The Origins
of Writing
IN MESOPOTAMIA
KLAUS WAGENSONNER
(YALE UNIVERSITY)
Yale Babylonian Collection
1930
Move to Sterling
Memorial Library
The collection rooms are
located on the third floor.
Enforced floors hold the
weight of the collection.
Yale Babylonian
Collection
The Yale Babylonian Collection at Sterling
Memorial Library in New Haven, CT, houses
about 45,000 objects. Most of these objects –
37,000 – are inscribed with cuneiform and date
from c. 3300 BCE to 100 CE. Other artifacts are
clay plaques, sculpture, and particularly cylinder
and stamp seals.
Since 2017, the Babylonian
Collection is officially
affiliated with the Peabody
Museum of Natural History.
Photo:
Carl Kaufman
c. 1250 BCE
c. 3300 BCE
c. 500 BCE
c. 2800 BCE
CUNEIFORM
THROUGHOUT TIME
MESOPOTAMIA
LANGUAGES
Two languages were in use in
Mesopotamia.
u
u
Sumerian: possibly already language of
the earliest texts from Uruk (3300–3000
BCE); fell out of use as spoken language
around 2000 BCE. Thereafter used as a
language of scholarship (literature, etc.).
u
Akkadian: a Semitic language that is
already attested in personal names
around 2600 BCE. Both Sumerian and
Akkadian were used side by side in
bilingual texts.
Cuneiform was also adapted to be used
for several other languages in the wider
area, e.g., Hittite, Hurrian, Elamite, etc.
CLAY
Composition of
alumina (Al2O3)
and silica (SiO2)
and (in
Mesopotamia)
10–20 % calcium
(CaO)
Clay particles are
less than 2 𝜇m
Plasticity allows a
clay to be shaped
and retain the
shape when an
amount of water is
added. In air
drying the water is
removed and the
shape is retained.
Rewetting can
restore plasticity.
Heating can
remove plasticity
permanently.
About the Invention of writing
(This) was his (i.e., Enmerkar’s) speech, (but) its meaning was
completely hidden.
The messenger could not repeat it – the matter was too
demanding.
Because the messenger could not repeat it – the matter was too
demanding,
The Lord of Kulaba (i.e., Uruk) patted some clay and put (his)
words on it like a seal.
Before that day, there had been no putting words on clay.
But now, under the sun of this day, it was indeed so:
The Lord of Kulaba put words on clay, it was indeed so.
(From Enmerkar and the Lord of Arata, lines 500–506)
CBS 10436
(University of
Pennsylvania
Museum)
Lexical
Literature
Economic
Historical
Votive
Letters
Display
3000
2750
2500
2250
MESOPOTAMIA
4000
EGYPT
CHINA
marks
on
pottery
2000
stamp seal
tokens
clay bulla
numerical
tablet
3500
1500
?
cylinder seal
Bamboo
strips
?
pottery
rock art
bronze
object
numeroideographic
tablet
3000
label
Protocuneiform
tablet
cylinder seal
jar
1000
oracle
bone
MESOPOTAMIA
4000
EGYPT
CHINA
marks
on
pottery
2000
stamp seal
tokens
clay bulla
numerical
tablet
3500
1500
?
cylinder seal
Bamboo
strips
?
pottery
rock art
bronze
object
numeroideographic
tablet
3000
label
Protocuneiform
tablet
cylinder seal
jar
1000
oracle
bone
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES
BEFORE WRITING
The earliest imprints of stamp seals date to
the mid-7th millennium BCE and can be found
on plaque-like objects made of gypsum,
which served as lids for containers.
First sealed clay objects date to c. 5300 BCE
(Tell Sabi Abyad, Syria). These examples
demonstrate that stamp seals had already
early on an economic function (e.g., to mark
ownership). Broken sealings were not
discarded but archived.
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES
BEFORE WRITING
Figural images on stamp seals start to appear
in the 5th millennium BCE.
Up until the emergence of the cylinder seal in
the mid-4th millennium, stamp seals
themselves may appear in zoomorphic
shapes.
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES
BEFORE WRITING
Cylinder seals
MESOPOTAMIA
URUK, CYLINDER SEALS
Cylinder Seals
u
are first attested roughly at
the mid-fourth millennium in
the Late Uruk Period (c.
3600–3150 BCE)
u
Advantage (opposed to
stamp seals) was that
impressing them allowed to
cover greater areas on the
clay support.
u
Early cylinder seals may
have been used by officeholders or those
representing institutions
“Pre-Writing”
Alabaster vase, so-called
Uruk vase, c. 3200–3000 BCE
(Iraq Museum)
Naqada II Decorated ware,
c. 3500–3200 BCE
(Metropolitan Museum)
MESOPOTAMIA
URUK, ORGANIZATION
Storehouse in temple
as basis for royal power
(“Priest-king” appearing before the temple)
Harvest
Natural resources (water,
flora, and fauna)
ART AND WRITING
Art objects of the mid- to late 4th millennium whose
iconography contains elements that can also be
found in early Proto-Cuneiform.
Cylinder seal
Uruk vase, Upper register, detail
“Uruk
Trough”,
detail
ART AND WRITING
INANA
NCBS 22
ART AND WRITING
Upper register: Zoomorphic
altar with pedestal above
depicting two individuals
(probably cult personnel)
EN
MESOPOTAMIA
Zählmarken, Zeichenträger und Siegelpraxis
21
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES BEFORE WRITING
tokens“ und „complex tokens“ – unterteilt. Die in ihrer Entstehung älteren „plain
Tokens (calculi, counters)
u
Small objects made of clay
(rarely stone), usually 1–2 cm
u
Attested as early as the 8th mill.
BCE and found in the
archaeological record until the
emergence of true writing
around 3300 BCE.
u
Their use in economic
transactions is undeniable.
tokens“ unterscheiden sich von „complex tokens“ dadurch, dass sie lediglich aus stereometrischen Grundformen – Kegel, Kugeln, Scheiben, Zylinder, Pyramiden [„tetrahedrons“], Ovoide, Quader, Dreieckskörper und Doppelkegel – bestehen (Abb. 5a–i).
Den Materialangaben nach zu urteilen war ein Großteil, wenn nicht die Mehrzahl
solcher Zählmarken aus ungebranntem Ton gefertigt, jedoch scheint im späten 4.
Jahrtausend v. Chr. die Zahl der „plain tokens“ aus gebranntem Ton zuzunehmen,
von denen einige auch Durchbohrungen aufweisen. Nach Beginn der Späten UrukZeit kommen während der 2. Hälfte des 4. Jahrtausends v. Chr. drei weitere Grundformen – „paraboloids“, „bent coils“, „ovals/rhomboids“ – und einige „naturalistic
forms“ – Gefäße, Geräte/Möbel, Tiere – hinzu (Abb. 5j–o). Außerdem finden jetzt
zahlreiche Varianten („subtypes“) der älteren wie jüngeren stereometrischen Grund-
Abb.
5: Undifferenzierte
älteren Typs (a–i); undifferenzierte (j–l), gegenständliche
Types
of tokensZählmarken
(Sauer des
und
(m–o)
und differenzierte
(p–u) 21,
Zählmarken
Sürenhagen
2016:
Abb.des
5) 4. Jahrtausends v. Chr. (nach Schmandt-Besserat
1992a).
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES
BEFORE WRITING
Zählmarken, Zeichenträger und Siegelpraxis
21
tokens“ und „complex tokens“ – unterteilt. Die in ihrer Entstehung älteren „plain
tokens“ unterscheiden sich von „complex tokens“ dadurch, dass sie lediglich aus stereometrischen Grundformen – Kegel, Kugeln, Scheiben, Zylinder, Pyramiden [„tetrahedrons“], Ovoide, Quader, Dreieckskörper und Doppelkegel – bestehen (Abb. 5a–i).
Den Materialangaben nach zu urteilen war ein Großteil, wenn nicht die Mehrzahl
solcher Zählmarken
aus ungebranntem Ton gefertigt, jedoch scheint im späten 4.
th
th
Jahrtausend v. Chr. die Zahl der „plain tokens“ aus gebranntem Ton zuzunehmen,
von denen einige auch Durchbohrungen aufweisen. Nach Beginn der Späten UrukZeit kommen während der 2. Hälfte des 4. Jahrtausends v. Chr. drei weitere Grundformen – „paraboloids“, „bent coils“, „ovals/rhomboids“ – und einige „naturalistic
forms“ – Gefäße, Geräte/Möbel, Tiere – hinzu (Abb. 5j–o). Außerdem finden jetzt
zahlreiche Varianten („subtypes“) der älteren wie jüngeren stereometrischen Grund-
Tokens (calculi, counters)
8 – 4 mill., predominantly plain tokens
showing geometric shapes (e.g., cones,
spheres, disks, cylinders, pyramids, etc.)
Abb. 5: Undifferenzierte Zählmarken des älteren Typs (a–i); undifferenzierte (j–l), gegenständliche
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES
BEFORE WRITING
Tokens (calculi, counters)
u
4th mill.: Plain types continue to
be attested. At the same time
more complex forms appear,
which depict objects more
naturalistically (e.g., vessels,
animals). Plain forms can also
bear decorations (e.g.,
hatching). Frequently they are
perforated.
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES
BEFORE WRITING
Tokens (calculi, counters)
u
Denise Schmandt-Besserat suggested
that tokens represent a true precursor
to script. Many of the shapes found in
the three-dimensional objects find
counterparts in “two-dimensional”
Proto-Cuneiform sign forms. Tokens
widely ceased to be used with the
emergence of writing.
u
Her results led to some criticism of her
methodology (e.g., incorporating
clay objects from grave contexts).
ABACUS
u
saĝĝa, “accountant”
u
umbisaĝ, “expert, scribe”
u
šid, “to count”
Compare Chinese
suan₄, “to figure, to
calculate, to compute”
tokens (Susa, Iran),
mid-fourth millennium
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES
BEFORE WRITING
Clay Balls (bullae)
u
First attested in early fourth millennium in
southern Mesopotamia (Uruk), northern
Mesopotamia/Syria (Habuba Kabira), and
also in Susa (Iran)
u
They served to control incoming and
outgoing movements of commodities.
u
Outer surface was covered with seal
impressions (occasionally also base of
cylinder seal), in order to prevent fraud.
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES
BEFORE WRITING
Clay Balls (bullae)
MESOPOTAMIA
SPREAD OF URUK CULTURE
Habuba Kabira
u
Walled “outpost” showing
typical features of Uruk period
architecture (niche design;
stone cone mosaics)
u
Tokens and sealed clay balls
(so-called bullae)
u
No writing proper.
MESOPOTAMIA
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES BEFORE WRITING
Clay Balls (bullae)
u
One example dating to much
later period (14th cent. BCE)
from the site of Nuzi contained
48 stones and was inscribed
with the following inscription:
“Stones (referring) to sheep and
goats: 21 ewes that have given birth,
6 female lambs, 8 full grown rams, 4
male lambs, 6 she-goats that have
given birth, 1 he-goat, [2] female
kids: Seal of Ziqarru.”
Compare
envelopes for
tablets (21st
cent. BCE)
MESOPOTAMIA
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES BEFORE WRITING
Clay Balls (bullae)
u
So far c. 220 bullae have been
published. Only 8 % show marks
on the outer surface, which can
be interpreted as numerical
notations.
u
These marks could have been
made by finger imprints, or imprints
by a (round) stylus, or even the
tokens themselves.
u
The total of imprints usually
corresponds with the content of the
bulla.
Susa (Sb 1940)
MESOPOTAMIA
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES BEFORE WRITING
Numerical tablets
MS 3144
u
Clay was flattened to tablets. The tablet was
impressed with similar marks compared to the
bullae and then sealed.
u
These tablets can be considered the direct
antecedents of true writing.
Susa (Sb 2313)
PROTO-CUNEIFORM
EVIDENCE
Currently c. 6,000 tablets and fragments
are known which represent the earliest
records (c. 3400–3200 BCE). Almost all
texts originate from Uruk.
u
u
Uruk
u
Layer IV: c. 1,790 texts
u
Layer III: c. 3,100 texts
Jemdet Nasr
u
u
Umma (?)
u
u
Layer III: c. 270 texts
Layer III: c. 410 texts
Larsa
u
Layer III: c. 25 texts
PROTO-CUNEIFORM
WHO INVENTED IT?
Uruk
Levels IV to VIII of the Eana-area date to
the Late Uruk Period. The monumental
architecture of the Uruk IV period was
deliberately destroyed and built over in the
subsequent Uruk III or Jemdet Nasr Period
(c. 3100–2900 BCE).
These destructions meant also that original
institutional connections of texts are widely
lost.
MESOPOTAMIA
NUMERO-IDEOGRAPHIC TABLETS
u
Attested at the beginning
of the Late Uruk Period.
u
Numerical notations are
now accompanied by
one or two ideographic
signs.
u
Similar developments in
southern Mesopotamia
and Susa (Iran) at the
same time.
GCBC 869
EMERGENCE OF WRITING
THE EARLIEST TEXTS
The earliest texts inscribed
with Proto-Cuneiform show
drawings or pictograms.
u
Early cuneiform attests
to roughly 1,900 signs;
c. 600 without variants
Cammarosano 2014:
66, Fig. 8 und 11
GCBC 869
NUMERICAL NOTATIONS
SEXAGESIMAL SYSTEM
In the archaic period (c. 3500–3000 BCE) scribes
used different writing tools to write numbers:
u
One tool with circular end
to write 1 and 10.
u
One tool with wider circular end
to write 60 and 3,600.
u
One stylus with sharp end
(occasionally to modify other number signs).
1
60
10
600
3,600
3000
2000
1000
36,000
0
MESOPOTAMIA
PROTO-CUNEIFORM, NUMERICAL SYSTEMS
Proto-Cuneiform used roughly a dozen
different numerical systems, depending
on what was counted. In total, there are
c. 60 different numerical signs.
u
Each system follows different bundling
rules.
u
(Nissen, Damerow, and Englund 1993: 26, Fig. 27)
NUMERICAL NOTATIONS
SEXAGESIMAL SYSTEM
In the archaic period (c. 3500–3000 BCE) scribes
used five different numerical systems and several
subsystems depending on what was counted. 60
different number signs are attested. Identical signs
can appear in different systems with different
numerical meanings.
E.g., the large dot means “3,600” single units in
Sexagesimal System S, “1,080” in the area
measurement system GAN2, and “60” in the
capacity system for grain products.
3000
2000
1000
0
EMERGENCE OF WRITING
THE EARLIEST TEXTS
19 donkeys, female
35 donkeys, male
The earliest texts inscribed
with Proto-Cuneiform show
drawings or pictograms.
u
Often these
pictograms depict only
parts of their referents
(pars-pro-toto).
u
Only in the earliest
stage signs were
incised into the clay
surface with a pointed
stylus.
1 calf, female
Obverse
Reverse
MS 3154
A SIMPLE EARLY ACCOUNT
25 nanny goats
5 goats (under the
responsibility of) EN KU6 RAD;
(Total:)
30 small cattle.
YBC 7056
+
=
PROTO-CUNEIFORM
Types of signs
u
numerical notations
u
pictographic signs
u
abstract signs
u
matrix signs
HEAD + RATION BOWL =
“ration, food, etc.”
BUNDLING
1
10
60
Discrete objects
and lengths
600
MATHEMATICS
Entries
Barley
SEXAGESIMAL SYSTEM
Entry
Emmer
ŠE System (capacity measures, mainly for barley;
subsystems for emmer and malt)
1
6
Grand
total
1
10
1
3
…
1
Total:
Barley
Total:
Emmer
REBUS PRINCIPLE
u
A word can be represented by a sign
that is phonetically identical or similar.
u
This works particularly well for languages
that have many words consisting of one
syllable such as Sumerian.
u
Use of rebus writings in such cases where
a word or concept cannot be rendered
with a pictogram.
(Photo: New York Public Library)
REBUS PRINCIPLE
Example: The sign SAR depicts plants that
grow out of the soil
u
SAR can be used to mark words for
garden plants and vegetables.
u
SAR is also used later to write the word for
“garden/orchard” (read kiri6) or the verb
”to grow” (read mu2).
u
SAR is also used to write the homonymous
verb sar, “to write.” Sumerian dub-sar is
the scribe, lit. someone who writes tablets.
SAR
PROTO-CUNEIFORM
TYPES OF SIGNS
Classifiers
u
signs that mark semantic categories.
GEŠ, wood
KU6, fish
SAR, plant
W 20327,2 (after: ATU 3, 23, Fig. 7)
PROTO-CUNEIFORM
TYPES OF SIGNS
Matrix signs (also frame signs or container signs)
u
signs that can incorporate other signs, which
provide semantic (and sometimes) phonetic
information.
PROTO-CUNEIFORM
TYPES OF SIGNS
BOX
u
Matrix signs
=
+
DUG
IGI.gunû
JAR
multicolored
~ make-up
DUG×IGI.gunû
PROTO-CUNEIFORM
TYPES OF SIGNS
Are 600–1,000 logographic signs enough to fully render a language?
PROTO-CUNEIFORM
TYPES OF SIGNS
Are 600–1,000 logographic signs enough to fully render a language?
NO
PROTO-CUNEIFORM
TYPES OF SIGNS
The early writing system was still
adaptable and new sign variants can
be introduced.
KALAMa
[...]
KALAMc
KALAMd
KALAMe
KALAMf
EMERGENCE OF WRITING
CHRONOLOGY BETWEEN URUK AND SUSA
Uruk
Susa
Sallaberger & Schrakamp 2015: 55, Table 16
MESOPOTAMIA
PROTO-CUNEIFORM
Reading convention:
5(N14) 4(N1) UDUa
GALa GAa GALa BAD3b
ZATU 628b KI NIa ZATU 821 GI4a
5(N14) 4(N1) Z575a
Z188a Z159a Z188a Z44b
Z628b Z289 Z393a Z821 Z212a
MS 2500
(Z(ATU) = Green, Zeichenliste der
Archaischen Texte aus Uruk, 1987)
Compare Proto-Elamite
[…] M263b1 3(N1)
M387 M263b1 1(N1)
(M = Meriggi, La scrittura proto-elamica, 1974)
Economic text from Susa (Sb 22285)
MESOPOTAMIA
PROTO-CUNEIFORM
Readings of
Proto-Cuneiform
signs are often
conventionalized
based on (much)
later evidence.
Uruk IV/III
(c. 3300–3000)
(Uruk)
ED IIIa
(c. 2600–2500)
(Fara, TAS)
ED IIIb
(c. 2350–2250)
(Ebla)
Old Babylonian
(c. 1900–1600)
(Ur)
BUtenû+BU+KALAM
gu2-ti-irki
ki-de3ki
„KITI“
(ZATU 299)
BUtenû+KALAM
MS 2436
MESOPOTAMIA
WORD LISTS
Approx. 12 % of all archaic texts are not
economic but contain lists of signs/words.
These word lists were standardized at the
end of the fourth millennium BCE and
copied entry by entry throughout the
next millennium.
Extract of list of titles and
professions (MS 2429/4)
Most of the early word lists are thematic,
i.e., the contents of each list follow
specific semantic categories: e.g., lists of
designations for fish; lists of items
associated with vessels; lists of cities; etc.
List of types of wood and
wooden objects (W
20327,2; after: ATU 3, 23,
Fig. 7)
MESOPOTAMIA
WORD LISTS THROUGHOUT THE THIRD MILLENNIUM
Many of the Uruk
word lists dating to
the 3300–3100 BCE
can be traced in
manuscripts
throughout the third
millennium until the
beginning of the
second millennium.
Jemdet
Nasr
Fara/TAS
13+ word lists
(Uruk)
Ebla
Kiš
Nippur
Ur
3000
2000
WORD LISTS
THE CASE OF POTS AND GARMENTS
Pots and Garments
With precursors already known from the
Uruk IV period, one of the most frequently
copied texts in the Uruk III period was a
list of types of pots and garments. A
typical feature of this list are the many
combinations of the sign DUG inscribed
with other signs (e.g., KU6).
In most cases these inscribed
graphemes represent the
content of a jar, but
occasionally refer also to its
purpose/ownership.
SF 64 (Fara, ED IIIa)
WORD LISTS
THE CASE OF POTS AND GARMENTS
MSVO 1, 244
WORD LISTS
THE CASE OF POTS AND GARMENTS
Beginning of the list
MS 2503/1
(P006070)
Te
hy
p
ra
g
lo
hy
p
ra
g
o
cr
A
WORD LISTS
THE CASE OF POTS AND GARMENTS
Transition between the section
on pots and textiles. This section
contains designations for soup
and cheese.
SF 64 (P010655)
/kas/
/kaš/
CBS 13922
i3 ku6
Wood
?
i-ku-u2-a
…
WORD LISTS
THE CASE OF POTS AND GARMENTS
Studying ancient lists
In the first half of the 2nd mill. BCE
ancient word lists that go back to the
end of the 4th mill. were still studied.
Apart from copies entries often were
also annotated indicating the
pronunciation of signs.
c. 2600 BCE
c. 1800 BCE
DUGxGEŠ
i3-ĝeši-mi-eš
DUGxDUB
i3-dub-bai-dub-ba
DUGxERIN2
i3-ĝešereni-re-en
DUGxKU6
i3-ku6i-ku-u2-a
Manuscript of the list
Pots from Fara, 26th
cent. BCE
Annotated version of the list Pots
(CBS 13922+; Photo: UPM)
WORD LISTS
THROUGHOUT THE CENTURIES
3200–3000 BCE
2600 BCE
2400 BCE
67
ĜIR2a UDUa
udu ĝir2
[ĝir2] udu ug7 |URUDA|
|Copper| dagger (for
killing) sheep
68
AN ĜIR2a UDUa
AN udu ĝir2
[AN] ĝir2 udu ug7 |URUDA|
AN |Copper| dagger
69
ĜIR2a AB2
ab2 ĝir2
ĝir2 ab2 ug7 |URUDA|
|Copper| dagger (for
killing) cow
70
ĜIR2a [AN AB2]
AN ab2 ĝir2
[…]
[AN |Copper| dagger
(for killing) cow]
71
ĜIR2a [KU6a]
ku6 ĝir2
[…]
[|Copper| dagger (for
filleting) fish]
72
ĜIR2a [AN] KU6a
AN ku6 ĝir2
[AN] ĝir2 ku6 dar |URUDA|
AN |Copper| dagger
(for killing) sheep
(for filleting) fish
STUDYING THE ANCIENT
MESOPOTAMIA
Studying ancient lists
c. 2600 BCE
c. 1800 BCE
šum2 kakkala(KU7) zubi
KU7ga-ga-le zubi-ke4zu-bu-ke4
šum2 tukul mes
šum2šum.sar GEŠtu-ku-ul mesme-eš3
gu2 ki-še3
gu2 ki
an-la2
am-la2
šum2 ĝešnimbar
šum2šum.sar ĝešnimbarge2-eš-ni-in-ba-ar-re
e2 zi
e2-zi-dae2-zi3-da
sumur an-la2
sumur2-še3su2-mu-ur2-še am3-la2am3-la2
Annotated version of the list Plants
(CBS 7094; Photo: UPM)
Lexical
Literature
Economic
Historical
Votive
Letters
Display
3000
2750
2500
2250