257–258, 304–305, 318, 319, 365, 381, 397, 410 blockade of Port Arthur. See Port Arthur, naval blockade of blockships, 14, 293–294 Bloody Sunday, 16, 74–75, 126, 211, 299, 318, 321, 342, 358, 387 Bobr, 209, 250, 468 Boer War, 75–76, 128, 133, 137, 138, 140, 236, 366, 386 Bogatyr, 76, 152, 270, 278, 412, 478 Bogdanov, Aleksei, 76 Bolshevik Revolution (1917), 19, 51, 52, 100, 132, 133, 135, 165, 168, 203, 261, 287, 306, 318, 320, 323, 332, 334, 356, 387, 407 Bolsheviks, 101, 203, 269, 316, 318 Bonin Islands, 3 Borodino, 76–77, 124, 154, 185, 224, 272, 392–393, 470 Boshin War, 141, 153, 160, 174, 179, 181, 186, 197, 241, 263, 266, 268, 270, 273, 276, 337, 357, 372, 374, 425, 427 Bosnia and Herzegovina, 53, 398 Bosphorus, 38, 121, 134, 397 Bot’yanov, Mikhail, 77, 221 Boxer Uprising, 6, 9, 32, 70, 77–78, 87, 121, 162, 191, 199, 204, 210, 214, 220, 240, 250, 315, 322, 352, 360, 390, 403, 405, 429 Boyarin, 78, 113, 278, 467 Brazil 136, 226, 259 Brest-Litovsk, Treaty of, 148 Briner, Yulii, 70 Britain. See Great Britain British Royal Navy. See Royal Navy, British Brusilov, Aleksei, 78–79, 165 Bulgaria, 180, 397–398 Bülow, Bernhard von, 73, 242 Burmese Wars, 140 Burnett, Charles, 79, 236 Bushido, 79–80, 159, 265, 267, 308, 310, 434 Bushnell, David, 238 Cam Ranh Bay, 60, 258, 272 Cambodia, 122 camouflage, 49 casualties, 14, 15, 47, 75, 80–81, 85, 88, 136, 151, 172, 207, 209, 211, 224, 247, 251, 294–298, 305, 342, 349, 350, 366, 372, 394, 400, 423 Catherine the Great, Empress, 73, 256 cavalry, 31, 41–42, 43–44, 45, 61, 75, 78–79, 81–83, 95–97, 138, 151, 158, 175, 181, 206, 215, 221–222, 232, 240, 245, 282, 315, 319, 341, 349–350, 367, 373, 422, 438 Caviglia, Enrico, 17, 83, 236 censorship, 414 Central Asia, 43, 126, 162, 180, 329, 403 Chamberlain, Joseph, 56, 75 Changshan Islands, 200 Chemulpo, 11, 46, 51, 83–84, 90, 104, 106, 137, 156, 173, 182, 192, 194, 201, 278, 328, 336, 379, 406, 407, 467, 468 Chemulpo, Battle of, 12, 51, 63, 84, 90, 192, 194, 293, 327, 328, 368, 279, 406, 407 Chihli Gulf, 417 INDEX China, 1, 3, 4–6, 8–9, 21–23, 36, 37, 38, 71, 77, 86–88, 89, 99, 122–123, 124, 129, 133, 141, 143, 144–145, 149, 154, 163, 163, 168, 170–172, 183, 188, 189, 190–191, 193, 199, 200, 201, 203–204, 204–205, 209, 218–219, 222, 223, 243–244, 259, 265, 271–272, 277, 281, 290–292, 303, 311, 322, 325, 329, 334, 352–353, 353–355, 357, 363, 369370, 375, 375–376, 395, 399, 403, 405, 418, 420, 424, 426, 429, 431, 435, 441, 447, 452, 455, 458 Chinchou, 88, 89, 183, 250–251 Chinese Eastern Railway, 70, 87, 89, 98, 141, 183, 219, 291, 303, 330, 334, 357, 385, 403, 453 Chinese Revolution (1911), 219, 363 Chinhsien. See Chinchou Chita, 6, 308, 315, 384–385 Chitose, 89, 118, 149, 175, 267, 339, 465, 466, 469 Chiyoda, 85, 90, 120, 153, 466, 470 Chuliencheng, 423 Churchill, Winston, 117–118, 239, 292 Cochin China, 122 Combined Fleet, Japanese. See Fleet, Japanese Combined communications, 49, 90–91, 144, 310, 313, 384, 454, 455 Conquest of Sakhalin. See Sakhalin, conquest of conscription, 42, 140, 426 Constanza, 185, 305 Corps, Eighth European Army, 45, 92 Corps, Fifth Siberian Army, 92, 100, 206 Corps, First European Army, 45, 92, 221, 349 • 543 Corps, First Rifle Army, 92 Corps, First Siberian Army, 44, 92, 131, 206, 221, 341, 342, 358, 372, 373 Corps, Fourth European Army, 45, 93 Corps, Fourth Siberian Army, 93, 206, 349, 372, 435–436 Corps, Nineteenth European Army, 93 Corps, Second Rifle Army, 94 Corps, Second Siberian Army, 94, 151, 206, 436 Corps, Seventeenth European Army, 45, 72, 94, 206, 452 Corps, Seventh Siberian Army, 94, 315 Corps, Sixteenth European Army, 45, 94 Corps, Sixth Siberian Army, 95, 221, 349–350 Corps, Tenth European Army, 45 Corps, Tenth Siberian Army, 207 Corps, Third Siberian Army, 44, 95, 165, 176, 182, 206–207, 221, 360, 422 Cossacks, 1, 43–44, 81, 95–96, 305, 312, 341 Crane, 109 Crete, 121, 280, 397 Crimean War, 2, 43, 53, 57, 73, 77, 96, 117, 122, 133, 135, 232, 238, 257, 277, 329, 386 cruisers, 31, 51, 52, 59, 62, 65, 69, 78, 84–85, 97–98, 102, 107, 113, 118, 119, 120, 136, 149, 152, 165, 166, 176, 193–194, 231, 233, 238, 241, 252, 254–255, 256, 257–258, 267, 269, 271, 278–279, 293, 299, 317, 320, 324, 329, 339, 365, 379, 393–394, 395, 406, 412–413, 425, 429, 432–433, 437–438, 470 cruisers, Japanese. See Akashi; Akitsushima; Asama; Azuma; 544 • INDEX Chitose; Chiyoda; Hashidate; Itsukushima; Iwate; Izumi; Izumo; Kasagi; Kasuga; Matsushima; Naniwa; Niitaka; Nisshin; Otowa; Sai Yen; Suma; Takachiho; Takasago; Tokiwa; Yakumo; Yoshino cruisers, Russian. See Admiral Nakhimov; Askold; Aurora; Bayan; Bogatyr; Boyarin; Diana; Dmitrii Donskoi; Gromoboi; Izumrud; Novik; Oleg; Pallada; Rossia; Rurik; Svietlana; Variag; Vladimir Monomakh; Zhemchug Cuba, 62, 321, 405 Curzon, Lord George Nathaniel, 157 Dagushan. See Takushan, 46, 106, 202, 461 Dai Hon’ei. See Imperial General Headquarters Dairen. See Dalny Dalny, 12, 47, 78, 87, 90, 98–99, 101, 104, 105, 141, 199, 200, 202, 204–205, 213, 249, 250–251, 265, 277, 290–292, 295, 300, 330, 336, 357, 370, 395, 411–412 Dandong. See Antung Dane, Louis, 27 Danilov, Vladimir, 99 Dardanelles, 38, 73, 117, 121, 397–398 De Witte, Konstantin, 94 Delcassé, Théophile, 36, 99–100, 243 Delisi. See Telissu Denikin, Anton, 100 Denmark, 78, 167, 259 destroyers, 12, 34, 64, 98, 101–102, 118, 119, 233, 238–239, 255–256, 257–258, 278–279, 283, 292–293, 299, 320, 339, 347, 389, 392, 394, 417, 432–433, 467 Dewa, Shigeto, 102, 118, 119, 339, 465, 469 Diana, 102–103, 209, 278, 346, 433, 467 Diet (Finnish legislative assembly), 116 Diet (Japanese parliament), 144, 170, 179, 230, 362 Diplomacy, Japanese. See Hayashi, Tadasu; Kaneko, Kentarô; Komura, Jutarô; Kurino, Shinichirô; Takahashi, Korekiyo: Takahira, Kogorô; Suematsu, Kenchô diplomacy, Russian. See Bezobrazov Circle; Björkö, Treaty of; Lamsdorf, Vladimir; Rosen, Roman; Weber, Karl; Witte, Sergei diplomacy, Western. See Balfour, Arthur; Bülow, Bernhard von; Churchill, Winston; Delcassé, Théophile; Dmowski, Roman; Edward VII, King; Filipovicz, Tytus; Hay, John; Meyer, George von Lengerke; Open Door Policy; Pilsudski, Josef; Roosevelt, Theodore; Root, Elihu; Salisbury, Lord; Splendid Isolation; Taft, William; Three Power Intervention; William II, Emperor diplomatic agreements and conferences. See Algeciras Conference (1906); Anglo–French Entente (1904); Anglo–Japanese Alliance (1902); Anglo–Japanese Treaty (1902); Anglo–Russian Entente (1907); Björkö, Treaty of (1905); Franco–Japanese Agreement (1907); Hague Peace Conference (1899); Hague Peace Conference (1907); Kanghwa INDEX Treaty (1876); Komura–Weber Agreement (1896); Li–Lobanov Treaty (1896); Nishi–Rosen Agreement (1898); Paris Conference (1904); Peking Treaty (1905); Portsmouth, Peace Conference (1905); Portsmouth, Treaty of (1905); Protectorate Agreement (1905); Russo–Japanese Agreements, Postwar (1907, 1910, 1912, 1916); Russo–Japanese Treaties, Prewar (1855, 1858, 1875); Russo–Korean Treaty (1884); Shimonoseki Treaty (1895); Takahira–Root Agreement (1908); Teheran Conference (1943); Tianjin Convention (1885); Yamagata–Lobanov Agreement (1896) Division, Imperial Guards, 38, 41, 46, 49, 76, 103, 141, 143, 147, 181, 207, 266, 422 Division, Japanese Army, 1st, 47, 49, 103, 182, 223, 251, 273, 297, 402 Division, Japanese Army, 2nd, 38, 46, 49, 103, 263 Division, Japanese Army, 3rd, 47, 49, 98, 104, 179, 251, 274, 366, 374 Division, Japanese Army, 4th, 47, 49, 104, 250–251, 269, 349, 373, 391 Division, Japanese Army, 5th, 46, 47, 49, 104, 120, 147, 182, 268, 270, 342, 350, 372, 374, 391, 402 Division, Japanese Army, 6th, 46–47, 49, 105, 197, 226, 270 Division, Japanese Army, 7th, 49, 105, 273, 298 Division, Japanese Army, 8th, 47, 49, 105, 342, 372 Division, Japanese Army, 9th, 47, 49, 105, 273, 296–298 • 545 Division, Japanese Army, 10th, 35, 46, 49, 106, 181, 202, 240 Division, Japanese Army, 11th, 46, 47, 49, 106, 296–297, 341, 390 Division, Japanese Army, 12th, 46, 49, 106, 160, 312, 423 Division, Japanese Army, 13th, 31, 42, 107, 339 Division, Japanese Army, 14th, 42, 107, 390 Division, Japanese Army, 15th, 42, 107 Division, Japanese Army, 16th, 42, 107 Dmitrii Donskoi, 69, 107–108, 468, 470 Dmowski, Roman, 108, 285, 288–289, 439 Dogger Bank Incident, 59, 109–110, 184, 327 Dogger Bank, 59, 109, 184, 327 Dongbei. See Manchuria Dreadnought, 21, 62, 66, 110–111, 117, 130, 306, 325 Dufferin, Lord, 27 Duma, 16, 19–20, 70, 111–112, 261, 269, 289, 318, 332, 358 Duy Tan Hoi, 284 Edward VII, King, 36, 110, 134, 188, 306 Eighth European Army Corps. See Corps, Eighth European Army Eighth Siberian Army Corps. See Corps, Eighth Siberian Army Eikô. See Niuchuang Elba, 84–86 Emmanuel II, King Victor (Vittorio), 83 Emperor Meiji. See Meiji, Emperor Emperor Nicholas II. See Nicholas II, Tsar 546 • INDEX Emperor William II. See William II, Emperor Enisei, 78, 112–113, 238, 346, 433, 467 Enkvist, Oskar, 52, 58, 113, 271, 394, 437 Entente Cordiale. See Anglo–French Entente Eritrea, 83 Essen, Nikolai, 113–114, 345, 347, 410 Expenditure. See War Expenditure Ezo. See Hokkaido Felkerzam, Dmitrii, 34, 58, 59–61, 115, 121, 252, 258, 326, 355, 365, 397, 437, 470 Fenghwangcheng, 423 Fengtian. See Mukden Feodosiia, 305 Fifth Japanese Army. See Army, Japanese Fifth Fifth Siberian Army Corps. See Corps, Fifth Siberian Army Filipovicz, Tytus, 284, 288 finance. See war expenditure Finland, 19, 44, 73, 77, 115–116, 195, 203, 222, 286–287, 357, 419, 439 First European Army Corps. See Corps, First European Army First Fleet, Japanese. See Fleet, Japanese First First Japanese Army. See Army, Japanese First First Manchurian Army. See Manchurian, First Army First Siberian Army Corps. See Corps, First Siberian Army First Sino–Japanese War. See Sino–Japanese War, the First Fisher, John, 62, 65, 111, 117–118, 239, 324–325, 361, 382 Fleet, Baltic. See Baltic Fleet Fleet, Black Sea. See Black Sea Fleet Fleet, Japanese Combined, 11, 14–15, 39, 60–61, 90, 118, 120, 164, 231, 256, 292–293, 295, 343, 364, 377–378, 391, 417, 428–429, 432–434 Fleet, Japanese First, 30, 50, 89, 116, 118–119, 124–125, 142, 153, 174–178, 231, 241, 252, 256, 264, 269, 275, 280, 351–352, 370, 377, 388, 391, 425, 429, 430, 434, 435, 465, 469 Fleet, Japanese Fourth, 102, 119, 120, 122, 379 Fleet, Japanese Second, 8, 28, 51, 54, 84, 98, 102, 118, 119, 125, 153, 165, 166, 173, 174, 178, 193, 241, 249, 256, 343–344, 346, 352, 364, 368, 379, 406, 412, 421, 428, 465, 469 Fleet, Japanese Third, 29, 90, 119, 120, 142, 149, 164, 166, 177, 224, 256, 337, 363, 370, 375, 379, 425, 466, 470 Fleet, Pacific. See Pacific Fleet Fleet, Russian Volunteer, 120–121, 319–320, 362, 397, 413 Fleischer, Nikolai, 92 Fok, Aleksandr, 121, 132, 250–251, 356 Formosa. See Taiwan Formosa. See Taiwan, 3, 4, 86, 266 Fort Chikuan, 189, 297–298 Fort Erhlung, 297–298 Fort Sungshu, 297–298 Fourth European Army Corps. See Corps, Fourth European Army Fourth Fleet, Japanese. See Fleet, Japanese Fourth Fourth Japanese Army. See Army, Japanese Fourth INDEX Fourth Siberian Army Corps. See Corps, Fourth Siberian Army France, 4, 18, 19, 22, 31, 35–37, 42, 53–54, 59–62, 65–67, 71, 73, 87, 100, 101, 122–124, 129–130, 133–135, 141–142, 150, 152, 164, 168, 175, 197, 201, 209, 214–215, 223–224, 242, 259, 270–271, 276, 284, 290, 314, 320, 322, 324, 333, 337, 345, 353, 355, 357, 375, 376–377, 381, 386, 389, 399, 402, 406, 415, 418–421, 439, 449 Franco–Japanese Agreement (1907), 124 Franco–Prussian War (1870–71), 42, 96, 235, 276, 386, 409 Fuchou River, 373 Fuji, 76, 118, 124–125, 142, 224, 351, 393, 430, 465–466, 469 Fujii, Koichi, 125 Fukui Maru, 146, 294, 379 Fukuoka, 28, 106, 174, 197, 269–270, 307, 338, 361, 365, 466 Fukushima, Yasumasa, 102, 125–126 Fushimi, Sadanaru, 103, 126, 175, 339 Fuso, 120, 146, 340, 466, 467 Galicia, 79, 165 Gandhi, Mohandas, 157 Gapon, Georgii, 74–75, 126–127, 203, 439 Gaponov, Leontii, 93 General admiral Graf Apraksin, 127, 280, 394, 470 Geneva Convention, 138, 296, 308, 309 Genro, 127–128 Georgii Pobedonosets, 305 Gerard, Montague Gilbert, 128, 236 Germany, 4, 17–19, 29, 36, 38, 52–54, 59, 62, 65, 71, 73, 75–76, • 547 83, 100, 117, 122, 123–125, 128–130, 134, 152, 171, 177, 179, 201–203, 214, 216, 227, 236, 242–243, 259, 261, 264, 266–267, 271, 285, 289–290, 314, 322, 324, 329, 332, 337, 344–345, 353, 355, 358, 364, 375–377, 381, 387, 397, 402, 404–405, 418–421, 428–429 Gerngross, Aleksandr, 93, 130–131, 246, 374 Gershelman, Sergei, 93, 131 Ginzburg, Moisei, 131–132 Glebov, Nikolai, 94 Golikov, Evgenii, 304 Gorbatovskii, Vladimir, 132–133, 296 government, Japanese. See Genro; Imperial Council; Itô, Hirobumi; Komura, Jutarô; Kubota, Yuzuru; Kuroda, Kiyotaka; Matsukata, Masayoshi; Meiji, Emperor; Okuma, Shigenobu; Ôyama, Iwao; Sone, Arasuke; Yamagata, Aritomo; Yamamoto, Gonnohyôe government, Russian. See Aleksandr I, Tsar; Aleksandr II, Tsar; Aleksandr III, Tsar; Avelan, Fedor; Izvolskii, Aleksandr; Kuropatkin, Aleksei; Lamsdorf, Vladimir; Miliutin, Dmitrii; Plehve, Viacheslav; Romanov, Sergei; Sakharov, Victor; Witte, Sergei Great Britain, 6, 17–18, 21, 27–28, 30, 35–38, 40, 50–51, 56, 59, 61–62, 65, 78, 86–87, 90, 100, 109, 111, 122–124, 129–130, 133–134, 140, 143–144, 149, 153, 156–158, 160–162, 164–166, 170–172, 178, 188, 192, 201–202, 215–216, 225, 231, 236, 242, 249, 254–256, 259, 271, 281, 309, 314, 322, 324, 333, 548 • INDEX 343–344, 351, 361–362, 368, 370, 375–378, 380, 381, 386, 397, 399, 405, 407, 418–419, 421, 427, 429–430, 435, 439 Greece, 398 Grekov, Vladimir, 82 Grigorovich, Ivan, 134–135 Grippenberg, Oskar, 135, 221, 342 Griscom, Lloyd, 135–136, 212, 302 Gromoboi, 69, 97, 136, 147, 151–152, 194, 278, 395, 396, 412, 468 Guandong Peninsula. See Kwantung Peninsula gunboats. See gunvessels Gunshin, 136–137, 415 gunships. See gunvessels gunvessels, 136, 137, 212, 466–468 Guomindang, 223, 363 Gurko, Vasilii, 137–138 Gushan. See Takushan Habibullah, Amir, 27 Hagi Rebellion, 266 Hague Peace Conference (1899), 138 Hague Peace Conference (1907), 138–139 Haicheng, 46, 47, 139, 151, 372 Haimun, 91, 414 Hakuai Maru, 227, 229 Haldane, James, 17, 139–140, 236 Hamadera, 307 Hamilton, Ian, 17, 140, 236, 322 Hannekin, Constantin von, 290 Haraguchi, Kanezane, 107, 339 Harbin, 33, 76, 98, 140–141, 145, 198, 205, 223, 377 Harding, Edward, 110, 367 Hasegawa, Yoshimichi, 103, 141–142, 207, 266 Hashidate, 120, 142, 224, 466, 470 Hatsuse, 34, 111, 118, 142–143, 165, 176, 178, 213, 231, 239, 252, 264, 430–431, 465–466 Hawaii, 20, 369, 405–406 Hay, John, 143, 271, 405 Hayashi, Senjûrô, 143–144 Hayashi, Tadasu, 144, 285 Heijô. See Pyongyang Heikoutai, 342 Heilungkiang, 76, 141, 144–145, 218, 457 Heiminsha, 16, 145, 172, 183, 338, 357, 401 Hibiya Riots, 16, 18, 145–146, 172, 303 Hikohachi, Yamada, 119–120 Himeji, 106, 307 Hindenburg, Paul von, 371, 377 Hirohito, Emperor, 149, 378 Hirose, Takeo, 137, 146–147, 294, 366 Hiroshima, 104, 147, 178, 230, 353 Hitachi Maru, 147–148, 395, 396 Hoad, John, 148, 236 Hoffmann, Carl, 17, 148, 236, 371 Hohenzollern, Karl Anton von, 175 Hokkaido, 2, 105, 144, 168, 338 Holland, 253, 345, 360–361 Hong Kong, 86–87, 466 Honjô, Shigeru, 149 Hosoya, Sukeuji, 120, 149, 466 hospital ships, 227, 229, 85 Hotchkiss, machine gun, 82, 150, 159, 215, 225 Hôten Kaisen. See Mukden, Battle of Hôten. See Mukden howitzer guns, 34, 66, 150–151, 189, 281–282, 289, 316 Hsimucheng, Battle of, 13, 46, 63, 105–106, 151, 240, 377 Hun River, 247, 265, 342 Ibuki, 98 Idzumi. See Izumi INDEX Iessen, Karl, 151–152, 173, 193–194, 277, 356, 412–413, 468 Iguchi, Shôgo, 152, 415 Iida, Shunsuke, 35, 103 Ijichi, Hikojirô, 152–153 Ijûin, Gorô, 153 Ikoma, 98 immigration laws, 154 Imperator Aleksandr III, 31, 154, 392–393, 470 Imperator Nikolai I, 33, 95, 115, 154–155, 280, 328, 394, 442–443, 470 Imperial Council, 7, 9, 155 Imperial General Headquarters, 98, 120, 137, 147, 152, 156, 230, 371, 380, 415, 429 Imperial Japanese Army officers. See Army officers, Imperial Japanese Imperial Japanese Army. See Army, Imperial Japanese Imperial Japanese Navy officers. See Navy officers, Imperial Japanese Imperial Japanese Navy. See Navy, Imperial Japanese Imperial Russian Army officers. See Army officers, Imperial Russian Imperial Russian Army. See Army, Imperial Russian Imperial Russian Navy officers. See Navy officers, Russian Japanese Imperial Russian Navy. See Navy, Imperial Russian Inazuma, 434, 465, 469 Inchon. See Chemulpo Independent Cruiser Squadron. See Vladivostok Independent Cruiser Squadron India, 24, 27–28, 36, 126, 128, 133, 156–158, 202, 230, 262, 376 infantry, 33, 35, 44, 92–95, 99, 121, • 549 148, 158–160, 182, 196, 213, 248, 266, 268, 319 Inoue, Hikaru, 106, 160, 423 Inoue, Kaoru, 128, 160 Inoue, Yoshika, 160–161, 174 intelligence, military. See military intelligence Iran, 24, 37, 128, 136, 161–162, 283 Irkutsk, 55, 128, 308, 384 Irman, Vladimir, 162–162 Italy, 17, 53, 65, 83, 100, 125, 129, 134, 136, 153, 176–177, 197, 231, 236, 256, 259, 264, 271, 369, 428 Itô, Hirobumi, 128, 156, 160, 163, 167, 174, 186, 192, 204, 312, 337, 352, 374, 431 Itô, Sukeyuki, 163–164 Itsukushima, 120, 142, 149, 164, 177, 224, 466, 470 Ivanov, Fedor, 34, 72, 95, 113, 164–165, 176, 315, 326, 330, 436 Ivanov, Nikolai, 33, 95, 165 Iwate, 119, 165–166, 193, 241, 352, 369–370, 393, 425, 434, 465–466, 469 Izumi, 120, 151, 166, 249, 396, 466, 470 Izumo, 54, 119, 165, 166–167, 174, 193, 393, 421, 465–466, 469 Izumrud, 59, 167, 271, 437, 470 Izvolskii, Aleksandr, 25, 167–168, 168 Jackson, Thomas, 168, 236, 325 James, Lionel, 414 Japan, 168–172 passim Japanese identity, 22 Japanese Imperial Army. See Army, Japanese Imperial Japanese Imperial Navy. See Navy, Japanese Imperial Jerusalem, 418 550 • INDEX Jessen, Karl Petrovich. See Iessen, Karl Petrovich Jews, 56, 131, 173, 183–184, 190, 211, 286, 305, 344–345, 387–388, 415 Jinsen. See Chemulpo Jinsenchû Kaisen. See Chemulpo, Battle of Jurchen, 218 Kabayama, Sukenori, 427 Kaiser Wilhelm II. See William II, Emperor Kamchatka, 2, 263, 277, 329, 335 Kamimura, Hikonojo, 51, 118–119, 166, 173–174, 193–194, 241, 344, 393, 396–397, 412, 465, 469 Kan’in, Kotohito, 82, 175, 349 Kanazawa, 106, 307 Kaneko, Kentarô, 174–175, 302, 310, 338 Kanghwa Treaty, 190 Kantô. See Kwantung Karafuto senryô sakusen. See Sakhalin, conquest of Karafuto. See Sakhalin Kasagi, 102, 118, 175–176, 465–466, 469 Kashtalinskii, Nikolai, 95, 176, 423 Kasuga, 97, 110, 118, 176–177, 264, 393, 435, 466–467, 469 Kataoka, Shichirô, 120, 164, 177, 339, 466, 470 Katayama, Sen, 178, 195, 287 Katô, Tomosaburô, 178–179 Katsura, Tarô, 6, 8, 20, 36, 128, 155–156, 170, 179, 186, 337, 357, 367 Katsura–Taft Agreement, 20, 179–180, 367 Kaulbars, Aleksandr, 72, 135, 180, 221, 245–246, 342 Kawamura, Kageaki, 42, 46, 106, 180–181, 202, 220, 245 Keijô. See Seoul Keller, Count Fedor, 95, 165, 176, 181–182, 315, 436 Kensei Hontô, 241 Khabarovsk, 384, 385 Khitan, 218, 243 Kiaochou, 102, 129, 389, 399, 433 Kideshi, Yasutsuna, 104, 182 Kinoshita, Naoe, 145, 182–183 Kintei Island, 422–423 Kirin, 88, 144, 183, 218 Kishinev, Pogrom of, 173, 183–184, 286, 344 Klado, Nikolai, 109, 184, 280 Kniaz Potemkin Tavricheskii, 16, 74, 185, 304–305, 318, 387 Kniaz Suvorov, 185–186, 304–305, 318, 326, 363, 392–393, 470 Kodama, Gentarô, 152, 186, 220, 227, 276, 298, 371 Kôdôha faction, 39, 226 Kojong [Li-hi], 5, 70, 163, 186–187, 190–191, 237, 312, 354 Kôkai Kaisen. See Yellow Sea, Battle of Kokkôdai kaisen. See Sandepu, Battle of Komura, Jutarô, 155, 170, 187–188, 197, 237, 281, 301–303, 446 Komura–Weber Memorandum (1896), 188, 237 Kondratenko, Roman, 121, 132, 188–189, 298 Konoe, Atsumaro, 171, 189, 367 Korczak, Janusz, 190 Korea Straits, Battle of, 63, 193, 404, 406 Korea, 1, 3–9, 11, 18, 20, 23, 25, 29, 36–38, 46, 63, 68, 70, 83–84, 86, 88, 91, 96, 106, 119–120, 125, INDEX 133, 136, 142, 145, 152–153, 158, 163, 165–168, 170, 172, 174, 180, 183, 186–188, 190–193, 197, 202, 204–205, 212, 214, 219–220–221, 227, 234, 237, 240–241, 250, 261, 263–264, 275, 278, 293, 300, 302–304, 311–313, 323–324, 328–329, 333–336, 344, 346–347, 352–354, 366, 374–376, 378–379, 394–395, 402–404, 406, 411–412, 416–417, 422, 424–426, 429, 433, 435–436, 441–442, 446, 452–453 Korean Straits. See Tsushima Straits Korean War, 193, 214, 292, 313, 343 Korean–Japanese Convention (1905). See Protectorate Agreement Koreets, 12, 84–85, 90, 137, 194–195, 328, 407, 468 Korsakovsk, 267, 339 Kosai Maru, 229 Kôtoku, Shûsui, 145, 178, 195, 338 Kronstadt Rebellion, 57, 195, 196 Kronstadt, 52, 57–58, 69, 72, 135, 152, 195–196, 217, 259, 410 Kruger, Paul, 75 Kubota, Yuzuru, 348 Kuhn, Joseph Ernest, 196–197, 236, 344 Kuril Islands, 2, 3, 168, 249, 323, 335, 338 Kurino, Shinichirô, 9, 10, 197 Kuroda, Kiyotaka, 128 Kuroki, Takemoto, 42, 46, 141, 182, 197, 202, 206–207, 220, 245, 282, 348–350, 422–424, 436 Kuropatkin, Aleksei, 7, 13, 32, 83, 116, 135, 151, 176, 180–182, 197–199, 201, 206–208, 210, 220, 244–247, 276, 330, 339, 342, 348, 349–350, 360, 372–374, 377, 422, 438, 461 Kutnevich, Nikolai, 92 • 551 Kwangchow Bay, 87, 123 Kwantung Army, 141, 144, 149, 200, 223, 292, 366, 371 Kwantung Fortified Region, 199 Kwantung Peninsula, 12, 18, 47, 88, 98, 136, 199, 200, 204–205, 249–250, 270, 292, 431 Kwantung Territory, 199, 200, 219, 274, 300 Kyoto, 107, 126, 175, 189, 230, 336, 380 La Perouse Straits, 267, 448 Lake Baikal. See Baikal, Lake Lamsdorf, Vladimir, 7, 53, 73, 200–201, 330 landing operations, 11, 83, 85, 103–106, 140, 182, 201–202, 234, 240, 268, 285, 294–295, 339, 355, 406, 422 Lansdowne, Henry Charles, 36, 59, 109, 202 Laos, 122 Launits, Mikhail von der, 92 League of Nations, 24, 139, 265, 322 Lena, 412, 468 Lenin, Vladimir, 29, 202–203, 287, 299, 318, 358, 387–388 Lhasa, 376 Li, Hongzhang, 5–6, 163, 203–204, 209–210, 290–291, 352–353, 355, 384, 403, 427 Liaoning, 38, 88, 144, 204, 205, 218, 243, 265, 352, 377 Liaotung Peninsula, 4, 12–13, 70, 86–88, 98–99, 199, 204–205, 206, 219, 249, 263, 265, 285, 290, 300, 336, 353, 355, 357, 375, 431, 448, 450 Liaoyang, 12–13, 46–48, 63, 72, 81, 92–95, 99–100, 103–106, 131, 137, 139, 142, 151, 165, 176, 552 • INDEX 182, 197, 200, 205, 206–208, 220–221, 240, 243, 263, 268–270, 274, 276, 290, 315, 336, 341, 348–349, 358, 366–367, 372, 386, 423, 436 Liaoyang, Battle of, 13, 46–48, 63, 72, 81, 92–95, 99–100, 103–106, 131, 137, 142, 165, 176, 197, 205–209, 221, 240, 263, 268–270, 276, 336, 341, 348–349, 358, 366–367, 436 Libya, 83 Lieven, Aleksandr, 102, 209, 211 Li–Lobanov Treaty, 5, 204, 209–210, 291, 355, 384, 427 Linievich, Nikolai, 43–44, 198, 210–211, 220, 245–247, 342 Liven, Aleksandr Aleksandrovich. See Lieven, Aleksandr Aleksandrovich loans, 86, 123, 173, 209, 344 368, 415 Lodz Uprising (1905), 16, 211, 289, 318 Lodz, 211, 284 London, Jack, 17, 211–212, 413 Long Hill, 297, 461 Loschinskii, Mikhail, 212–213 Ludendorff, Erich, 148, 371 Lüshun. See Port Arthur Luta. See Dalny MacArthur, Arthur, 17, 213, 214, 236, 282 MacArthur, Douglas, 213–214 MacDonald, Claude, 214–215 Macedonia, 397–398 machine guns, 34, 77, 82, 150, 215, 225, 232, 245. See also Hotchkiss, machine gun; Maxim, machine gun Macomb, Montgomery, 216, 236 Madagascar, 36, 60, 115, 258, 279, 280, 327 Mahan, Alfred Thayer, 30, 138, 216–217, 254, 405 Makarov, Stepan, 14, 32, 69, 114, 132, 152, 165, 189, 217–218, 239, 278, 283, 296, 299, 317, 346, 356, 359, 382, 404, 408–410 Malaya, 438 Manboyama. See Putilov Hill Manchukuo, 89, 219, 357 Manchuria, 1, 4, 6–9, 11–14, 17–18, 20–22, 38, 42, 44, 55, 61, 68, 70–72, 76–79, 82–83, 86–89, 92–93, 95–96, 108, 110, 122, 125, 128–129, 133, 139–141, 144–145, 147–149, 158, 160, 163, 167, 170, 173, 180, 183, 189–191, 198–199, 203–205, 210, 212–214, 218–219, 220–223, 226, 228–229, 234, 236, 240, 242–244, 261–262, 264–265, 267, 272, 274, 276, 281–282, 285, 288–292, 295, 300–304, 315, 330, 333–334, 339, 341, 354–355, 357, 367, 369, 372, 375, 384–385, 392, 399, 405, 411, 414, 416–417, 422, 424, 434, 436, 441, 446–448, 450, 452–456, 468 Manchuria–Korea Exchange, 219–220, 221 Manchurian Army, First, 31, 45, 117, 198, 210, 220, 221, 245–246, 342 Manchurian Army, Japanese, 12, 220 Manchurian Army, Russian, 12, 14, 95, 220–221 Manchurian Army, Second, 45, 92, 95, 135, 180, 221, 245, 342, 346 Manchurian Army, Third, 33, 45, 71, 72, 77, 180, 221, 245, 246, 342, 375 Manila, 52, 113, 213, 260, 271, 394, 438 INDEX Mankan Kôkan. See Manchuria–Korea Exchange Mannerheim, Carl, 221–222 Manshû. See Manchuria March, Peyton Conway, 222 Marconi wireless system, 91 Maria Fedorovna, 70 Maslov, Ignatii, 93 Matiunin, N. G., 70 Matiushenko, Afanasii, 304–305 Matsui, Iwane, 222–223 Matsukata Masayoshi, 128, 223 Matsumoto, Yawara, 124–125, 182, 223–224 Matsumura, Mohan, 103 Matsunaga, Masatoshi, 207 Matsushima, 120, 142, 153, 164, 224–225, 340, 406, 466, 470 Matsuyama, 30–31, 225, 227, 307, 389 Maxim, Hiram, 225 Maxim, machine gun, 45, 150, 159, 215, 225–226 Mazaki, Jinzaburô, 39, 144, 226 McCormick, Frederick, 413 McCully, Newton, 226, 236 McGee, Anita Newcomb, 227, 229, 310, 314 Meckel, Klemens Wilhelm Jakob, 42, 186, 227–228 medical treatment, 228–229 Meiji, Emperor, 112, 155–156, 163, 169, 170, 230, 247, 260, 266–267, 297, 314, 345, 380 Mensheviks, 318 Mexico, 122, 259, 283, 323, 388, 404 Meyendorf, Feofil, 92, 349 Meyer, George von Lengerke, 230–231, 301 Middle East, 23, 38, 126, 418 Mikasa, 30, 118, 152–153, 231, 393, 440, 465–466, 469 • 553 Mikhailovich, Aleksandr, 25, 68, 319, 359 military balance, 10, 18, 129, 232–233, 245, 306 military intelligence, 28–30, 60, 109, 125, 137, 139, 141, 149, 161, 182, 206–207, 234–235, 245, 262, 362, 414, 422, 439 military lessons. See tactics, military military morale. See morale, military military observers, 3, 17, 20–21, 49, 66, 82, 110, 158, 235–237, 252, 268, 298, 314, 325, 367 military units. See artillery; cavalry; infantry; military intelligence; Nurse Corps Miliutin, Dmitrii A., 43 Min, assassination of Queen, 5, 72, 186, 191, 237, 241, 313 minefields, 113, 165, 213, 218, 250, 432 minelayers. See Mines, Naval mines, naval, 238–240 Ming Dynasty, 205, 218, 377 mining operations. See mines, naval Minto, Lord Gilbert Elliot, 28, 157 Mishchenko, 82, 96, 151, 240, 349, 350, 422 Misu, Sôtarô, 118–119, 149, 193, 240–241, 264, 465, 469 Miura, Gorô, 5, 191, 237, 241 Moltke, Helmuth, 345 Mongolia, 125, 144, 183, 218, 333–334, 376, 452–453, 456–457, 468 morale, military, 60, 160, 217, 230, 246, 295, 298, 350, 395, 396, 422 Mori, Ôgai, 147, 228, 241–242 Moroccan Crisis, 19, 54, 100, 123, 130, 201, 242–243, 322, 419 mortars, 48, 50 554 • INDEX Mosin M-1891 rifle, 45, 158, 225, 243, 319 Motien Pass. See Motienling Motienling, 46, 182, 315 Mukden Incident, 244 Mukden, 8, 11, 13, 14, 17, 32, 46–48, 56, 60, 63, 72, 77, 81, 83, 92–96, 99, 103–106, 115, 131, 141, 150–151, 158, 160, 165, 180–182, 186, 197–198, 204–205, 208, 210, 215, 220–222, 243–244, 245–247, 265–266, 268, 270, 274, 276, 290, 299–302, 311, 315, 341–342, 348–350, 366–367, 374, 377, 386, 413, 417, 436 Mukden, Battle of, 14, 17, 46–48, 60, 63, 72, 81, 83, 92–95, 99, 103–106, 131, 150, 158, 160, 165, 180–182, 186, 197, 210, 215, 220–222, 244–247, 266, 268, 270, 276, 299, 301, 311, 315, 341–342, 366–367, 377, 436 Murata Type 22 rifle, 39, 247, 319 Murata, Tsuneyoshi, 247, 365 Mussolini, Benito, 83 Mutsuhito, Emperor. See Meiji, Emperor Mylov, Sergei, 92 Nagant M-95 revolver, 45, 243, 248, 319 Nagasaki, 2, 132, 223, 253, 335, 343, 366, 395 Nakamura, Satoru, 195, 248, 298 Nambu Type 35 rifle, 248–249, 319, 343 Nanchientszu, 46, 106, 202 Naniwa, 85, 119, 241, 249, 368, 378, 406, 427, 465–467, 469 Nanjing, 223 Nanshan, 12, 14, 47, 63, 88, 103–104, 121, 126, 199, 234, 249–250, 250–252, 266, 269–270, 292, 295, 360, 373, 431 Nanshan, Battle of, 12, 47, 63, 88, 103–104, 121, 126, 199, 234, 249, 250–251, 252, 270, 292, 360, 431 Nanzan no Tatakai. See Nanshan, Battle of Nanzan. See Nanshan Napoleon III, Emperor, 122 Nashiwa, Tokioki, 118, 142, 252, 465 naval arms race, 21, 36, 64, 133–134, 257, 325 Naval Blockade of Port Arthur. See Port Arthur, Naval Blockade of naval observers. See military observers Navarin, 59, 69, 252–253, 364, 394, 470 Navarino, Battle of, 257 Navy officers, Imperial Japanese. See Akiyama, Saneyuki; Arima, Ryôkitsu; Dewa, Shigeto; Fujii, Koichi; Hirose, Takeo; Hosoya, Sukeuji; Ijichi, Hikojirô; Ijûin, Gorô; Itô, Saneyuki; Kamimura, Hikonojo; Kataoka, Shichirô; Kato, Tomosaburô; Matsumoto, Yawara; Misu, Sôtarô; Nashiwa, Tokioki; Ogura, Byoichirô; Samejima, Kazunori; Satô, Tetsutarô; Shibayama, Yahachi; Shimamura, Hayao; Suzuki, Kantarô; Taketomi, Kunikane; Tôgô, Heihachirô; Tôgô, Masaji; Uryû, Sotokichi; Yamada, Hikohachi; Yamamoto, Gonnohyôe; Yamamoto, Isoroku; Yamashita, Gentrô; Yonai, Mitsumasa Navy officers, Imperial Russian. See Abaza, Aleksei; Alekseev, INDEX Evgenii; Avelan, Fedor; Bezobrazov, Petr; Birilev, Aleksei; Enkvist, Oskar; Essen, Nikolai; Felkerzam, Dmitrii; Golikov, Evgenii; Grigorovich, Ivan; Iessen, Karl; Ivanov, Fedor; Klado, Nikolai; Lieven, Aleksandr; Loschinskii, Mikhail; Makarov, Stepan; Nebogatov, Nikolai; Putiatin, Evfimii; Reuzenstein, Nikolai; Romanov, Aleksandr; Romanov, Aleksei; Rozhdestvenskii, Zinovii; Rudnev, Vsevolod; Schultz, Maximilian; Semenov, Vladimir; Sergeev, A. S.; Skrydlov, Nikolai; Stark, Oskar; Ukhtomskii, Pavel; Viren, Robert; Vitgeft, Vilgelm Navy, British. See Royal Navy, British Navy, Imperial Japanese, 8, 10, 14, 26, 30, 39, 50–51, 54, 56, 60, 65–66, 80–81, 84, 91, 97–98, 101, 111, 114, 118–120, 125, 127, 137, 146, 153, 155–156, 161, 164–166, 168, 170, 177–178, 193, 201, 224, 229, 231–233, 238–240, 248–249, 253–256, 267, 272, 279–282, 287, 289, 293–294, 308, 316, 319, 325, 327, 337, 340, 343, 347, 351–353, 360–361, 363–364, 368, 375, 378–379, 381–382, 396, 407, 410, 412, 416, 425, 427–430, 433–434, 445 Navy, Imperial Russian, 10, 15, 21, 35, 51, 54, 57, 62, 65, 69, 72–73, 97, 101, 112–113, 132, 134–135, 156, 176, 184–185, 189, 195, 209, 217, 232, 234, 238–239, 255, 256–258, 264, 277, 279, 304, 308, 320, 326–327, 333, 346, 358–362, 364, 381–382, 391, 409, 416, 445, 463 • 555 Nebogatov, Nikolai, 26–27, 60–61, 127, 155, 258–259, 280, 327, 393–394, 411, 470 Nehru, Jawaharlal, 24, 157 Nelson, Horatio, 378, 440 Nemirovich-Danchenko, Vasilii, 259, 413 neutrality, 17, 20, 53, 85, 87, 116, 123, 129, 134, 162, 187, 259–260, 397, 404 Newchwang. See Niuchuang Nicholas I, Tsar, 2 Nicholas II, Tsar, 4–5, 19, 25, 32–33, 58, 68, 70, 73–74, 111–112, 116, 126, 128, 130, 135, 138–139, 167, 203, 209, 211, 221, 232, 243, 257, 259, 260–262, 263, 268, 275, 278, 280, 290, 302, 317, 320–321, 326, 328, 330, 360, 373, 384, 389–390, 403, 419–420, 426, 437, 439, 445 Nicholson, William, 236, 262 Nihonkai Kaisen. See Tsushima, Battle of Nihyakusan Kôchi. See 203-Meter Hill Niitaka, 118, 262–263, 365, 465, 467, 469 Nijuroku Nenshiki Kenjû. See Type 26 revolver Nikolaevsk, 114, 217, 278, 338, 468 Nikolai II, Tsar. See Nicholas II, Tsar Nishi, Kanjirô, 6, 38, 103, 191, 237, 263, 323, 427, 461 Nishimura, Sukeyoshi, 103 Nishi–Rosen Agreement, 6, 191, 237, 263–264, 323, 427 Nisshin, 110, 118, 176, 241, 264, 393, 428, 467, 469 Nitobe, Inazô, 80, 264–265 Niuchuang, 112, 234, 240, 243, 260, 265, 433, 468 Nogi, Maresuke, 12, 42, 47, 56, 186, 202, 207, 220, 245–246, 556 • INDEX 265–267, 273, 295–299, 360, 378, 400, 432 Northeast Provinces. See Manchuria Norway, 259 Novik, 89, 114, 267–268, 278, 293, 317, 345, 391, 433, 467 Nozu, Michitsura, 42, 46, 151, 206–207, 220, 245, 268, 348, 366, 402, 426 Nurse Corps, 227 observers. See military observers October Manifesto, 16, 145, 184, 195, 203, 268–269, 318, 328, 332, 387, 420, 437 Odessa, 44, 180, 304–305, 357, 387, 419–420, 436 Ogawa, Mataji, 104, 250, 269 Ogura, Byoichirô, 119, 269 Okinoshima, 127, 396 Oku, Yasukata, 42, 47, 88, 202, 206–207, 220, 245, 250–251, 269–270, 274, 285, 348, 372–374 Ôkubo, Haruno, 105, 270 Okuma, Shigenobu, 223 Oleg, 52, 59, 113, 167, 270–271, 470 Open-Door Policy, 87, 124, 130, 143, 271–272, 405, 416 Opium Wars, 86, 117, 133 Orange Plan, 20, 406 Orel, 60, 272, 392, 394, 470 Orlov, N. A., 92 Ôryokkô no tatakai. See Yalu, Battle of the Ôryokkô. See Yalu River Ôsako, Naomichi, 272–273 Ôsako, Naotoshi, 105, 273 Ôshima, Hisanao, 273 Ôshima, Yoshimasa, 104, 273–274 Osliabia, 274, 392–393, 468, 470 Otowa, 118, 274–275, 365, 469 Otsu Incident, 4, 260, 275, 390, 403 Ottoman Empire. See Turkey Ôyama, Iwao, 12–13, 42, 128, 186, 206–207, 220, 244–247, 276, 295, 297–298, 342, 348–350 Pacific Fleet, 10, 14, 32, 34, 50–51, 54, 57–58, 66, 72, 76, 78, 84, 97, 102, 112, 114–115, 120, 134, 136, 151–152, 194, 212, 217–218, 233, 238–239, 255, 257, 267, 277–279, 281–283, 287, 289, 292–293, 295–296, 299, 316–317, 324, 326, 328, 346–347, 356, 358, 381, 389, 404, 407, 410–412, 416, 431, 438, 467 Pacific Squadron, First, 60, 69, 152, 278, 279, 410 Pacific Squadron, Second, 15, 26, 34, 52, 57–60, 72, 109, 113, 115, 132, 154, 167, 184, 252, 258, 271, 278, 279–280, 326, 346, 355, 362, 364, 391, 437 Pacific Squadron, Third, 26–27, 57–58, 60, 127, 155, 184, 258, 279, 280, 327, 362, 391, 411 Pakenham, William, 236, 280–281, 325, 388 Palestine, 56, 83, 320, 389 Pallada, 52, 102, 278, 281, 293, 467 Panama Canal, 20, 143, 322, 405, 406 Pan-Asianism, 187, 363 Panlung, 121, 296, 461 Paris Conference, 439 Pascal, 84, 86 patriotism, 85, 86 Pearl Harbor, 137, 406, 428 Peikou, 207 Peking, Treaty of (1905), 87, 133, 188, 281–282 Peresviet, 274, 278, 282, 287, 404, 433, 467 INDEX Perry, Matthew Calbraith, 2, 169 Pershing, John, 17, 236, 282–283 Persia. See Iran Pescadore Islands, 86, 177 Peter the Great, 57, 73, 195, 256, 277, 327, 357 Petersburg, 121, 397 Petropavlovsk, 14, 218, 239, 257, 277–278, 283–284, 289, 296, 347, 359, 409, 467 Phan, Boi Chau, 24, 284 Philippines, 20, 23, 180, 213–214, 282–283, 367, 369, 405 Pikou. See Pitzuwo Pilsudski, Josef, 108, 284–285, 288–289 Pitzuwo, 47, 104, 202, 250, 270, 284, 285, 294, 423 Plehve, Viacheslav 71, 184, 286, 318, 330, 358, 420 Plekhanov, Georgii 29, 178, 286–287, 387, 439 Pobieda, 278, 287–288, 432, 467 Pogrom of Kishinev. See Kishinev, Pogrom of poison gas, 138 Poland, 19–20, 108, 190, 221, 284–285, 286, 288–289, 438 politics, Japanese internal. See AntiRussia Society; Government, Japanese; Diet; Heiminsha; Hibiya Riots; Kôdôha Faction; Konoe, Atsumaro; Kôtoku, Shûsui; Rikken Seiyûkai; Saigô, Takamori; Saionji, Kimmochi; Sakai, Toshihiko; Satsuma Rebellion; Seven Professors Incident; Shakai Minshuto; Sonnô-joi; Uchimura, Kanzô; Yosano, Akiko politics, Russian internal. See Bezobrazov Circle; Bezobrazov, • 557 Aleksandr; Bloody Sunday; Bolshevik Revolution; Bolsheviks; Duma; Gapon, Georgii; Government, Russian; Kronstadt Rebellion; Lenin, Vladimir; Lodz Uprising (1905); Maria Fedorovna; Mensheviks; October Manifesto; Plekhanov, Georgii; Potemkin mutiny; Revolution of 1905; Stolypin, Petr; Workers Soviet; Zemstvo Movement Poltava, 257, 278, 289–290, 293, 467 Port Arthur Squadron, 217, 277–278, 299, 389, 395, 404, 409, 410, 467 Port Arthur, 4, 6, 7–9, 10–11, 11–12, 12–3, 13–14, 15, 16, 28, 32, 34, 43, 47, 49–50, 56, 58, 60, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 78, 84, 87, 89, 91, 98, 101, 102, 107, 111, 114, 121, 122, 124, 132, 135, 139, 142, 143, 145, 151, 152, 162, 188, 193, 199, 200, 203, 204, 205, 206–207, 209, 212, 217, 220, 230, 233, 235, 238–239, 241, 243, 244, 250, 251, 252, 259, 266, 267, 274, 276, 277–279, 281, 283, 287, 290–292, 292–293, 293–294, 294–299, 299, 300, 301, 308, 310, 316, 317, 318, 325, 328, 330, 340, 345, 347, 350–351, 355, 356, 357, 258, 359, 359–360, 361, 365, 370, 372, 373, 376, 378, 386, 388, 389, 395, 400, 404, 407, 408, 409–410, 411–412, 414, 416–417, 417–418, 425, 430, 431–433, 435, 443–445, 447, 461, 467 Port Arthur, naval attack of, 98, 101, 102, 113, 139, 281, 292–293, 316, 359, 389 Port Arthur, naval blockade of, 39, 137, 146,224, 293–294, 410 Port Arthur, Siege of, 13–14, 34, 47, 50, 56, 66, 67, 81, 83, 98, 103, 558 • INDEX 105, 106, 114, 121, 126, 132, 143, 151, 153, 186, 189, 206, 229, 248, 273, 278, 281, 282, 287, 289, 292, 294–299, 316, 340, 341, 347, 350, 356, 360, 365, 390, 400, 409, 414, 431 Portsmouth Peace Conference, 16, 20, 36, 136, 143, 146, 180, 187, 197, 231, 261, 300–304, 311, 317, 321–322, 323, 366, 369, 398, 405, 419–420 Portsmouth, 18, 117, 146, 300, 302, 420, 445, 450, 451, 452 Portsmouth, Treaty of, 15, 16, 18, 29, 88, 145, 155, 172, 183, 188, 192, 197, 199, 211, 300, 303, 308, 318, 332, 338, 394, 399, 403, 420, 445 Portugal, 260 postwar Russo–Japanese agreements. See Russo–Japanese agreements, postwar Potemkin Mutiny, 16, 74, 185, 304–306, 318, 387 Potemkin. See Kniaz Potemkin Tavritcheskii POWs. See prisoners of war pre-dreadnought, 64–66, 130, 134, 277, 306, 430 press. See war correspondents prewar military balance. See military balance, prewar prewar Russo–Japanese treaties. See Russo–Japanese treaties, prewar prisoner camps, 173, 225, 298, 307–308, 311 prisoners of war, 56, 80, 225, 227, 247, 285, 307–309, 311, 313, 350, 394, 423, 443, 449 propaganda, 56, 202, 309–311, 431 protected cruisers, 97, 118, 119, 256, 258, 278, 279 Protectorate Agreement, 163, 192, 311–312 Putiatin, Evfimii, 2 Putilov Hill, 350, 402 Putilov M-1903 75mm gun, 45, 50, 312, 373 Pyongyang, 46, 106, 268,274, 312–313, 354 Qing Dynasty, 22, 77, 86, 88, 219 Qingdao. See Tsingtao Queen Min, Assassination of. See Min, Assassination of Queen race (Asian), 23, 157 race, naval arms. See Naval arms race race, relations, 24 radio telegraph, 91 radio. See communication Rasputin, Grigorii, 261 Red Army, 45, 79, 101, 388 Red Cross Society, Japanese 314 Red Cross Society, Russian 313 Reizenstein, Nikolai. See Reuzenstein, Nikolai Rennenkampf, Pavel von, 82, 94, 315–316, 341, 350, 371 Reshitelnii, 359 Retvizan, 278, 293, 294, 316, 467 Reuzenstein, Nikolai, 277, 316–317, 412, 468 Revolution of 1905, 16, 19, 38, 73, 74, 75, 111, 116, 196, 211, 261, 268, 287, 289, 299, 304, 317–318, 332, 333, 358, 387, 419, 421, 437 revolvers, 155, 195, 319, 401 rifles, 40, 43, 45, 75, 79, 82, 150, 196, 243, 319, 386 Rikken Seiyûkai (political party), 163, 179, 337 Riurik. See Rurik INDEX Rodzianko, Mikhail, 70 Rohosee Bay, 339 Romania, 79, 305 Romanov, Aleksandr, 319–320 Romanov, Aleksei, 320, 330 Romanov, Nikolai Aleksandrovich. See Nicholas II, Emperor Romanov, Sergei, 318, 320–321, 330 Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, 214, 292 Roosevelt, Theodore, 17, 20, 136, 139, 143, 154, 179, 212, 216, 231, 265, 283, 301–302, 314, 321–322, 338, 367, 405 Root, Elihu, 322–323, 369 Rosen, Roman, 8–9, 263, 302–303, 323–324, 446, 450, 451 Rossia, 69, 136, 152, 194, 278, 324, 395, 412, 468 Royal Navy, 17, 21, 51, 62, 64–66, 91, 97, 101, 110–111, 117, 129–130, 133, 137, 164, 168, 233, 236, 239, 254–255, 256, 280–281, 290, 306, 324–325, 352, 360–361, 362, 381, 382, 388, 407, 414, 463 Rozen, Roman Romanovich. See Rosen, Roman Romanovich Rozhestvenskii, Zinovii, 15, 57, 58, 91, 100, 109, 113, 115, 184, 185, 254, 279, 280, 326, 346, 356, 391–394, 470 Rudnev, Vsevolod, 85, 327–328, 407 Rurik, 69, 194, 278, 324, 328–329, 336, 395–396, 412, 433, 468 Russia, 329–333 passim Russian Imperial Army. See Army, Imperial Russian Russian Imperial Navy. See Navy, Imperial Russian Russian Orthodox Church, 262, 311 Russo–Japanese agreements, postwar (1907, 1910, 1912, 1916), 144, 304, 333–334 • 559 Russo–Japanese treaties, prewar (1855, 1858, 1875), 2, 335, 451–454, 454–456, 456–457, 457–459 Russo–Korean Treaty (1884), 335–336 Russo–Polish Campaign, 79 Russo–Turkish War, 33, 43, 67, 71, 73, 78, 99, 120, 121, 131, 132,135, 162, 165, 180, 181, 198, 210, 217, 238, 240, 259, 320, 326, 341, 356, 359, 381, 408, 436 Ryojun Kôisen. See Port Arthur, Siege of Ryojun Kôkô Heisoku Sakusen. See Port Arthur, Naval Blockade of Ryojun. See Port Arthur Ryôtô. See Liaotung Ryôyô Kaisen. See Liaoyang, Battle of Ryôyô. See Liaoyang Ryukyu Islands, 3 Ryurik. See Rurik Sado Maru, 336, 395–396 Sai Yen, 120, 337, 466, 467 Saigo, Takamori, 266, 276 Saigo, Tsugumichi, 128, 254, 275, 427 Saigon, 346, 209, 260, 346, 433 Saionji, Kimmochi, 179, 336–337 Saka kaisen. See Sha-Ho, Battle of Sakai, Toshihiko, 145, 195, 307, 337–338, 434 Sakhalin, 2, 18, 73, 107, 267, 300, 302–303, 323, 334, 335, 338, 339, 345, 391, 433 Sakhalin, conquest of, 18, 73, 107, 267, 302, 338, 339 Sakharov, Victor, 208, 339 Sakharov, Vladimir, 93 Sakurai, Tadayoshi, 339–340 560 • INDEX Salisbury, Lord (Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoyne-Cecil), 38, 56, 133, 202 Samejima, Kazunori, 340, 343 Samejima, Shigeo, 106, 340–341 Samsonov, Aleksandr, 316, 341, 371, 439 samurai, 2, 31, 42, 79–80, 125, 128, 153, 155, 160, 163, 169, 174, 197, 253, 266, 270, 361, 390, 401, 425, 427 Sandepu, Battle of, 14, 47, 72, 81, 93, 105, 135, 180, 221, 276, 342–343, 358, 372 Sanjû nenshiki haheijû. See Arisaka Type 30 rifle Sanjûgo nenshiki suiheijû. See Nambu Type 35 rifle Sanjûhachi nenshiki haheijû. See Arisaka Type 38 rifle Sanjûichi nenshiki sokusha Yahô. See Arisaka Type 31 gun Sasebo, 124, 231, 292–293, 340, 343, 351, 425, 466 Satô, Tetsutarô, 343–344 Satsuma Rebellion, 35, 125, 126, 141, 153, 160, 181, 182, 197, 241, 248, 263, 266, 268, 270, 273, 274, 276, 314, 341, 372, 374, 390, 402, 426 Sazonov, Egor, 286, 457, 458, 459 Schiff, Jacob, 172, 173, 344–345, 368, 415 Schultz, Maximilian, 267, 345 Sea of Japan, Battle of the. See Tsushima, Battle of Seaman, Louis, 229 Searchlights, 250 Second Fleet, Japanese. See Fleet, Japanese Second Second Japanese Army. See Army, Japanese Second Second Manchurian Army. See Manchurian, Second Army Second Siberian Army Corps. See Corps, Second Siberian Army Seiyûkai. See Rikken Seiyûkai (political party) Selivanov, Andrei, 94 Semenov, Vladimir, 102, 346 Sendai, 103, 307 Seoul, 5, 7, 11, 84, 181, 188, 191,212, 237, 312, 335, 346–347, 354, 407, 427 Serbia, 323, 388, 398 Sergeev, A. S., 359 Sevastopol, 114, 152, 257, 278, 298, 345, 347–348, 410, 467 Seven Professors Incident, 15, 171, 348 Seventeenth European Army Corps. See Corps, Seventeenth European Army Sha-ho, Battle of, 13, 33, 46, 47, 48, 72, 81, 99, 100, 104, 105, 131, 175, 197, 240, 244, 268, 270, 274, 276, 315, 358, 402, 436 Shakai Minshuto (political party), 195 Shanghai, 51, 99, 137, 149, 223, 260, 284, 317, 392, 433, 468 Shantung Peninsula 6, 376 Shenyang. See Mukden Shibayama, Yahachi 350–351 Shichihakase Jiken. See Seven Professors Incident Shikishima, 50, 118, 142, 231, 351–352, 393, 465, 466, 469 Shimamura, Hayao, 119, 352, 379, 469 Shimonoseki Treaty, 352–353 shimose gunpowder, 353 Shimose, Masachika, 353 Shtackelberg, Georgii. See Stakelberg, Georgii INDEX Siam, 36, 125, 259 Singapore 60, 235, 467 Sino–Japanese War, First, 4–5, 11, 30, 31, 40, 42, 86, 90, 102, 122, 125, 129, 141,146, 147, 152, 156, 160, 161, 163, 164, 170, 172, 174, 175, 177, 178, 179, 181, 182, 183, 191, 197, 199, 204, 219, 223, 224, 227, 230, 237, 242, 247, 248, 249, 251, 252, 254, 263, 266, 268, 269, 270, 273, 274, 276, 285, 290, 295, 308, 310, 312, 314, 337, 340, 343, 351, 352, 353–355, 364, 365, 368, 370, 371, 372, 374, 375, 378, 379, 382, 390, 402, 417, 426, 427, 429, 431 Sino–Russian Treaty (1896). See Li–Lobanov Agreement Sissoi Velikii, 59, 355, 394, 470 Sixteenth European Army Corps. See Corps, Sixteenth European Army Skrydlov, Nikolai, 32, 278–279, 356, 410 Skugarevskii, Arkadii, 92 Smelii, 345 Smirnov, Konstantin, 121,189,298, 356–357, 360 Smith and Wesson, 248 Smolensk, 121, 397 Sobolev, Leonid, 95, 349 socialist movements, 23 Society of Commoners. See Heiminsha Sone, Arasuke, 155, 170, 357 Sonnô-joi, 160, 163 South Africa, 140, 157 South Manchurian Railway, 70, 87, 89, 199, 200, 291, 303, 357 Soya Straits. See La Perouse Straits Spain, 242, 259, 404, 438 Spanish–American War, 30, 136, 213, 216, 227, 282, 300, 321, 405, 438 • 561 splendid isolation, 36, 133, 324 St. Petersburg, 3, 7, 9–10, 16, 26, 27, 28, 31, 34, 37, 44, 52, 53, 58, 70, 72, 74, 76, 77, 99, 103, 108, 110, 113, 114, 121, 126, 127, 132, 136, 146, 152, 155, 167, 180, 184, 185, 189, 195, 197, 200, 202–203, 204, 209, 211, 221, 226, 231, 235, 253, 258, 268, 271, 272, 274, 279, 281, 282, 283, 286, 287, 289, 299, 301, 307, 312, 318, 324, 327, 328, 329, 330, 333–334, 335, 339, 341, 346, 347, 355, 356, 357–358, 359, 360, 403, 411, 426, 437, 439, 443, 449, 452, 453, 455, 456, 457 Stakelberg, Georgii, 93, 270, 342, 349–350, 358, 372, 373–374 Stark, Oskar, 32, 217, 277–278, 299, 358–359, 404, 467 Steregushchii, 359, 467 Stoessel, Anatolii, 43, 95, 121, 162, 189, 199, 250, 295, 297–299, 356, 359–360, 414, 433 Stolypin, Petr, 116, 261, 332 submarines, 21, 30, 58, 66, 102, 137, 138, 235, 239, 279, 320, 325, 360–361, 383 Suda Bay, 121 Suematsu, Kenchô, 310, 361–362 Suez Canal, 23, 26, 27, 34, 59–60, 115, 127, 155, 235, 252, 255, 258, 280, 355, 362, 365, 397, 411, 437 Suma, 28, 120, 178, 241, 262, 352, 362–363, 379, 425, 466, 467, 470 Sun, Yat-sen, 23, 88, 345, 363 Sun, Yat-Sen. See Sun, Yixian Sung Dynasty, 218 Sunjong, 187, 192 Suribachi Yama, 207 Suvorov. See Kniaz Suvorov 562 • INDEX Suzuki, Kantarô, 363–364 Svietlana, 59, 69, 364–365, 470 Sweden, 57, 256, 259, 329 Switzerland, 29, 69, 203, 260, 387 swords, 298, 365, 444 Tachibana, Koichirô, 365–366 Tachibana, Shûta, 137, 366 tactics, military, 237, 366–367, 387 Tafangshen, 251 Taft, William, 20, 175, 179, 231, 367 Taiping Rebellion, 203 Tairo Dôshikai. See Anti-Russian Society Taisekihashi no Tatakai. See Tashihchiao, Battle of Taitzu River, 207, 342 Taiwan, 3, 29, 35, 86, 153, 168, 170, 177, 179, 186, 242, 266, 269, 402 Takachiho, 85, 119, 351, 368, 465, 467, 469 Takahashi, Korekiyo, 172, 344, 368–369, 415 Takahira, Kogorô, 197, 227, 302, 322, 369, 446, 450, 451 Takahira–Root Agreement, (1908) 322, 369, 406 Takasago, 89, 97, 175, 369–370, 465, 467 Taketomi, Kunikane, 120, 142, 370, 470 Takushan, 46, 106, 202 Talbot, 84–86 Talien. See Dalny Tanaka, Giichi, 370–371 Tang Dynasty, 371 Tangier, 59, 115, 242, 468 Tannenberg, Battle of, 83, 148, 316, 341, 371–372, 439 Tashihchiao, Battle of, 13, 47, 48, 93,93, 104, 105, 270, 358, 372, 436 Tatsumi, Naobumi, 145, 342, 372 Teheran Conference, 292 telephone, 250 Telissu, 13, 93, 372, 373–374 Telissu, Battle of, 13, 47, 93, 104, 105, 131, 240, 269, 270, 312, 341, 358, 372–374, 436 Tenth European Army Corps. See Corps, Tenth European Army Terauchi, Masatake, 155, 170, 192, 302, 374 Tetsurei. See Tieling Thailand. See Siam The First Sino–Japanese War. See Sino–Japanese War, the First Third Fleet, Japanese. See Fleet, Japanese Third Third Japanese Army. See Army, Japanese Third Third Manchurian Army. See Manchurian, Third Army Third Siberian Army Corps. See Corps, Third Siberian Army Three Power Intervention, 4–5, 70, 122, 129, 199, 209, 219, 255, 263, 290, 330, 353, 355, 375–376, 419, 420 Tibet, 37, 158, 376, 387 Tieling, 180, 247, 377 Tientsin Convention, 3, 190, 204 Tiger Hill, 422–423 Tiger Peninsula, 114 Tilak, B. G., 157 Tirpitz, Alfred von, 377, 418 Tochigijô no Tatakai. See Hsimucheng, Battle of Tôgô, Heihachirô, 11, 15, 30, 61, 118, 120, 153, 177, 231, 249, 256, 266, 280, 292–293, 293–294, 295, 327, 339, 363, 377–379, 391–394, 417, 432, 440, 465, 469 INDEX Tôgô, Masaji, 120, 339, 363, 379, 466, 470 Tokiwa, 193, 379–380, 465, 466, 469 Tokugawa Shogunate, 169, 230 Tokugawa, Ieyasu, 380 Tokuriji no tatakai. See Telissu, Battle of Tokuriji. See Telissu Tokyo, 5, 7–10, 18, 38–39, 83, 103, 108, 134, 135, 145, 147, 149, 167, 168, 174, 178, 182, 186, 188, 195, 208, 213, 214–215, 223, 224, 226, 230, 235, 237, 242, 248, 263, 246–265, 266, 269, 282, 284, 288, 302–303, 323, 335, 345, 348, 353, 363, 368, 369, 379, 380, 401, 412, 427, 429, 449 Tomii, Masaaki, 348 Tomizu, Hirondo, 348 Topornin, Dmitrii, 95 torpedo boats, 59, 64, 85, 101, 109, 118, 119, 120, 217, 254–256, 258, 278, 294, 339, 359, 361, 380–381, 382392, 394, 413, 443 torpedoes, 12, 21, 66, 84, 101, 110, 117, 293, 380, 381–383, 394, 417 Trans-Siberian Railway, 3, 5–7, 9, 11, 45, 55, 70, 72, 87, 89, 145, 198, 210, 226, 244, 260, 275, 277, 290, 300, 327, 330, 361, 383–385, 416, 420, 421 treaties. See diplomatic agreements and conferences Treaty of Paris, 73, 329 trench warfare, 67, 83, 96, 151, 158, 215, 366, 385–386 Tretyakov, Nikolai, 250–251, 400 Tripartite Intervention, the. See Three Power Intervention, the Triple Entente, 19, 123, 124, 201, 333, 386–387 Trotskii, Leon, 387–388 • 563 Troubridge, Ernest, 17, 236, 325, 388 Truman, Harry, 214 Trumpeldor, Joseph, 173, 388–389 Tsar Alexander I. See Aleksandr I, Tsar Tsar Alexander II. See Aleksandr II, Tsar Tsar Alexander III. See Aleksandr III, Tsar Tsar Nicholas II. See Nicholas II, Tsar Tserpitskii, Konstantin, 95 Tsessarevich, 76, 135, 278293, 317, 389–390, 411, 432–433, 467 Tsingtao, 87, 272, 309, 368, 418, 429 Tsuchiya, Mitsuharu, 106, 107, 390 Tsuda, Sanzô, 275, 390 Tsukamoto, Katsuyoshi, 104, 390–391 Tsushima Straits, attack on the, 69, 136, 147, 174, 324, 329, 336, 395–397 Tsushima Straits, 15, 57, 58, 61, 69, 136, 147, 174, 193, 267, 274, 279, 324, 329, 336, 391–392, 394–395, 412, 440 Tsushima, 119, 262, 267, 275, 346, 391, 396, 469 Tsushima, Battle of, 15, 17, 26, 27, 29, 30, 34, 50, 51, 52, 54, 57, 61, 65–66, 72, 76, 89, 90, 91, 101, 102, 107, 110, 113, 115, 118, 119, 120, 124, 127, 142, 153, 154, 155, 164, 166, 167, 168, 174, 175, 177, 185, 224, 230, 231, 241, 249, 252, 258, 264, 269, 271, 272, 274, 275, 279, 280, 281, 300–302, 320, 327, 336, 344, 346, 351, 352, 353, 355, 363, 364, 365, 368, 370, 378, 379, 387, 391–394, 395, 406, 411, 421, 425, 428, 434, 437, 440, 469 Turkestan. See Central Asia 564 • INDEX U-boats. See submarines Uchimura, Kanzô, 16, 145, 401 Uchiyama, Kojirô, 401 Ueda, Arisawa, 104, 350, 401–402 Uehara, Yûsaku, 402 Ugaki, Kazushige, 402–403 Ukhtomskii, Esper, 403 Ukhtomskii, Pavel, 278, 299,317, 389, 404, 409, 433, 467 Ulsa Treaty. See Protectorate Agreement Ulsan, Battle of (1904). See Korean Straits, Battle of United States, 5, 17, 20, 22, 30, 37, 80, 87, 90, 91, 101, 111, 126, 154, 171–172, 176, 178, 179–180, 197, 201, 213–214, 216, 226, 227, 236, 237, 2589, 364–265, 268, 281, 282, 300, 300–301, 309, 310, 314, 316, 321, 322, 323–324, 329, 343–344, 351, 361, 363, 366, 367, 369, 375, 399, 401, 404–406, 406, 408, 425, 427, 428,431, 439, 446, 449 Uryû, Sotokichi 11, 51, 84–85, 119, 293, 396, 406, 407, 465, 469 Ussanchû Kaisen. See Korean Straits, Battle of the Ussuri River, 329 Vickers, 225, 231, 428 Vicksburg, 85, 386 Victoria, Queen, 133, 260, 418 Vietnam, 23–24, 60, 122, 258, 272, 280, 284 Vigo, 59, 109, 184 Villiers, Frederic, 17, 409, 413 Viren, Robert, 299, 404, 409–410, 467 Visokaya Gora. See 203-Meter Hill Vitgeft, Vilgelm, 14, 193, 278, 296, 299, 389, 395, 404, 409, 410–411, 419, 431–432 Vladimir Monomakh, 280, 326, 394, 411, 470 Vladivostok Independent Cruiser Squadron, 69, 119, 120, 136, 151, 152, 193–194, 267, 277, 278, 324, 328, 336, 356, 391, 395, 412, 413, 433, 468 Vladivostok Squadron, 69, 151–152, 277, 316, 412, 468 Vladivostok, 2, 4, 6, 9–11, 14, 15, 18, 34, 43, 60–61, 68, 69, 70, 72, 76, 89, 113, 119, 120, 125, 136, 141, 151–152, 162, 167, 174, 193, 193–194, 260, 267, 275, 277–279, 281, 296, 302, 317, 324, 328, 336, 345, 356, 361, 366, 381, 383–385, 391, 392–394, 395, 403, 410, 411–412, 416–417, 431–433 Volkov, Vladimir, 94 Volunteer Fleet. See Fleet, Russian Volunteer voyage of the Baltic Fleet. See Baltic Fleet, the voyage of the Van Phong Bay, 280 Variag, 12, 51, 84–85, 97, 278, 327–328, 359, 406, 406–408, 467 Vel’aminov, Nikolai, 408 Vereshchagin, Vasilii, 283, 408–409 Waeber, Carl. See Weber, Karl Wantai, 132, 296–298, 461 war god. See Gunshin Warsaw, 44, 67, 79, 108, 190, 341, 438 Turkey, 24, 74, 120, 134, 276, 397–398, 418 Twain, Mark, 398–399 Twenty-One Demands, 22, 200, 399, 435 Type 26 revolver, 82, 263, 319, 400–401 INDEX warships. See armored cruisers; battleships; battlecruisers; blockships; cruisers; destroyers; gunvessels; hospital ships; minelayers; pre-dreadnought; protected cruisers; submarines; torpedo boats Washington Naval Arms Limitation Conference, 179, 323, 418 weaponry. See balloons; barbed wire, bayonets; Hotchkiss, machine gun; howitzer guns; infantry; Maxim, machine gun; mortars; mine, naval; minefields; mortars; Mosin M-1891 rifle; Murata Type 22 rifle; Nagant M-95 revolver; Nambu Type 35 rifle; poison gas; Putilov M-1903 75mm gun; radio telegraph; revolvers; rifles; searchlights; shimose gunpowder; Smith and Wesson revolver; swords; torpedoes; Type 26 revolver; Marconi wireless system Weber, Karl, 188 Weihaiwei, 30, 87, 91, 325, 337, 355, 414, 417–418 White Wolf Harbor, 298, 347 White, William, 249, 368 Whitehead, Robert, 382 Wiju, 422–423 Wilhelm II, Emperor. See William II, Emperor William II, Emperor, 4, 73, 129–130, 159, 242, 261 326, 418–419 Wilson, Woodrow, 367 Wiren, Robert Nikolaevich. See Viren, Robert Nikolaevich Witgeft, Wilhelm Karlovich. See Vitgeft, Vilgelm Karlovich Witte system, 421 Witte, Sergei, 7, 18, 68–69, 70–71, 94, 201, 209–210, 286, 302–303, • 565 323, 330, 332, 384–385, 403, 419–421, 446, 450, 451 workers, Soviet, 16 World War I, 17, 19–20, 30–31, 33, 34, 36, 37, 38, 40, 45, 48, 50, 51, 52, 54, 56, 57, 61, 62–63, 66, 67, 78–79, 81, 83, 96, 99, 100, 108, 112, 117, 123, 130, 132–133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 140, 148, 150–151, 158, 163, 165, 168, 172, 185, 190, 199, 202, 214,215, 216, 222, 223, 236–237, 239, 243, 261, 262, 279, 281, 283, 285, 289, 309, 314, 315–316, 322, 323, 324, 325, 332–333, 334, 341, 345, 358, 361, 366–367, 368, 371–372, 377, 381, 383, 385–386, 387, 388, 389, 399, 400, 402, 406, 407, 409, 410, 419, 429, 438 World War II, 39, 40, 41, 48, 52, 54, 58, 67, 80, 83, 97, 99, 137, 145, 147, 149, 183, 204, 214, 223, 226, 240, 243, 309, 313, 343, 344, 357, 381, 401, 403, 406, 428, 430, 431, 434 Yakumo, 27,102, 119, 379, 393, 421, 465, 466, 469 Yalta Conference, 292 Yalu River Timber Concessions, 7, 25, 68, 71, 424–425 Yalu River, 7, 11, 12, 38, 45, 68, 70, 192, 212, 218, 235, 354, 417, 422–423, 424, 436 Yalu River, Army of the. See Japanese Fifth Army Yalu, Battle of, 12, 38, 46, 95, 103, 104, 106, 146, 160, 174, 182, 192, 197, 212, 224, 240, 249, 263, 313, 343, 352, 367, 368, 378, 414, 424, 436 Yamada, Hikohachi, 119, 120, 425 566 • INDEX Yamada, Nobuyoshi, 107 Yamagata, Aritomo, 5, 36, 42, 128, 163, 179, 268, 285, 343, 425–426 Yamagata–Lobanov Agreement, 5, 191, 426–427 Yamamoto, Gonnohyôe, 102, 155, 170, 254, 343, 427–428 Yamamoto, Isoroku, 428 Yamanashi, Hanzô, 428–429 Yamashita, Gentarô, 429 Yashima, 34, 111, 118, 143, 165, 176, 213, 239, 264, 406, 430, 431, 465, 466 Yasukuni Shrine, 81 yellow peril, 4, 129, 154, 299, 310, 430–431 Yellow Sea, Battle of the, 14, 30, 50, 51, 65, 89, 98, 102, 114,124, 153, 175, 177, 193–194, 209, 224, 231, 252, 267, 278, 282, 287, 289, 296, 316, 317, 345, 346, 347, 364, 378, 379, 382, 389, 391, 393, 404, 409, 411, 421 Yenisei. See Enisei Yingkou. See Niuchuang Yokosuka, 28, 29, 124, 125, 142, 161, 164, 174, 176, 231, 253, 263, 269, 275, 340, 363, 370, 425, 429 Yonai, Mitsumasa, 433–434 Yosano, Akiko, 16, 434 Yosano, Tekken, 434 Yoshino, 97, 434–435, 365, 466 young turks, 398 Younghusband, Francis, 376 Yuan Dynasty, 218 Yuan, Shikai, 363, 365, 399, 435 Zabudskii, N. A., 312 Zarubaev, Nikolai, 93, 206–207, 349, 372, 435–436 Zasulich, Mikhail, 94, 151, 182, 422–423, 436–437 Zasulich, Vera, 29, 436 Zemstvo Movement, 286, 332, 437 Zhang Zuolin, 371 Zhemchug, 59, 113, 279, 437–438, 470 Zhilinskii, Yakov, 341, 438–439 Zilliacus, Konrad, 29, 116, 203, 439 Z-signal, 440 About the Author Professor Rotem Kowner serves as the chair of the Department of East Asian Studies at the University of Haifa, Israel, and teaches Japanese modern history and culture. After majoring in East Asian Studies and psychology at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, he received a scholarship from the Japanese Education Ministry and studied for six years in Japan. Upon receiving his Ph.D. at the University of Tsukuba, he continued in postdoctoral studies at the Center for East Asian Studies, Stanford University, and at the Hebrew University. In 2004 Kowner served as a co-organizer of an international conference, held in Israel, titled “The Russo–Japanese War and the 20th Century: An Assessment from a Centennial Perspective,” to commemorate the centenary of the outbreak of the Russo–Japanese War. Books on the war that he has written or edited include The Forgotten Campaign: The Russo–Japanese War and Its Legacy (2005); The Impact of the Russo–Japanese War (2006); and Rethinking the Russo–Japanese War: Centennial Perspectives (2006). He has also authored a number of articles on this topic, among them “Nicholas II and the Japanese Body: Images and Decision Making on the Eve of the Russo–Japanese War” (Psychohistory Review, 1998); “Becoming an Honorary Civilized Nation: The Russo–Japanese War and Western Perceptions of Japan” (Historian, 2001); and “Japan’s Enlightened War: Military Conduct and Attitudes to the Enemy during the Russo–Japanese War,” in The Japanese and Europe: Images and Perceptions, ed. Bert Edström (2000). In addition to his interest in this conflict, Kowner has written extensively on Japanese behavior, identity, and racial image in the West, and he is currently engaged in research on the Japanese reaction to Western racial and corporal conception during the Meiji era (1868–1912). The author genuinely values your feedback. For any comment, error, or update related to this book and the Russo–Japanese War, please contact: kowner@research.haifa.ac.il. 567

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