(2024) 12:170
Zaprzalska et al. Heritage Science
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40494-024-01282-6
Heritage Science
Open Access
RESEARCH
Revealing the unseen: advanced
digital imaging and spectroscopy
for the documentation and non-invasive
analysis of a 16th-century Cypriot composite
icon
Dorota Zaprzalska1*, Ropertos Georgiou2, Svetlana Gasanova2 and Nikolas Bakirtzis2
Abstract
The present study focuses on an icon known as the Panagia Valieriotissa at the Church of Saint Nicholas in Palodeia,
Cyprus. The icon is unusual as it contains two depictions of the Virgin Mary and Child. The main aim of this study
is to analyze the material characteristics of the icon and the relation of the two panels in order to determine if the icon
belongs to a distinct category of paintings known as “composite icons” – icons consisting of two separate panels,
one inserted into another. Icons of this unusual type, first described by Panayotis Vocotopoulos, appear to be quite
numerous on Cyprus and date mostly to the sixteenth century. Results show that the icon can be included within this
group, consequently enriching our knowledge on the materials, technologies, and techniques used in the creation
of composite icons. Driven by art historical inquiries, the study’s methodological approach was based on the integration of digital imaging techniques with non-invasive and non-destructive material analyses pursued by the Andreas
Pittas Art Characterization Laboratories (APAC Labs) of the Cyprus Institute. Spectroscopic techniques, digital
microscopy and advanced digital imaging methods produced a broad range of data which were analyzed and interpreted from both an art-historical and a conservation perspective towards a better understanding of the materiality
of the Palodeia icon and its subsequent history and use. The imaging and spectroscopic methods used provided new
information on the materials and techniques used by the painters as well as on later undocumented episodes of restoration or repainting. Overall, the results showed that the icon indeed consists of two separate icons – a larger panel
and a smaller, re-used icon inserted into the former. Moreover, some important distinctive features of the inset icon,
invisible to the naked eye, reveal its possible previous use and dating. The study brought to light the great potential
of non-invasive methods in the revealing and analysis of unknown aspects of composite icons, thus shedding light
on this fascinating phenomenon, but it can also interest a broader group of researchers into the exciting new possibilities as well as the limitations of non-invasive methods for the study of works of art and heritage objects.
Keywords Composite icons, Icon painting, Cyprus, Heritage science, Non-invasive methods, Art analysis
*Correspondence:
Dorota Zaprzalska
dorota.zaprzalska@doctoral.uj.edu.pl
Full list of author information is available at the end of the article
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Zaprzalska et al. Heritage Science
(2024) 12:170
Introduction
This paper presents the results of the study of an icon,
known as the Panagia Valieriotissa, that is still venerated
at the Church of Saint Nicholas in Palodeia, Cyprus. The
icon has an unusual form and iconography as it contains
two images of the Virgin Mary and Child, suggesting
that it could belong to the distinct group of “composite
icons.” This particular group concerns icons consisting of
two separate panels, often created at different times, one
inserted into another. The term was coined by Panagiotis
Vocotopoulos: the first scholar to note and describe this
particular type of Byzantine and post-Byzantine icons.
His article published in Greek and English attempted to
identify such icons from various regions, spanning a wide
timeframe from the thirteenth to the nineteenth centuries. The study remains a valuable contribution in the
study and cataloguing of composite icons, being considered the most important publication describing the phenomenon of the re-use of icons by inserting them into
larger panels [1, 2]. Cyprus preserves numerous examples
of this icon type [3, 4]. It is important to note that the icon
from Palodeia was not included in Vocotopolos’ study. In
fact, the icon’s current state of preservation makes it difficult to establish with certainty whether the object indeed
consists of two separate panels, one inserted into another,
or is rather a single panel with a painted niche – and thus
an imitation of the form. In such cases, a technical examination, especially with the application of X-ray radiography, is particularly useful, usually providing conclusive
results. For example, the technical study of a painting by
Botticelli, which accompanied the recent auction of the
artwork at Sotheby’s, included an older painting inserted
into the master panel and provided valuable information
about the practice of the re-use of paintings through their
insertion into larger panels[5]. Unfortunately, hitherto no
comparable analyses have been conducted on any composite icon, even though a broad range of technological
and analytical examinations of icons have been published
in recent years [6–15]. Among these approaches, noninvasive methods appear to be very effective in the study
of the materiality and technique of icon painting [16–20].
Within this methodological framework, the application
of non-invasive analytical techniques can help answer
the question as to whether the Palodeia icon is an example of a composite icon. The present research is the first
attempt to use these methods to study the materiality
of composite icons, focusing on an important but littleknown example, namely the icon of the Panagia Valieriotissa. Moreover, this study seeks to extend our knowledge
on the materials and techniques used for the creation
of the icon as well as its subsequent history, thus providing a better understanding of its unusual form and
iconography.
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Panagia Valieriotissa icon, its complex form
and history
The icon analyzed here is a 16th-century icon
(109.5 × 67 × 4 cm) from the village of Palodeia (Fig. 1),
located approximately ten kilometers northwest of the
port city of Limassol. It depicts the Virgin Mary and
Child and is accompanied by the inscription ΜΗ(ΤΗ)Ρ /
Θ(Ε)ΟΥ / Η ΒΑΛΗ/ΕΡΗΟΤΗ/ΣΣΑ, providing evidence
of the dedication to the Panagia Valieriotissa. A smaller
icon (23.5 × 16.5 cm), located in the center of the panel
(Fig. 2), also depicts the Virgin Mary with Christ on
her left arm. The icon’s current form and state of preservation reflects its history and previous uses. The icon
comes from the nearby Church of Panagia Valieriotissa
(or Vakeriotissa as the locals called it), but it was moved
at an unknown date to the Church of Saint Nicholas in
Palodeia and is presently located in the church’s iconostasis. The icon used to be carried in procession to its original location, the Church of Panagia Vakeriotissa, on the
Tuesday after Easter Sunday. Rupert Gunnis in his 1936
publication recalled this annual event: “The icon comes
from a ruined church about two miles distant, and on
the Tuesday after Easter the icon is taken back in solemn
procession to its original home” [21, p. 364]. Although
almost a century has passed since Gunnis’s report, the
tradition is still practiced by the local community (Fig. 3).
It must be noted, however, that the original church building was destroyed when the Polemidia dam was built in
the mid-1960s. Yet, the local tradition among the inhabitants of Palodeia was so strong that they built a replica
of the church in a location unaffected by the dam, which
now serves as the new destination for the annual procession. To further serve the procession’s practical needs,
the icon also retained its pole (Fig. 4).1 The icon was conserved by Kostas Gerasimou and Kyriakos Papaioakeim
in 1998. However, several years prior to conservation
work, it had been photographed by Sophocles Sophocleous on the 29th of June 1987. These photographs, now
part of the archive of the Centre of Natural and Cultural
Heritage in Nicosia, show that the hands of the Virgin
Mary were covered with metal revetments (Fig. 5), thus
confirming the strength of its cult and importance in
the last century. Gunnis also recorded that at the beginning of the twentieth century the icon was “famous all
over the countryside for the miracles it has worked […].
The icon is covered with silver eyes, for the Madonna is
famed far and wide for the cures of ophthalmia which she
makes.” [21, p. 364]. The silver eyes mentioned by Gunnis are preserved in the church (Fig. 6) and the icon is
1
It is in fact one of the rare processional icons of the region that has
retained its pole, for other examples, see: [24], pp. 166–167, no. 13 and p.
231, no. 198.
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(2024) 12:170
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Fig. 1 Icon of Panagia Valieriotissa, Church of Saint Nicholas in Palodeia, Cyprus. © APAC Labs / STARC, The Cyprus Institute. Photo: Ropertos
Georgiou. Reproduced by permission of the Holy Metropolis of Limassol
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Fig. 2 Icon of Panagia Valieriotissa (detail with the inset icon). © APAC Labs / STARC, The Cyprus Institute. Photo: Ropertos Georgiou. Reproduced
by permission of the Holy Metropolis of Limassol
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Fig. 3 Procession with the icon of Panagia Valieriotissa. Photo: Dorota Zaprzalska. Reproduced by permission of the Holy Metropolis of Limassol
still considered to possess healing and miracle-making
powers.2
Although the focus of a strong and wide cult and a
particularly interesting example in terms of its form and
iconography, the icon has remained virtually unknown
in scholarship with the exception, of course, of the work
2
This is not the only Cypriot composite icon that is believed to be miraculous. For another example, that is kept at the Monastery of Panagia Amirou,
surrounded by legends connecting it with the beginning of the monastery
and carried in processions, see [22].
of Sophocles Sophocleous, who included its detailed
description and photographic documentation in his doctoral study [23, vol. I, pp. 256–258; vol. II, pp. 211–212;
vol. III, pp. 129] as well as in his detailed work on icons
from the Metropolis of Limassol [24, pp. 207–208, nos.
128–129]. He analyzed the iconography and style of the
icon suggesting a 16th-century date based on similarities
with the style of an anonymous Cypriot painter active
in the third part of the sixteenth century, who had created a series of icons and frescos in the katholikon of the
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Page 6 of 32
with only the faces of the Virgin and Christ belonging to
the original painting [24, p. 207]. The rest of the original icon was either heavily cleaned or damaged, with no
conclusive evidence on the matter being provided by our
analysis. Sophocleous also suggested that the small icon
was repainted in the nineteenth and twentieth century,
but that it was a slightly earlier icon re-used and inserted
into the larger one. He tentatively dated the inset icon to
the sixteenth century [24, p. 208]. The present study aims
to further examine this icon and its physical and material
integration into the large panel with the use of technical
imaging and spectroscopy.
Fig. 4 Icon of Panagia Valieriotissa with the pole. © APAC Labs /
STARC, The Cyprus Institute. Photo: Ropertos Georgiou. Reproduced
by permission of the Holy Metropolis of Limassol
Monastery of Panagia Amasgou near the village of Monagri (1564) and in Monagri itself [25], especially with the
icon of the Virgin and Christ dated 1566 from the Church
of Saint George in Monagri (Fig. 7) [24, pp. 103, 206–207,
no. 127]. Sophocleous also suggested that the Panagia
Valieriotissa icon was repainted in the nineteenth century
Methods and instrumentation
The analyses described in this paper were carried out by
the team of the Andreas Pittas Art Characterization Laboratories (APAC Labs) of The Cyprus Institute. The analysis was driven by art historical inquiries which aimed
at deciphering the history and relation of the two panels
with one another, and was based on a non-invasive and
non-destructive approach integrating advanced digital
imaging methods and spectroscopic methods (Fig. 8).
Our approach draws from the expertise and methodological approach pursued at the Cyprus Institute and its
APAC Labs, based on the central premise that the effective use of science and technology enhances research
inquiries into art history and can therefore enrich our
understanding of the making, technique, and materiality of works of art [26–29, pp. 113–114]. Regarding the
particular icon from Palodeia, our methodology has been
able to confirm and expand art historical observations,
thus offering valuable conclusions in the study of this
important and unique icon. Since the icon is an object of
cult with great importance for the Palodeia community,
most of the documentation and analyses were conducted
in situ with the exclusive use of non-destructive methods. Thanks to the permission granted by the Metropolis
of Limassol, the icon was transported to the APAC Labs
premises in Nicosia in order to conduct additional analyses that were also limited to non-invasive methods. The
investigation started with the close observation of the
icon and basic digital photography to evaluate the surface condition and the state of preservation. At the next
step, advanced imaging techniques were applied in order
to provide preliminary suggestions of the pigments used
in the icon and later interventions. Preliminary results
guided the subsequent point analysis with digital microscopy and spectroscopic methods in order to identify and
trace the original materials and the history of restoration
and interventions which would then offer the basis for
the final art-historical interpretation of results and subsequent conclusions. The aforementioned methodological approach offered a wide range of data invisible to the
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Fig. 5 Icon of Panagia Valieriotissa prior to conservation work. © Centre of Natural and Cultural Heritage, Nicosia, Cyprus. Photo: Sophocles
Sophocleous (29.07.1987)
naked eye with regard to the painting materials, technologies and techniques used, as well as information on the
subsequent use and re-use of the icon and its modifications and restorations over time. Through utilizing scientific and technological advances in the broader field of art
characterization, the study of the history and provenance
of paintings after their original creation has emerged as
an exciting field of discovery and new knowledge within
art history. We are now able to closely study the history of
the preservation of paintings but also the choices related
to various repainting and retouching efforts through time
[30]. Such approaches are invaluable in efforts to study
the layered history of composite icons.
The digital imaging techniques employed in the study
of the Virgin Valieriotissa icon were exclusively nondestructive methods of examination, based on standardized methodologies and recommendations from the
American Institute for Conservation (AIC).
Concisely, the methods employed were (Fig. 8):
1. Visible light photography (VIS) was performed onsite, by using both Medium Format (MF) Phase One
546 DF + digital back at 60 megapixels spatial resolution and Canon EOS 5D Mark full-frame CMOS digital single-lens reflex camera at 21 megapixels. The
Schneider Kreuznach 80 mm f2.8 LS prime lens was
used for MF and the Canon EF 50 mm f/2.5 Com-
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Page 8 of 32
Fig. 6 Votive offerings given to the icon by the faithful. Photo: Dorota Zaprzalska
pact Macro for the DSLR camera body. This produced high-definition spatial resolution digital twins
with maximum precision for visible colors. True
color calibration was achieved under homogeneous
illumination of the painting which brings about little
contrast but renders the true colors. Two continuous
LED array light sources "full spectrum" with white
color temperature at 5500 k and Color Rendering
Index (CRI) 92. Both were filtered with diffuse filters
for TRUE color visible light photography. An x-rite
Macbeth color passport chart was used for white
balance calibration and natural realistic color rendition. The color space, which were the pixels acquired,
is the Adobe RGB (1998). This particular color space
has a wider gamut of colors than the standard used
of sRGB color space with a wider bit depth distribution of colors. In this particular acquisition, the captured wavelength was in the range of approximately
390–700 nm (nanometers), the visible part of the
spectrum. VIS images served as a reference point for
the rest of the methods to be employed.
2. Specular Oblique illumination/Raking Light illumination (RAK) was also performed on-site. The
Medium Format (MF) Phase One 546 DF + digital
back at 60 megapixels spatial resolution was used
for Specular Oblique and Raking Light photography
(RAK). The light source was a continuous Tungsten
Redhead dimmable 800W flood light, color temperature at 3200 k, Color Rendering Index (CRI) 92. An
x-rite Macbeth color passport chart was used for
white balance calibration and natural realistic color
rendition. Raking illumination and oblique illumination create spatial shadows and interreflections
among the spatial arrangement of the topography of
the painting, which emphasize deviations from surface planarity by positioning a single light source at
a low angle relative to the subject plane. This lighting
technique was used to document the surface topography of the icon, revealing information on its condition and the techniques used.
3. Ultraviolet fluorescence imaging (UVF). Ultraviolet
Fluorescence (UVF) is a method based on the irradiation of objects with UV light and the detection
of their fluorescent radiation response in the visible,
which offers the best results in completely dark surroundings. Therefore, in order to ensure the best
possible conditions, this was performed in the dark
room of the APAC Labs. A Canon EOS 5D Mark IV
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Page 9 of 32
Fig. 7 Icon of the Virgin Mary and Christ from the Church of Saint George in Monagri, Cyprus (121.7 × 80 × 2.7 cm). © Centre of Natural and Cultural
Heritage, Nicosia, Cyprus. Photo: Sophocles Sophocleous
full-frame CMOS digital single-lens reflex camera at
21 megapixels and a Canon EF 50 mm f/2.5 Compact
Macro lens with a Nite CC1 Filter (UV/IR cut filter)
was used. We performed UVF at the visible range of
the spectrum (390–700 nm) using a CC1 X-NITE filter mounted on the DSLR camera and two UV light
emission units (two Madatech UV lamps with color
temperature 5800 K, emission of light centered at
365 nm and color Rendering Index (CRI) 90), which
irradiate UVA centered at 365 nm of the electromagnetic spectrum. Due to the fact that the UV light
has a shorter wavelength than the visible light, the
method is used to analyze the fluorescence response
of surface materials, allowing the detection of recent
restorations and the presence of UV fluorescent
materials such as organic dyes, distribution of varnish, surface contamination, biological growth, and
mortars that might have been used.
4. Infrared reflected (IR) and Infrared False Color image
processing (IRFC). The infrared reflected images
were acquired in situ, with a Canon EOS 6D camera
with its IR filter removed, capable of capturing light
at approximately the range of 390 nm ~ 1000 nm; filtered along this range with selected band-pass wavelength filters (Edmund Optics filters), ranging from
700–1000 nm, 830–1000 nm and ~ 1000 nm. The IR
radiation is able to penetrate the paint layer and is
generally reflected by the ground layer underneath
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Page 10 of 32
Fig. 8 Methods used in the study. © APAC Labs / STARC, The Cyprus Institute. Image: Ropertos Georgiou
it, while showing the underdrawings in carbon-based
media that absorb IR radiation and appear dark [31].
Moreover, based on the IR images acquired in combination with the RGB channels of the VIS image
(in the VIS image the green channel substituted for
blue, the red channel was transferred and substituted
for the blue channel, while the channel from the IR
image was transferred to the red channel of the VIS
image), an image processing technique was used in
order to render an Infrared False Color Image (IRFC)
allowing for preliminary identification of hues and
the presence of illuminant metamerism. It was used
for the preliminary identification of pigments that
facilitated the XRF point analysis.
5. Infrared Reflectography (IRR) was performed at
the APAC Labs premises with the use of an OSIRIS
InGaAs Short Wave Infrared (SWIR) 16 megapixel
panoramic camera. This imaging method of analysis
is based on homogeneous irradiation of an object by
using tungsten halogen light emitters, and detection
of its radiation response with a suitable camera which
has an InGaAs sensor, sensitive to SWIR radiation
waves spanning from 900 to 1700 nm. The infrared
light is characterized by a longer wavelength than
the visible light and the infrared sensitivity of the
IR reflected method (700 nm ~ 1000 nm), allowing
it to penetrate layers of the icon deeper than the IR
method. This principle, as with the IR method, allows
the use of IRR for the visual analysis of preparatory
sketches and underdrawings, provided that they are
made with IR opaque materials (e.g. carbon-based).
6. Reflectance Transformation Imaging (RTI) was conducted on-site in Palodeia. RTI is a unique and intuitive visualization application of multi-light computational photography allowing the user to map dynamic
light properties on the digital surface [32]. The surfaces of the large icon and the inset icon were captured under preconfigured light source locations with
a fixed static Canon EOS 5D Mark full-frame CMOS
digital single-lens reflex camera at 21 megapixels, and
a portable electronic flash as a light source. Afterwards, images were digitally reassembled in order to
create an interactive file revealing macro topography
of the icon under the various lighting conditions. The
software used for RTI was EOS Canon Utility for the
capture and a red gloss hemispherical object (5 cm
diameter) was used to record and register specular highlights from the portable flash (highlight RTI
or H-RTI). Regarding the processing of the photographs, Adobe Bridge and Photoshop were used for
image enhancement and color calibration, LPtracker
for Polynomial Texture Maps in order to create a
light source position map, and a script developed by
Cultural Heritage Imaging (CHI) based on javascript
in order to fit light source positions (PTMFitter) onto
the image. This gave the possibility to investigate the
surface for craquelure, deformation of materials and
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support, the brushwork technique as well as for incisions.
7. X-Ray Radiography (XRR) was performed at the
American Medical Center in Nicosia. The system
was equipped with a DX-D 40G Agfa 35 × 45 cm
detector and operated at 45 kV and 56 mAh and at a
distance of 1.2 m.1. XRR can penetrate the upper layers, as well as the canvas preparationand the wooden
panel itself, thus revealing the structural elements of
the composite icon. Due to the icon’s considerable
dimensions, and mostly to its fragile wooden pole,
the method was limited to capturing separate images
of crucial parts, especially the area with the inset
icon.
8. Digital microscopy was performed with a Hirox
KH8700 digital microscope, equipped with a MXG2500REZ lens (35-2500x) and a handheld MX(G)2016Z lens (20-160x). This enabled us to study the
surface condition, brushwork, layers of overpainting, and restorations, as well as the original materials – techniques of paint application, pigment particles and pigment mixtures. Since only non-invasive
methods were allowed, this was limited to examining
the surface and no samples were obtained for Optical
Microscopy.
9. X-Ray Fluorescence analysis (XRF) was performed
with an Elio XRF spectrometer (Bruker), equipped
with a rhodium anode, operated in air at 30 kV, 100
μA, 1 mm spot size, 30 s acquisition time. The same
protocol was applied to various parts of the larger
icon, in order to obtain an overall characterization
of the icon, and finally on the inset icon. In total,
forty-nine spots were analyzed using the XRF spectrometer in order to analyze, map, and identify the
pigments present in various areas of the icons. Only
non-invasive methods were allowed, therefore no
samples were taken and any pigments or particles
were studied only on the surface of the color layers.
This provided data on the icon’s original materials
and the later modifications.
Results and discussion
Multispectral imaging results (IR, IRR and UVF) revealed
structural information on the icon which is not visible to
the naked eye. The ultra-violet image (Fig. 9) showed that
the whole icon had been thoroughly covered with varnish
sometime in the past century; most likely during the last
conservation effort. Due to this intervention, the contrast
in fluorescence measurements is far less obvious, thus
not allowing the detection of retouched areas. More data
were obtained from the infrared images (Fig. 10) that
highlight under-drawings and changes in the painting
layer compositions allowing for their precise detection.
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This study helped to understand which parts of the icon
are original and which are later by tracing repainting and
retouching. Resulting data from various methods complemented each other offering an overview of the icon’s
history of painting interventions. The stylistic analysis
and comparison with images taken before the icons’ conservation (Fig. 5 and 11) suggest that the inserted icon
(Fig. 2 and 11) had been extensively repainted, which
could be an indication of heavy use and veneration. On
the large icon, no traces of the previous painting layer
are visible on the IR image, supporting the hypothesis
of Sophocleous that the large icon panel had been thoroughly cleaned before it was repainted. The only areas
of the garments that appear to be original in the analysis
are an area near Christ’s right shoulder (Fig. 12) and the
maphorion of the Virgin, although its upper part bears
traces of repaintings, visible on the infrared reflectogram
(Fig. 10). The XRR image of this area (Fig. 13) shows the
polygonal, irregular contour of the maphorion as well as
the head of Christ, perhaps marking the gold under the
painting layer. It should be noted that the faces themselves are recorded on the XRR image with clarity, confirming that they have been left mostly untouched. No
major changes in this area were recorded by the infrared
reflectogram (Fig. 10), except for a vertical line on her
face that was repaired, most likely after this part cracked
because this is exactly the point where two wooden panels constituting the large panel meet, as well as the part
near the ear and the neck of the Virgin. This particular
intervention was most likely due to a crack on this part
caused by a tree ring, visible in the X-ray image (Fig. 13).
This detail is also visible with the application of the RTI
technique (Fig. 14) – the visible tree ring most likely
caused paint loss or cracks in this particular area with
clearly visible repainting.
The acquired UV, IR, IRR and IRFC images facilitated
the selection of spots (Fig. 15 and 16) for the subsequent
microscopy investigation and XRF analysis used for the
identification of pigments in both icons. The presence
of lithopone is a clear marker of overpainting, since this
white pigment, which is a mixture of zinc sulphide (ZnS)
and barium sulfate (BaSO4), was in use in the second half
of the nineteenth century and was first produced on a
large scale in 1874 [33, p. 242]. Thus, its detection constitutes a terminus post quem for numerous areas of the
large icon – the blue robe of the Virgin and the green
inner part of her maphorion together with the white dots
decorating its edge as well as the green-sleeved tunic of
the figure of Christ and the blue band around his waist.
The hands of the Virgin were painted in a mixture of
lithopone and ochre (iron oxide Fe2O3 and clay), but the
pigments used in the faces of the Virgin and Christ on
the large icon were identified by XRF analysis to be of
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Fig. 9 Icon of Panagia Valieriotissa (ultra-violet image). © APAC Labs / STARC, The Cyprus Institute. Photo: Ropertos Georgiou
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Fig. 10 Icon of Panagia Valieriotissa (infrared image). © APAC Labs / STARC, The Cyprus Institute. Photo: Ropertos Georgiou
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Fig. 11 Icon of Panagia Valieriotissa prior to conservation work (detail with the inset icon). © Centre of Natural and Cultural Heritage, Nicosia,
Cyprus. Photo: Sophocles Sophocleous (29.07.1987)
a completely different nature – a mixture of ochre, cinnabar (HgS) and lead white (2PbCO3·Pb(OH)2), another
white pigment that was in use long before the discovery
of lithopone [33, pp. 233–235; 34, p. 69]. Such a pigment mixture is consistent with the palette used by artists in the sixteenth century. The comparison of the XRF
spectra taken from these two spots are shown in Fig. 17.
Results support the suggestion that the faces of the two
figures probably constitute an original part of the icon,
while the hands of the Virgin, which had previously also
been covered with metal revetments, were repainted. It
cannot be excluded that this was done after the removal
of the revetments, i.e. in the framework of the conservation intervention.
Establishing the nature of the brown color on the Virgin
Mary’s maphorion seen in the large icon was more challenging because some areas appear to be painted with
brown ochre and some spots reveal the presence of cinnabar, visible also in microscopic images (Fig. 18). Comparison with the icon’s archival photographs depicting
the icon before its latest conservation and the infrared
image (Fig. 19) indicates that some parts that now appear
brown were previously covered with red pigment (the
XRF analysis (point 44) identified traces of this pigment
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Fig. 12 Garments next to the right shoulder of Christ. From the top: Visualization of the icon detail from the RTI viewer in Visible Diffuse Gain
rendering mode, in Specular Enhancement mode, and Normal map/ Depth map mode. © APAC Labs / STARC, The Cyprus Institute. Image: Ropertos
Georgiou
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Fig. 13 Icon of Panagia Valieriotissa (detail of the faces on the large panel – XRR image). © APAC Labs / STARC, The Cyprus Institute
as cinnabar). Thus, some brown areas were created during the last conservation and can be clearly identified in
the infrared image. The red pigment has been identified
as cinnabar, a pigment also sometimes called vermilion [33, pp. 105–106, 386–387; 35]; that has been in use
since antiquity and continues to be used to the present
day. Therefore, it is not a marker and cannot be treated
as an indication to date parts of the icon, even though it
was frequently employed by post-Byzantine icon painters [36, p. 154]. Nonetheless, analysis of the style of the
Virgin’s garments, with the richly bundled folds of the
drapery on the shoulders, decorated rims of the textile,
and sleeves, clearly indicated that this part was painted
later, perhaps in the nineteenth century. The exact same
pigment was used for the inscription ΜΗ(ΤΗ)Ρ Θ(Ε)
ΟΥ Η ΒΑΛΗΕΡΗΟΤΗΣΣΑ and it is very likely that they
were created at the same time. In this area cracks in the
paint exposed the underlying layers and revealed, under
the microscope, the stratigraphy of the icon – namely, a
preparation layer consisting of calcium-containing white,
red bole, gold and a layer of cinnabar employed for the
inscriptions (Fig. 20).
A visual examination of the surface of the smaller
icon suggested that it had been heavily repainted, with
particular attention given to the area of the faces of the
depicted figures, which seemed to be heavily and badly
overpainted. Unfortunately, no details of the original
painting are visible, at least in the IR image (Fig. 21),
which certainly raises questions as to whether the small
icon’s age and cult significance could have been the main
reasons for its elaborate integration into a larger panel.
Microscopic imaging illustrated the complex stratigraphy
of the Virgin’s maphorion which was repainted on more
than one occasions (Fig. 22). Retouchings were indicated by the presence of lithopone in the flesh tones of
the faces and garments. Spots consisting only of brown
ochre and lead white can be considered to be from the
original painting layer since these are naturally occurring pigments. The IRFC image of the inserted icon highlighted two colors on the left sleeve of Christ’s tunic thus
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Fig. 14 The area repainted over a tree ring. From the top: Visualization of the icon detail from the RTI viewer in Visible Diffuse Gain rendering mode,
in Specular Enhancement mode, and Normal map/ Depth map mode. © APAC Labs / STARC, The Cyprus Institute. Photo: Ropertos Georgiou
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Fig. 15 XRF spots (large icon). © APAC Labs / STARC, The Cyprus Institute. Image: Svetlana Gasanova
suggesting the use of different pigments (Fig. 23). In the
visible light image the whole area is blue, but with the
application of the IRFC technique some parts remain
blue, similarly to the frame around the icon that is green
in the visible light image, but appears as blue in the IRFC
image. On the other hand, some parts of the same area
turned red. A number of pigments appear in IRFC as
various shades of red, such as indigo, cobalt blue, phthalocyanine blue and ultramarine [37, p. 45]. Due to the
detection of cobalt with XRF analysis, it can be suggested
that this is cobalt blue – a pigment discovered at the end
of the eighteenth century and further developed and
circulated commercially by the beginning of the nineteenth century [33, p. 112–113]. XRF revealed that the
same material was used in parts of Christ’s garments in
the large icon which are blue in visible light but appear
red in IRFC (Fig. 24), thus suggesting that they were
painted with the same material. Additionally, examination by XRF confirmed that copper green (e.g. malachite)
combined with lithopone was used for the green areas (a
small part of the Virgin’s maphorion and the frame surrounding the inserted icon) and traced in the part of the
blue tunic of Christ – the exact spot that remained blue
in the IRFC.
The orange frame and red letters ICXC of the small
icon were also examined by XRF analysis. The frame
and the inscription were painted with a mixture of red
ochre and lead white and restored heavily with chrome
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Fig. 16 XRF spots (small icon). © APAC Labs / STARC, The Cyprus Institute. Image: Svetlana Gasanova
Fig. 17 Comparison of the XRF spectra (hands and faces of the large icon). © APAC Labs / STARC, The Cyprus Institute. Image: Svetlana Gasanova
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Fig. 18 Microscopic image (maphorion of the Virgin – large icon). © APAC Labs / STARC, The Cyprus Institute. Image: Svetlana Gasanova
red (PbO∙PbCrO4) and titanium white (TiO2). The detection of titanium white in both of them strongly suggests that these elements were added in the twentieth
century, since this white pigment was mass-produced
for the first time at the beginning of the twentieth century [33, p. 366; 38, pp. 296–297]. It was not possible to
trace the letters on the image taken before the conservation due to the bad state of preservation (Fig. 11). It was
clear, however, to observe and conclude that Christ’s halo
bears some changes in its execution. The comparison of
the two images (Fig. 2 and 11) showed a visible distinction between them, thus permitting the suggestion that
the letters IC XC were added during the conservation of
the work. During this intervention, the restorers decided
to considerably change the layout and representation
of Christ’s halo. This particular area of the painting was
carefully studied under a microscope, but only traces of
the original inscription were identified (Fig. 25).
The back of the icon was also examined (Fig. 26).
Originally, three transverse battens had been fixed with
nails onto the icon’s rear side, with the lower batten now
missing. The back was secured at a later date with a piece
of fabric on a white preparation layer containing calcium
white, but also zinc white (ZnO) that was not widely used
as a pigment until the end of the eighteenth century with
its widespread use starting after the 1840s [33, p. 406;
39, p. 171]. We can therefore suggest that the back of the
icon was decorated in the nineteenth century. The red
color on the pole of the icon was identified as containing
red lead (Pb3O4), that can be found as a mineral (minium)
and its synthetic analogue was used for pigmenting purposes from ancient times [33, p. 264; 40, 41], so it is not a
marker and does not provide any clear dating indication.
Revealing the unseen – previous use of the inset
icon and its dating
When performing the icon’s technical photographic documentation, special attention was given to the inserted
small icon. The raking-light photo (Fig. 27) and the RTI
show that there are no cracks between the two icons.
The importance of this step of the digital documentation process is evident when images are compared to
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Fig. 19 Repainted areas of the maphorion of the Virgin (VIS image, IR image). © APAC Labs / STARC, The Cyprus Institute. Photo: Ropertos Georgiou
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Fig. 20 Microscopic image (inscription, letter A – large icon). © APAC Labs / STARC, The Cyprus Institute. Image: Svetlana Gasanova
archival photographs taken before the object’s restoration (Fig. 11), where it was difficult to determine if the
dark outline around the icon is the result of shading or
empty space between two panels. Even though Sophocleous did suggest that the icon consisted of two panels,3
the work’s state of preservation did not allow a conclusive assessment of whether it comprised of two panels or
if it was a single icon with a carved cavity imitating the
form of a composite icon. In such cases, X-Ray Radiography can allow the acquisition of sub-surface information
on the internal structure of an icon [42]. The XRR image
(Fig. 28) of this part shows a white area around the inset
icon, but it is hard to speculate on its nature – it could
be a material exhibiting high X-ray absorption, a heavy
metal, or a very thick layer of material used to insert and
secure the small icon into the larger panel. Nevertheless,
the X-Ray radiograph clearly confirms that we are dealing
3
In his description (dated 29/6/1987), Sopheclous clearly mentioned: “La
petite icône est indépendante et insérée dans une cavité ménagée au centre
de la grande icône”, see: [20], Vol. II: Fiches Analytiques, p. 211.
with two separate icons inserted one into another. The
X-ray image displays the nails hammered into both
icons. A nail attached to the upper part of the inset icon
is a direct confirmation of the existence of the separate,
re-used small icon, but details of particular interest are
two metal elements arranged symmetrically on the right
edge of the inset icon. These elements can be interpreted
as metal parts characteristic for attaching wings to icons
[42, p. 245, fig. 6] and, therefore, suggest that the inset
icon had been a part of a polyptych, probably a diptych
prior to the act of insertion. It must also be noted that
the possibility of a triptych cannot be discarded based
on indications for connections only on one side, as the
small icon might have been one of the two end pieces,
so this question remains open. Nevertheless, it is clear
that something used to be attached to the right side of
the icon. Due to its small dimensions, the inset icon was
most likely intended for personal use and was originally
used in private spaces, rather than in public ecclesiastical contexts. The small dimensions and private use bring
to mind a group of Marian icons distinct for their mixed
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Fig. 21 IR image (inset icon). © APAC Labs / STARC, The Cyprus Institute. Photo: Ropertos Georgiou
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Fig. 22 Microscopic image (maphorion of the Virgin – inset icon). © APAC Labs / STARC, The Cyprus Institute. Image: Svetlana Gasanova
stylistic character, combining Italian and Palaiologan
features, known in earlier scholarship under the label of
the “Adriatic school” that have been revised and reinterpreted by Michele Bacci, who has provided a systematic
analysis of such works [43–47, esp. pp. 73–96]. Icons
of this type date mostly from ca. 1350 to the end of the
fourteenth century. They circulated widely in the Mediterranean and, although far from being homogenous in
style, share distinctive features, such as combining the
Palaiologan modeling technique with the taste for rich
ornaments imitating luxurious textiles and Gothicizing
vestments typical of Venetian Trecento artists [44, pp.
145–146]. Unfortunately, these stylistic features cannot
be observed in the case of Panagia Valieriotissa, due to
the later repainting, and none of the published examples
shares the exact iconography of the Palodeia icon. It is
possible, however, to notice other parallel details with
the icons of the above-mentioned group as well as to
underline the timeframe for the proliferation of the use of
such small icons for private use. Most of the icons of the
aforementioned group are small rectangular panels, often
parts of diptychs or triptychs meant for private or domestic piety. To the best of our knowledge, no technical
analysis including X-ray radiography, that could serve as
a potential comparison of the metal elements, has been
conducted for any of these artworks, but it is possible to
still observe in some cases metal rings, which are residual parts once serving for the attachment of wings, at the
exact position of the metal elements of the Palodeia icon
[45, figs 1–5]. In many cases, the Virgin Mary and Child
are depicted within an inscribed arch of a very similar
form to the Palodeia icon [44, fig. 2, S3, b, γ, fig. 3, b4, z,
fig. 4, A, B2, C, c, fig. 5, β; 47, figs 28, 33 (= 39, 52), 41, 43,
45, 57]. It is possible that the inset of the Palodeia icon
belongs to this particular group, and therefore could be
dated to the second half of the fourteenth century, but we
must acknowledge the limitations of non-invasive analysis, so any suggestion must be considered tentative. Nevertheless, the analytical results clearly show that the inset
is a re-used icon, most likely originally intended for private use. If so, the act of insertion into a larger icon would
signpost its transfer from individual devotion and private
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Fig. 23 IRFC image of the inset icon. © APAC Labs / STARC, The Cyprus Institute. Image: Ropertos Georgiou
use to the public sphere of collective devotion. It bears
similarity with another Cypriot composite icon known as
Panagia Amirou, which is still venerated at the Monastery of Panagia Amirou, near Apsiou [48]. It consists of
a 16th-century panel with an inset that most likely used
to be a private icon intended for domestic use. The inset
icon shares not only the already discussed characteristics
of the above-mentioned group of such icons from the
second half of the fourteenth century, but also the substitution of the traditional Byzantine kekryphalos with a
white veil that occurs in a large number of them [44, pp.
122–126, Fig. 2; 45, pp. 170–172]. Additionally, two small
metal rings arranged symmetrically on one side of the
inset icon strongly suggest that a wing was once attached
to it and, therefore, it was a part of a diptych, or perhaps
even a triptych, prior to the act of insertion. It appears
that the inset icon of Panagia Amirou used to be covered with a movable wing, or rather two wings [48]. Such
wings, in the form of one or two-winged doors, appear in
a large number of Cypriot composite icons and the issue
of the concealment and revelation of the inset seems to
play a special role in Cypriot examples [3]; however, at
least at the present state of research, it is impossible to
determine whether such wings were attached to the Palodeia icon as well.
Conclusions
The present paper provides an overview of the interdisciplinary study of the composite icon of the Panagia
Valieriotissa from Palodeia, Cyprus. The application of
a multi-technique methodological approach drew from
the research work at the Andreas Pittas Art Characterization Laboratories (APAC Labs) of the Cyprus Institute,
and is based on the integration of digital imaging techniques with non-invasive material analysis of the work of
art. The results enhanced our knowledge of the materials
and techniques used in the making of the Panagia Valieriotissa icon, but also shed light on the history of its later
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Fig. 24 Icon of Panagia Valieriotissa (IRFC image). © APAC Labs / STARC, The Cyprus Institute. Image: Ropertos Georgiou
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Fig. 25 Microscopic image (fragment of the inscription IC XC – inset icon). © APAC Labs / STARC, The Cyprus Institute. Image: Svetlana Gasanova
interventions and repainting, thus contributing to its
dating and art historical study. The present work helped
to establish the original parts of the icon composition
as well as to map areas of later interventions, primarily
through the identification of pigment materials which are
of a much later date than the estimated sixteenth century
date of the Palodeia icon. We can conclude that the pigments of the faces of the figures of the Virgin and Christ
of the large panel are consistent with the palette of 16thcentury artists, thus confirming art historical suggestions
identifying them as parts of the original icon. The materials used in the overpainted areas were found to differ as
they can be identified with pigments used in much later
centuries. The use of lithopone in the figures’ garments
confirms that most of these painting details can be attributed to the end of the nineteenth century. The icon was
also retouched in the twentieth century – this was proven
by the presence of pigments such as titanium white in
some areas of the smaller icon. Comparison with archival photographs of the icon suggests that this was most
likely done at the end of the twentieth century, perhaps
during the conservation of the icon. Nonetheless, the
most important result of the present study was the conclusive confirmation of the Panagia Valieriotissa icon
consisting of two panels, one inserted into the other, thus
securing its inclusion in the category of so-called composite icons. Moreover, the analysis revealed the unseen
details of the inset icon strongly indicating that it used to
be a part of a diptych, or maybe even a triptych, prior to
the act of insertion and showing potential similarities to
a group of 14th-century icons of a mixed Byzantine and
Venetian character, thus suggesting that the inset could
be much older than the embedding panel and used to be
a private icon. This conclusion carries great significance
as it establishes a chronological relation between the two
panels, with the small icon being the older one. Moreover, this carries implications as for the choices behind
the making of the larger icon, which in effect appears
to be created to frame the small one. It is possible that
the small icon’s age and cult value were the main reasons for the making of the composite icon. In this context, the heavy repainting of the small icon and the lack
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Fig. 26 Reverse of the icon of Panagia Valieriotissa. © APAC Labs / STARC, The Cyprus Institute. Photo: Ropertos Georgiou
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Fig. 27 Icon of Panagia Valieriotissa (detail with the inset icon – raking-light image). © APAC Labs / STARC, The Cyprus Institute. Photo: Ropertos
Georgiou
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Fig. 28 Icon of Panagia Valieriotissa (detail with the inset icon – XRR
image). © APAC Labs / STARC, The Cyprus Institute
of any effort to preserve traces of its original composition
remains an open question. Interestingly, repainting interventions on the large panel left most of the faces of the
Virgin and Christ untouched. Unfortunately, our analyses
did not yield any further information to help us better
understand the choices behind the repainting of the small
icon, thus leaving us no other option than to hypothesize that the original painting was simply not preserved.
Future studies allowing sampling and minimally invasive methods could offer more accurate comparisons of
materials, techniques, and ways of production for a larger
number of composite icons, thus permitting us a better
understanding of choices of artists in the reuse, repainting, or even complete removal of earlier painting layers.
In his valuable study on composite icons [1, 2], Panagiotis Vocotopoulos focused on the style and iconography of selected examples without, of course, having
access to the vast wealth of information now possible
with the use of advanced science and technology. The
systematic exploration of the materiality of composite
icons can enrich our understanding of the functional as
well as symbolic aspects of these cult objects consisting of two separate icons, frequently created in different times. In our opinion, the material dimension of the
physical relation between the two icons in the Panagia
Valieriotissa is probably the most intriguing aspect of
composite icons as it mirrors the efforts of artists and
their patrons to virtually frame older icons within larger
ones, thus lending complex meaning to their use in Byzantine and post-Byzantine religious life. Although there
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is still a lot to explore around the broader topic, the present paper, though limited to a single example, provides
new perspectives in the study of composite icons as it
aspires to introduce the critical application of advanced
digital imaging techniques and art characterization. The
proposed methodology, one that pushes the boundaries of art history research, allows for multiple levels
of documentation, analysis, and interpretation in the
study of icons of this type. As a result, the study aspires
to serve as a pilot case study for the development of a
research methodology for the study of other composite
icons. Non-invasive and non-destructive methods can
draw our attention to different aspects of the composite icons phenomenon and provide a better understanding of their unusual form, ways of production, and their
subsequent use and re-use. Overall, the proposed multidisciplinary methodology moves beyond traditional art
historical iconographic and stylistic analysis to include
spectroscopic analysis and technical photography, thus
providing a holistic approach to the materiality and technique of icons, whether composite or not. In addition,
this approach offers valuable information on icons’ state
of preservation thereby facilitating their restoration and
conservation. Moreover, the methodology applied herein
shows the possibilities, as well as the limitations of noninvasive analytical methods, thus highlighting the value
of the present study not only for icons but also for various
cultural heritage objects.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the support of the researchers and staff of the Science and Technology in Archaeology and Culture Research Center (STARC) of
the Cyprus Institute, the STARC Director Dr. Michel Menu and Assoc. Professor,
Dr. Sorin Hermon. Our appreciation also goes to the Holy Metropolis of Limassol and the Cyprus Department of Antiquities for permitting the study of the
icon, as well as to Father Panagiotis Baroutis of Palodeia for his warm support
in our efforts. Finally, we want to deeply thank the Director of the Centre
of Natural and Cultural Heritage, Dr. Sophocles Sophocleous for sharing his
expert knowledge as well as making available archival photographs of the
icon.
Author contributions
RG performed analysis using digital imaging techniques. SG performed
analysis using spectroscopic and microscopic methods. NB contributed in the
coordination of the analytical work and the art historical discussion of results.
DZ analyzed and interpreted the results, and was a major contributor in writing the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript draft.
Funding
Non-invasive material analysis was funded by the Initiative of Excellence
Program (Research Support Module) of the Jagiellonian University, Krakow,
Poland. Research work was also supported by APAC Labs / STARC at the
Cyprus Institute in Nicosia, Cyprus.
Availability of data and materials
All data generated and analyzed during this study are not publicly available,
but can be obtained from the corresponding author upon reasonable request
and with the permission of The Cyprus Institute and the Holy Metropolis of
Limassol, Cyprus.
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Declarations
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
16.
Author details
1
Doctoral School in the Humanities, Jagiellonian University, Gołębia 24,
31-007 Kraków, Poland. 2 Science & Technology in Archaeology and Culture
Research Center (STARC) - Andreas Pittas Art Characterization Laboratories
(APAC Labs), The Cyprus Institute, 20 Konstantinou Kavafi Street 2121, Aglantzia, Nicosia, Cyprus.
17.
18.
Received: 17 December 2023 Accepted: 17 May 2024
19.
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