International Journal of Urban Sciences ISSN: 1226-5934 (Print) 2161-6779 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rjus20 Landscape design methodology as perceived through memory schema with user experience Suji Park, Hanbae Kim, Soyoung Han & Yoonku Kwon To cite this article: Suji Park, Hanbae Kim, Soyoung Han & Yoonku Kwon (2019): Landscape design methodology as perceived through memory schema with user experience, International Journal of Urban Sciences, DOI: 10.1080/12265934.2019.1651668 To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/12265934.2019.1651668 Published online: 20 Aug 2019. Submit your article to this journal View related articles View Crossmark data Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=rjus20 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SCIENCES https://doi.org/10.1080/12265934.2019.1651668 Landscape design methodology as perceived through memory schema with user experience Suji Parka, Hanbae Kimb, Soyoung Han c and Yoonku Kwon d a The Institute of Urban Science, University of Seoul, Seoul, South Korea; bDept. of Landscape Architecture, University of Seoul, Seoul, South Korea; cLandscape Architecture Program, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, USA; d Dept. of Landscape Architecture, Korea National College of Agriculture and Fisheries, Jeonju, South Korea ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY This study examined interrelationships between memory schema incised into landscapes pursued by designers and user’s responses by using multiple case study methods. We selected three cases according to three dimensions of landscape design method related to memory schema to examine each concept thoroughly; (1) Vietnam Veterans Memorial in USA as a context design, (2) Diana, Princess of Wales Memorial Fountain in England as a transformation design and, (3) Sutton Place which is imaginary design of Geoffery Jellicoe as an imagination design. Seonyudo Park in Korea has been selected to review with all the aspects of three type of memory schema. Our findings highlight that memory schema as a landscape design metaphor has been emphasizing the five human senses and internal experiences. Memories could be transformed into various forms and meanings in landscapes according to designers’ intentions. Furthermore, when one’s recalled experience is expressed through landscape, which is expressed through a schema, and the user who uses the landscape correlates to the memory. This study suggests that landscape design with a memory schema can serve as a creative design medium that applies the positive effects of design experience to landscapes with humans. Received 13 February 2019 Accepted 27 June 2019 KEYWORDS Experience; memory; schema; landscape design; design methodology 1. Introduction We recognize the place as beautiful when we are impressed beyond superficial aesthetics. These recognitions occur when a place emits an invisible meaning or mood and its appearance works in a more complex manner at a deeper level, that is often related to memory. In order to understand this mechanism further, it is necessary to understand the fundamental concept of ‘place’. John Updike1 mentioned the importance of an inner memory in relation to a place. As the places and memory are inevitably intertwined (Antrop, 2005; Cresswell, 2008), urban landscapes provide an appropriate environment to chart the changing flow of memory and its effect on places and people (Chang & Huang, 2005). Production of the place is one of the most fundamental ways to represent and organize the collective memory associated with the place. Memory is always associated with personal experience; however, personal psychology is inappropriate for explaining it. When CONTACT Yoonku Kwon forkyk@gmail.com © 2019 The Institute of Urban Sciences 2 S. PARK ET AL. individual memories derived from interviews are organized into ‘history’, there is always inconstant principle behind them (Kenny, 1999). Material characteristics of the place, memory can be imprinted in the landscape and left as a legitimated memory (Chang & Huang, 2005; Kenny, 1999). Place of memory is emerging as a new concept in the fields of history, sociology and neuroscience even urban studies. Especially, it is a useful insight to understand urban landscapes through micro perspectives (Park & Hong, 2016; Trigg, 2012). From the late nineteenth century to the mid-twentieth century, limitations of modernism in terms of focusing on visual form and technique led to the emergence of a new post-modernist trend in the 1970s. Postmodernism can be characterized by its focus on culture, people, location, and history (Harvey, 2012; Morley & Robins, 1995). The main issue in the modern landscape is that, during the Industrial Age, due to the uniform mass production of designs, which resulted from economic reasoning, local areas lost their unique identities. In order to find a place’s identity and authenticity, historical context and memory of the place is essential; thus, contemporary trends in landscape design tend to reject a standardized model application and find site-specific designs with the place. In this context, collective memory of space in certain point has been considered as one of the legitimated criteria for design development (Chang & Huang, 2005). The the purpose of this study is to explore how memory schema as a design metaphor can be applied to landscape design and how they interrelate to user experiences through a multiple case study. Most studies so far have focused on one side’s position as a user or designer and have not much studied interrelationships. Therefore, using the designer’s perspective, this study aims to highlight that as a new approach for landscape design and to examine its correlation with user reactions. One of the major contributions of this study is demonstrating the importance of the users’ subjective perception regarding memory schema carved into the landscape. This study contributed to the systematic way in which memory schema as the prototype of memory is projected into space in the process of landscape design. Meanwhile, there is a difference from other studies in that the case studies the interrelationships between memory schema and user experience. In order to observe the interrelation between memory schema and the user experience in the process of landscape design status, the characteristics that emerged from each perspective of the designer and the user were analysed first. In the design process, the formation and expression process of memory schema were analysed, and through analysis of the user’s existing reviews and in-depth interviews, the interrelation was systematized (Figure 1). Figure 1. Flowchart of research. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SCIENCES 3 2. Theoretical framework The previous researches related to this study can be largely divided into the following content: (1) studies on memory schema from an educational viewpoint; and (2) evaluations of user experience in specific spaces. We contend that memory schema as conceptualized by existing studies of landscape design methods lacks in-depth research on the subjective perception, which is paramount to understanding how spaces are used, understood, and experienced by its everyday end-user. There Several Korean researchers have tried to investigate the memory schema within architectural design context. They have studied schemas as the way of process conceptually in architectural design thinking (Kwak, 2006; Oh & Cho, 2007). However, these studies overlooked user reaction to the implemented space. Otherwise, there have been studies on the memories associated with a place over a long period of time, but none of these have applied memory schema directly. Studies on user experience were mainly conducted in the fields of architecture and space design. Lee (2007) and Kim and Lee (2006) studied how to apply experience to space. However, as experience falls under the variable category of emotions, they stated that it is necessary to organize experience more quantitatively and systematically while investigating the attributes of design. Recent international studies regarding experience have focused on architectural environment, and therefore, further studies on landscape design are required. Ergan, Shi, and Yu (2018) quantified human experience and provided the foundation for quantifying the characteristics of design. Rahimi, Levy, Boyd, and Dadkhahfard (2018) analysed human behaviour and the cognitive process and provided a model for increasing the quality of space experience in the architectural environment. 2.1. Memory schema The psychological term ‘schema’ has been used to explain various different knowledge structures in memory neuroscience literature (Ghosh & Gilboa, 2014). Schema, which is also referred to as previous knowledge, background knowledge, knowledge structure, scripts, and frames, refers to the entirety of human experience saved in human memory.2 Following the re-conceptualization by Bartlett, the concept of schema was pushed forward again within the development literature (Piaget & Cook, 1952). Here the adaptability of the schema has been described more formally in line with Bartlett’s ideas (Ghosh & Gilboa, 2014). The concept of schema has also been refined in perceptual literature, where extracting commonalities from a series of patterns plays a central role (Brown & Evans, 1969; Evans, 1967; Posner & Keele, 1968; Vernon, 1955). The term ‘schema’ has adopted some obvious meanings in past and present research, some of the key features of the structure seem to be consensus. Most definitions evolve around that schemas consist of units and their interrelationships. Therefore, it can be said that schema has a relevant network structure (Ghosh & Gilboa, 2014). According to Ghosh and Gilboa (2014), units of schema have been mentioned as elements (Anderson, 1984; Halford & Busby, 2007; Qiu, Li, Chen, & Zhang, 2008), events (Schank & Abelson, 2008), variables (Rumelhart & Ortony, 2017), schema nodes (Cooper, Shallice, & Farringdon, 1995), features (van Kesteren, Rijpkema, Ruiter, & Fernández, 2010), paired-associates (Tse et al., 2007, 2011; Wang, Tse, & Morris, 2012), and soon. 4 S. PARK ET AL. Memory schema, in other words, is the ‘prototype memory’. Memory schema proves that person experiences space through the process of perceiving and directly absorbing a lot of information, actively investigating environments, and interpreting the space in various ways. As memory is an invisible state of the human mind, there are several prerequisites for representing memory in a place; (1) memory elements are reproduced directly in landscape, (2) memory elements are transformed by the subjective aspect of the designer, or (3) surreal elements relate to memory elements are represented in space (Hwang, 2006; Draaisma, 2000; Oh and Cho, 2007). With this context, we categorized the characteristics of memory schema regarding place into three types respectively; (1) space reproducibility, (2) transmutability, and (3) surreality. The first type is the reproducibility of space, which refers to cases where their history has generally been damaged or transformed. The place is expressed when it reflects the characteristics of the past time period, surroundings and context, and sense of place. Such cases can be observed when historical buildings are restored or, on an urban scale, when part of a historical space incorporated into a sidewalk, thus gaining an industrial function and becoming a space for cafes and shops. The redevelopment of New York City’s High Line, a 1.45-mile-long (2.33 km) linear urban park or promenade constructed in the formerly abandoned remains of an elevated railway on Manhattan’s West Side, is a representative case for this type (Patrick, 2014). The second type is the transmutability of space. This generally involves personal memories and emotions, and furthermore, the space is expressed in the schema that gives meaning to philosophical or religious beliefs. It is characterized by the assignment of more value to representation rather than functionality. In particular, neo-expressionism in modern art takes themes from the prototype in collectivistic cultures, personal interests, and history and utilizes retro expressive techniques. The last type is the characteristic of surreality in space. It is the expression of utopian memories in subconscious dreams or fantasies, which are part of an individual’s imagination. The focus is on relaying a story. There are cases where a building or environment is created with a theme from a novel, legend, history, or fantasy story in mind. A good example is Dali’s Museum, which celebrates his life with his loving wife (Han & Park, 2007) (Table 1). Table 1. Memory schema characteristics (created by the researcher based on schema-related theories). Memory schema types Reproducibility of space Characteristics . . . Transmutability of space . . . Surreality of space . . . . Reenact the traces of latent memory Alignment of past and present experiences The subject’s active participation in awareness of the present and subconscious Development and transformation of past memories Transformational tendencies Intuitive memory + subjective participation = transformation (image) Display originating in desire Foreseeable tendencies Conformation of imagination Utopian, mystical space Displaying elements Historicity, temporality, sense of place, contextuality, association Philosophical concept, meaningfulness, conjecture (the subject’s psychological definition) Abstract, mystical, associative, utopia, shamanism INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SCIENCES 5 2.2. User experience characteristics In order to better understand how user’s experience of space, it is necessary to find a common ground in the definition of ‘user experience’ as it relates to user centred architectural design. User experience is subjective, holistic, situated and dynamic (Hassenzahl, 2010). It includes individual preferences, psychological responses, behaviours etc. (Kuliga, Thrash, Dalton, & Hölscher, 2015). ‘Experience of space’ is not passively perceived based on logical, physical, rational thinking; instead, it draws human participation by stimulating the human emotion of the user through ‘experience’. Shedroff defined experience design and stated that, though it is not largely different from perceiving experience, it has become newly perceived within the history of numerous past academic disciplines. Such user experience characteristics can be separated into three types based on the theories provided by Mitchell (1993) and Shedroff (2001). The first type is temporal experience. This involves experiencing a sense of place, which is characterized interpretations based on human life, society, culture, and history. The second type is the meaning/symbolic experience. This is an indirect experience and a meaningful characteristic of ideology. In symbolic media experiences based on the symbols, language, and characters that connect humans and objects, language and symbols become tools for indirect experience. The third type is the self-conscious experience. This can be explained through interactivity.3 Thus, this includes communication structures consisting of general networks between human-space, human-human, and space-environment (Lee, 2007). As a direct experience in a place, it is similar to experiential activity. Such direct experiences can receive meaning through performances in art and from visitors who take part in exhibitions; in this way, the memories involved in the space become much better connected to each other. As such, the three types of user experience functional characteristics can be summarized as follows (Table 2). 2.3. Three landscape design methods: memory schema and user experience In the process of design thinking, the adaptation of memory schema as one of the design metaphors has a significant influence. Park (2004) stated that memory is an act of collecting past experiences, and the memory of a particular space is the same as experiencing the space. Such characteristics invoke user memory in a space through association; this process is part of the human memory structure. Therefore, inner memory, which is rooted in temporality, historicity, and sense of place, is fused with the current experience Table 2. The functional characteristics of experience design. Type of user experience Temporal experience Meaning/symbolic experience Characteristic . . . . Societal culture, history, sense of place Context of the time period Ideology Symbols and meaning that are applicable to indirect experience Elements of expression historicity, temporal, sense of place, contextuality, characterized the time period Symbolism, meaningfulness, subjectivity, sensitivity Original source: Compiled by the researcher based on Architectural Design and Psychology of Human Behavior by Architectural Institute of Japan 2004. 6 S. PARK ET AL. Figure 2. The communication model of environmental activity. Original source: Appleyard (1979, p. 144). Figure 3. Framework of analysis. to create a new memory. Thus, the designer’s intended message in landscape design belongs to the same context as the experience of a consumer, the public user (Figure 2). Hence, in the process of landscape design, a memory regarding a place and the user’s experience are connected by a similar context. The interconnection between the two is recreated by each characteristic, and a co-creative landscape design methodology can be constructed through a feedback process. By systemizing the memory schema expressed through the interaction between the landscape design and the user’s experience. It can be separated into context design, transformation design, and imagination design (Figure 3). 3. Methods 3.1. Multiple case study This study adopted a case study research, which allows the exploration and understanding of complex issues (Zainal, 2007). It can be considered a robust research method particularly when a holistic, in-depth investigation is required. Yin (1994, p. 23) defines the case study research method ‘as an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context; when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident; and in which multiple sources of evidence are used’. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SCIENCES 7 In particular, this study produced rigorous results using multiple case designs that reinforced and supported previous results (McDonough, 1997). Also, in a desire to gain understanding of memory and lived experiences of space, a phenomenological study was selected as a method for this study. Rossman and Rallis (2012) explain how phenomenological studies are conducted with in-depth, intensive and, iterative interviews with a focus on telling their stories as a means of revealing their personal and social encounters (Rossman & Rallis, 2012, ps. 96-97). 3.2. Case selection Studies in landscapes prefer particular landscape cases that fit well the objectives of the investigator. The cases where the memory schema was adopted as the clear design logic were chosen for this study. We selected three cases according to three dimensions of landscape design method related to memory schema to examine each concept thoroughly; (1) Vietnam Veterans Memorial in USA as a context design, (2) Diana, Princess of Wales Memorial Fountain in England as a transformation design and, (3) Sutton Place which is imaginary design of Geoffery Jellicoe as an imagination design. Seonyudo Park in Korea has been selected to review with all the aspects of three type of memory schema. Context design, one of the analysis frameworks in this study means physical forms in which historical aspects are reproduced in landscapes. ‘Vietnam Memorial Park’ in the USA is one of the representative cases of borrowing context design, that reveals the historical facts of the defeated Vietnam War in the landscape. Transformation design is characterized by attributes that reflect personal aspects in the landscape. We selected ‘Diana, Princess of Wales Memorial Fountain’ in England as a representative transformation design case because the personal nature of Princess Diana was well represented in this space. Imaging design represents a way to express designers’ either an unconscious desire or a pre-experimental aspect. This is expressed in a surreal form in space. ‘Sutton Place’ represents human dreams for the future, and is both surrealistic and mythical themes. Therefore, it is most consistent with the image design characteristics. Sunyudo Park is a meaningful case of post-industrial design utilizing the memories of water purification plants in the past. It pursues invisible designs such as memory and time emphasized in this study, allowing users to experience the meaning of a place on their own. Thus, the intent presented in the framework of the analysis can be applied comprehensively with the user experience. 4. Results and discussion 4.1. Cases study of three landscape design methods 4.1.1. Context design Context design is expressed through historical facts and past memory. Maya Lin’s Vietnam Veterans Memorial, which was built in Washington, DC, is not typical memorial architecture; it stands tall, but it is sunken as if it has crawled into the ground. It is a building that flows downward and, thus, replicates the reality of America’s first lost war (Mock, 2003). 8 S. PARK ET AL. Table 3. An example of context design. Design/designer Vietnam veterans memorial (Maya Lin) Type of design Element and expression of memory schema Feedback based on user experience Context design Reproducibility of space Temporal experience, symbolic experience Memory of the lost war, reenacted as it was without distortion . Reenactment Schema→ Black memorial wall . . . Reminder of the past, considering the past from the victim’s perspective, symbolized the space The scenes of the past and present overlap within the reflective granite Those who touch the etched names of their loved ones shed tears along with the flowing water (Maya Lin, 2003). As such, in order to remind one of the brutal historical moments of the past war, rather than using pictures or an exhibition, the creator invokes the visitor’s own experience. Such a perception of an experience allows visitors to recall the past and helps to physically represent the visitor’s emotional space. This is represented in the form of a memory about a lost war that is recreated through the context of the past period and the current user’s experience (Table 3). 4.1.2. Transformation design Transformation design is generally expressed through a person’s memory or emotions. It accomplishes a sense of place by reacting to the atmosphere through specific emotions and demands and values the designer’s sensibility. The Diana, Princess of Wales Memorial Fountain’s main design motif, which is in the shape of an oval necklace, reflects Princess Diana’s elegant and easy-going personality (Amidon & Betsky, 2005). Before creating the design, Kathryn Gustafson, an American landscape architect, determined that the property earmarked for the construction would have to be peaceful enough to reflect time and space, abstractly represent Princes Diana’s quality to ‘touch the hearts of the people she meets’ and ‘her personality, which touched those around her’, and have the capacity to display an oval stream bed (50m×80 m) that utilized the flow of water. In order to emphasize familiarity, Gustafson emphasized the beauty of a simple space rather than a majestic one. The oval necklaceshaped fountain expresses Princess Diana’s personality and emotions in its space and provides an experience of simplicity and stability in the space for users (Amidon & Betsky, 2005) (Table 4). 4.1.3. Imagination design Imagination design involves expressing fantastical and utopian characteristics from human memory (corresponding to imagination experiences such as subconscious dreams and fantasies) in a space. Geoffrey Jellicoe’s design generally uses a variable schema and applies characteristics related to meaningfulness, fables, surrealism, and the subconscious to the schema. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SCIENCES 9 Table 4. An example of transformation design. Design/designer Element and expression of memory schema Type of design Diana, Princess of Wales Memorial Fountain (Kathryn Gustafson) Feedback based on user experience Transformation design Transmutability of space . Meaning/symbolic experience Conscious of Princess Diana’s easy-going personality, emotions → a necklace-shaped fountain . . Can sense Princess Diana’s energy Experience of a simple and stable space Jellicoe utilized an allegorical technique in the construction of Sutton Place, England. The detailed elements revealed in the design include a long terrace, long grounds, vistas, and water. His design for Sutton Place reflects the human dream of active creativity, continuation of life, and the future. In this sense, this garden is a surrealistic garden, as it reflects mythological themes commonly used in neo-figurative paintings. Jellicoe greatly admired the neo-figurative abstract artwork and applied elements from many of those works in the garden (The Korean Institute of Landscape Architecture, 2002) (Table 5). 4.2. Case study of Seonyudo Park The Seonyudo Park design transformed Korean landscape design in a major way. With its strategic plan to reuse a post-industrial site, this park is in line with contemporary culture and society’s preferences. The key to the design was to transform a portion of the remnants of the water filtration plant into a place for reminiscing about the past, and the main issue in the design was to transform the ‘time’ into a space rather than designing the space itself. Thus, Seonyudo Park deviated from the rigid concept of ‘central form’ and included abstract elements such as memory and time as motifs, which are expressed as restoring existing facilities. Table 5. An Example Imagination Design. Design/ Designer Sutton place (Geoffrey Jellicoe) Element and Expression of Memory Schema Type of Design Feedback based on user experience Imagination Design Surreality of space . Meaningfulness, fable, surrealism, subconscious Meaning/symbolic experience/selfconscious experience . Continuity of life, active creativity 10 S. PARK ET AL. And the designer encouraged the user to independently understand and embrace the meaning of the place, instead of merely creating the appearance and form of the space and unilaterally providing it to the user. The three characteristics of the design analysed in Seonyu Park are summarized as follows. Most design objects related to memory schema were certain context and time of place. The time of the industrial age was reproduced by the traces of the water purification plant, and it showed the time to flow through the ivy vine. From here, the user experiences a slow-flowing temporal experience through the memory and ivy of the water purification plant. The design of the conversion was expressed by the individual’s direct experience and semantics. These memory schemes are applied through transformations of space. The user experiences symbolic experiences through learning activities and graffiti of lovers. Imaginary design was expressed by desire and imagination. This represents the super realism of space through the heterogeneity of the green pillars. The user experiences a self-conscious experience through the experience like cosplay activity here. 4.2.1. In-depth interview with the designer In order to conduct a comparative analysis between the designer’s memory of the design process and the user’s memory, we conducted an in-depth direct interview with the designer of Seonyudo Park (Woo Gun Jung, SeoAhn Co.). The Interview held at the SeoAhn Design office from 2pm to 4pm on 7 March 2008. The interview questions were largely categorized into three groups based on adaptation of memory schema during the design process. The basis of the interview is to reflect the position of the designer, the position of the user, and the memory when designing. The contents are as follows. First, ‘What are the most important considerations from the designer’s perspective?’, ‘Second, what are aspects of user’s perspective?’, ‘Third, is the memory of the designer reflected?’. The most important consideration in designing the park is that the designer purposely tried not to assign functions or meaning to the space. This was because the properties of the natural materials were valued just as they were, and the passing of time was valued more than memory; it was thought that these elements would become the remembered experiences. In this way, the designer provided a temporal situation, which the Seonyudo space offers, and each of the users would have their own self-conscious experience. The second was with regard to the question of personal recollections or reflected memories. In fact, Seonyudo Park Designer personally enjoyed nineteenth century European Romantic landscape paintings, which provided him with a sense of the sublime; instead of reflecting his own personal recollection or experiences, that feeling and applied it directly to the space in the design process. The city’s park is always visible to the surrounding areas, but the location of Seonyudo itself is not visible from Seoul, as it is sunken into the ground. Therefore, the designer considered the space as an imaginative one that is distant from daily life – an escape; he used that as a focus and even assigned a specific beauty to each ruin. The third was with regard to the question of how the user’s perspective was considered. Jung considered the feeling of the space itself rather than the user’s perspective, created a INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SCIENCES 11 ‘deeply moved’ feeling, and suggested that the users would also feel the same way because they are also humans. Of course, when a designer designs a space, he or she must consider the user; however, users’ experience ranges are diverse and everyone experiences different feelings in different ways. Thus, Jung suggests that the designer is moved first, and when they apply that to their design, that feeling can be experienced by the users as well. 4.2.2. Diverse experiences from the user’s perspective An employee in his late 20s frequents the place because it is a great place to take photos. A woman in her 30s felt that time went by slowly when she was surrounded by the ivy that grew in the garden of green pillars. Here, the ivy reflects the temporal schema elements. One middle school student said that it was the best place to play, and a college student in her early 20s discovered that the true meaning of pavilion (Sunyujeong) could be found in the countless couples and the marks they had made on the pavilion, water’s edge, deck, rusty metals, and concrete walls, instead of in the representation of traditional design. Besides that, the park has played an important role in environmental education and Table 6. Comprehensive analysis. Type of design Context design Main characteristic Application of memory schema Reproducibility of space . . Transformation design Feedback based on user experience Situationality, contextuality, temporality Traces of the filtration plant (Industrial Age), recreation Temporality: Ivy Temporal experience . . Personal experience, meaningfulness Transmutability of space Symbolic experience . . Imagination design Time is passing slowly through the ivy Saving present memories in a photograph Educational activity Couples’ markings Desire, imagination, association Surreality of space . A heterogeneous collage of green pillars Self-conscious experience . Cosplay activity 12 S. PARK ET AL. various relevant fields exploring the area. Such enjoyment surpasses the simple visual enjoyment of seeing things and is thus an experiential element for the individual. Furthermore, a cosplay student said that she preferred this place because, although many people who visited for the first time reminisced because they could feel the traces of the past, when she saw the deteriorating concrete walls and pillars, all she could dream of was a future main character appearing in a sci-fi movie. In this way, the past memories in Seonyudo Park are expressed through the schema and recreated by people’s experience (Table 6). 5. Conclusion This study suggests new design metaphor for understanding and measuring how memory schema affects landscape design: how designer applied memory schema to design process and how it affects users experience. This study applied the schema remembered in a place into a space and analysed the process through which it is restructured as a visual work. Along with this, the interrelation between the user’s experience and the provision of a theoretical basis for the design thinking process has been examined. Approaching the multi-case study method, this study explored the important impacts of the memory and experience of a place. Overall, implications and limitations of this study are as follows. First, the tendency to place value on the memory of a place is a co-creative process with regard to a space and an important design metaphor. Using a cognitive map that was formed with this effect as its specific analytical framework for analysing case studies, this study identified and categorized characteristics as context design, transformation design, and imagination design. Second, designs that utilize memory schema with regard to landscape design appeared in various forms and meanings. Particularly, in the case of Maya Lin’s design and Seonyudo Park, with the passing of time, the user’s participation and experience helped to recreate those designs. Third, this study suggests that the main methods to realize these characteristics include beginning with imagination, utilizing both intuition and rationality, working within the context, forming the contextual effect based on imagination, suitably transforming the process in the context of modern events, and creating designs in accordance with inspirational ideas. Those who design space use experience in the process of thinking, and these interior elements have many difficulties in expressing subjective and ambitious. The contribution of this article is an effort to measure the user experience of places where memory schemas are applied as a way of developing design concepts. This can contribute to demonstration of the phenomenological method being emphasized in landscape design. This concept can be used as a way to reveal identity in landscape design. Upon this opportunity, the subject ‘experience’ should be studied variously and continuously. Eventually, various forms of follow-up studies on landscape design will have to be conducted to supplement this study’s quantitative aspect. Furthermore, based on this study, they should contribute towards actual landscape design. Notes 1. Just as there are many cases where people have genuine encounters, there are many familiar places. What kinds of places are these? These places are difficult to know and individualise. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SCIENCES 13 These places are often etched in the abyss of memories; whenever individual memories surface, they provide deep satisfaction. John Hoyer Updike (1932–2009) was an American novelist, poet, short-story writer, art critic, and literary critic (Tuan, 2007, p. 229). 2. The term schema originates directly from Bartlett (1932) psychological theory, and its important concepts were derived from Kant ’a priori scheme (Kant, 1963). The theory of schema introduced in Bartlett of schema work, Remembering, was defined as an active systemization of past experiences. This systemization is a process of representing specific examples that construct the general cognitive structure. 3. The most important part of design is the interaction undertaken by the user in order to understand design. From a philosophical perspective, it is the continual process of action and reaction between two mediums. An interaction consists of a cyclical process where the two elements listen, think, and speak (Crawford, 2005). Acknowledgements This paper is based on the thesis of the first author’s master’ s degree at the University of Seoul, Korea. Disclosure statement No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors. ORCID Soyoung Han Yoonku Kwon http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5609-9044 http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4278-4272 References Amidon, J., & Betsky, A. (2005). 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