Evolutionary Psychology
www.epjournal.net – 2008. 6(1): 96-112
¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯
Original Article
Anorexic Behavior, Female Competition and Stress: Developing the Female
Competition Stress Test
Catherine Salmon, Department of Psychology, University of Redlands, Redlands, USA. Email:
catherine_salmon@redlands.edu (corresponding author) 1
Charles B. Crawford, Department of Psychology, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, Canada
Sally Walters, Department of Psychology, Capilano College, North Vancouver, Canada
Abstract: The FCST (Female-Female Competition Stress Test) was constructed to assess
stress from adolescent female-female competition. Such stress is particularly relevant to the
Reproductive Suppression Hypothesis that has been suggested as one possible explanation
for the development of anorexic type behavior in young women. A series of items
generated an initial test in the first phase of development. In the second phase, three studies
were conducted to assess reliability and validity. Female undergraduates retrospectively
rated the female-female competition stress they had experienced as adolescents, and their
responses were factor-analyzed. In a second group of subjects, FCST scores were
correlated with a measure of anxiety. In the third study, three samples provided
prototypicality ratings of the test items to determine both the agreement among raters and
which items were not sufficiently prototypical of female-female competition stress to be
retained. In the final phase, the responses of adolescent girls to the FCST and several
measures of body image were factor analyzed, showing the utility of the FCST.
Keywords: reproductive suppression, competition, stress
¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯
Introduction
An evolutionary explanation of anorexia based on Wasser and Barash’s (1983)
theory of “adaptive reproduction suppression” has been further developed by Surbey
(1987), Voland and Voland (1989), Crawford (1989), Juda, Campbell, and Crawford
1
All editorial decisions regarding this manuscript were handled by Editor Todd K. Shackelford.
Female competition
(2004) and Salmon, Crawford, Dane, and Zuberbier (in press). The reproductive
suppression hypothesis (RSH) states that weight control evolved as an adaptation for
adjusting reproductive effort in response to environmental conditions faced by ancestral
females. Weight control in this context refers not to dieting per se but to either the loss of a
minimal amount of weight (approximately five to ten pounds) or to altering the rate of
weight gain during the adolescent growth spurt. Because ancestral females are likely to
have lived in environments where food was often in relatively short supply, the amount of
weight change needed to suppress reproduction is likely to have been minimal. The
excessive prolonged dieting observed in contemporary females suffering from anorexia
nervosa may be seen as the outcome of the activation of the reproductive suppression
mechanism, triggered by contemporary environmental cues that, in relation to the ancestral
environment, are grossly exaggerated.
Reproductive Suppression
The RSH is based on two concepts: (1) the reproductive suppression model, which
states that because reproduction is costly to female mammals, a female facing conditions
temporarily unfavorable to reproduction can increase her lifetime reproductive success by
delaying reproduction until conditions improve (Wasser and Barash, 1983; Williams,
1966), and (2) the critical fat hypothesis, which states that because a minimum amount of
body fat (17%) is needed before menstruation begins and that additional fat accumulation
(22%) is needed to maintain regular ovulation (Frisch, 1985; Frisch and Barbieri, 2002)
altering the trajectory of adolescent weight gain or the loss of five pounds could have been
an effective mechanism for controlling sexual maturation and fertility in ancestral females.
Based on our knowledge of modern hunter-gatherers (Betzig, 1986; Betzig, BorgerhoffMulder and Turke, 1988; Cronk, 2000; Hrdy, 1981; Kaplan, Hill, Hurtado, and Lancaster,
2001; Lancaster and Kaplan, 2000) and the mammalian literature on reproductive
suppression (Creel, 2001; Jasienska, 2003; O’Riain, Bennett, Brotherton, McIlrath and
Clutton-Brock, 2000; Wassser and Barash, 1983; Wasser and Isenberg, 1986), we suggest
that at least two environmental pressures could have favored the evolution of mechanisms
for reproductive suppression: excessive levels of female-female competition and attention
from males who, in an ancestral population, would have been undesirable mating partners.
Because girls reaching sexual maturity at an early age often lack the psychological maturity
required for successful reproduction (for a discussion of the timing of pubertal maturation
in girls in relation to their environment see Ellis, 2004), their vulnerability to such
reproductive stresses is exacerbated, and the putative ancestral mechanisms for suppressing
reproduction through dieting are more likely to be activated. As adolescence and young
adulthood are prime years in terms of reproduction and also a time in which same-sex
competition is high (lots of time spent with same-sex individuals, many individuals looking
for mates), we would expect high this to be a time frame in which females would be
particularly susceptible to developing anorexic type behavior. In this paper, we focus on
levels of stress developing from female-female competition.
Female-female competition
Female-female competition is evolutionarily important for several reasons. The
Evolutionary Psychology – ISSN 1474-7049 – Volume 6(1). 2008.
-97-
Female competition
animal literature contains many examples of female-female competition, such as
competition for status and reproductive dominance in elephants (Dublin, 1983),
competition in yellow baboons involving reproductive suppression of others,
monopolization of males when other females are likely to conceive, and interference with a
mother’s attempt to nurse a newborn (Wasser and Barash, 1983), and competition for
access to males in lions (Barash, 1982). Research suggests that in primate species, females
compete with each other to maximize their own reproductive success at the expense of
other females (Campbell, 2004; Hrdy, 1981). For instance, the presence of dominant female
talapoin monkeys is associated with an alteration in hormone levels in subordinate
monkeys that results in suppression of ovulation (Bowman, Dilley, and Keverne, 1978).
Hrdy (1981) has characterized female-female competition as often subtle and covert,
lacking the loud and overtly aggressive displays found frequently in competing males.
Research on female-female competition in humans (e.g., Campbell, 2004; Walters, 1990)
suggests that competitiveness is a naturally selected disposition in women and that
ancestral women who were good competitors had increased reproductive success compared
to women who competed poorly.
Such competitiveness plays an important role in the lives of women and girls.
Adolescents must acquire the resources, status, power, and self-respect needed for
functioning in the adult world. Peer relationships during adolescence, while extremely
important sources of support, intimacy, and acceptance (Frankel, 1990; Merten, 2004) are
also potential sources of great stress because commodities such as status are highly valued
but not available equally to all peer group members (Adler and Adler, 1996; Byrne,
Davenport, and Mazanov, 2007). Competition may be overt or subtle, encompassing both
physical fighting and subtle verbal put-downs. There can be competition between boys and
girls as well as competition between members of the same sex (Weisfeld, 1999). We are
interested in the latter, in particular how female-competition stress may increase anorexic
type behavior, and this paper focuses on the development of a test of competition stress for
adolescent girls.
Little research has closely examined the precise nature of competition for status
among adolescent girls. Much of the literature has focused on adolescent stress in general
and its negative impact (Bryne, Davenport, and Mazanov, 2007; Finkelstein, Kubzansky,
Capitman, and Goodman, 2007; Hankin, Mermelstein, and Roesch, 2007) One area that has
received some attention is the importance young girls place on having an attractive and
fashionable appearance (Toro, Gomez-Peresmitre, Sasentis, et al., 2006). Weisfeld, Bloch,
and Ivers (1984) reported that fashionable, attractive, well-groomed mid-adolescent girls
were seen as dominant by their peers. Lott (1981) contends that adolescent girls are well
aware of the importance of their appearance and that they spend an inordinate amount of
time achieving it. A major source of competition among undergraduate women involves the
optimization of physical appearance (Buss, 1988; Walters and Crawford, 1994). Thus,
physical attractiveness and a fashionable appearance appear to be key indicators of status
among adolescent girls (De Bruyn and van den Boom, 2005).
Because physical assertiveness may confer fewer advantages on girls than boys,
popularity can be viewed as a sign of dominance in girls (Cronin, 1980; Savin-Williams,
1987). It indicates general success in gaining resources in social contexts (ancestrally
Evolutionary Psychology – ISSN 1474-7049 – Volume 6(1). 2008.
-98-
Female competition
essential to child-raising) and attracting the attention of others. The best single predictor of
popularity among U.S. girls is attractiveness (Adams, 1977; Kennedy, 1990; Luthar and
Latendresse, 2005; Rankin, Lane, Gibbons, and Gerrard, 2004; Weisfeld and Weisfeld,
1984). Popular, leading, dominant U.S. adolescent girls and boys are perceived by their
peers as exhibiting dominance displays, such as erect posture, direct gaze, and relaxation
(Weisfeld and Weisfeld, 1984). The same has been noted in U.K. adolescents (Boardway
and Weisfeld, 1994).
As children turn into adolescents, their concern with social standing increases
(Weisfeld, 1999) and will continue to do so into adulthood. There are biological resources
at stake and, as a result, within sex competition intensifies at reproductive maturity
(Trivers, 1985). In primates, much female competition is focused on rearing young
successfully and one way in which they compete that has an impact on this is in being
attractive to males. Those females able to attract high quality willing to invest males will
experience greater reproductive success. In addition, support from other females has also
played a role in successful child rearing (Geary, 2000).
Thus, social relationships at school and relationships with boys seem to be logical
sources of competition. A certain amount of dominance among the female peer group is
likely to be valuable to most girls; this might involve learning to use assertiveness, tact, and
humor both to achieve one’s goals and to remain liked and respected by other girls. Frankel
(1990) found that both the most popular and the most neglected girls reported the least
amount of stress. Girls who were average in popularity reported the most stress, at least
some of which is likely due to having to compete for status. Adolescent girls must also
become skilled in starting and maintaining relationships with boys, as well as in
terminating relationships with undesirable boys. Thus, competition for status is envisioned
to include methods for maintaining relationships with desirable peers of both sexes.
There were three phases to the construction of the Female-Female Competition
Stress Test (FCST). In the first phase, a series of items were generated and studied in an
informal manner to produce an initial form of the test. In the second phase, the preliminary
test was refined through several studies on undergraduate subjects to obtain estimates of
reliability and validity. The final phase of the development of the test involved studying the
responses of high school students to the tests and their relation to other measures.
Three graduate students, three undergraduate students, and one faculty member
participated in the development of the items. The goal was to construct items to assess
competition stress that impinges on adolescent girls at approximately 14 years of age. This
age represents mid-adolescence, a time when adolescent girls are gaining the social skills
necessary for negotiating potentially stressful peer relationships. The items were
constructed to include both the source of stress and a component of worry or anxiety.
As the frequency of experiencing competition as stressful could be confounded by
the frequency with which a girl experienced the kind of competition stated in the item, we
included only those items we felt were likely to be experienced by most adolescent girls. A
large number of items were developed and pre-tested on small groups of mixed-sex
undergraduates to assess their content and face validity. The results of these efforts resulted
in a 20 item test.
Evolutionary Psychology – ISSN 1474-7049 – Volume 6(1). 2008.
-99-
Female competition
Study 1
Methods
In Study 1, 39 undergraduate women (mean age 23.5 years, SD = 3.2) completed
written questionnaires in which they were asked to report retrospectively how frequently
they had experienced the situation described in each item of the test when they were
between the ages of 14-15 using a 4-point scale (never, rarely, sometimes, often).
Results and Discussion
Intercorrelations were obtained between all items and between each item and the
total test score. Many of these correlations were significant. Items that were not
significantly correlated with the total score were noted and considered for elimination when
the preliminary factor analysis was done. For the factor analysis, principle axes factors,
using squared multiple correlations as initial communality estimates and the eigenvalue one
rule for determining the number of factors, were rotated by the Varimax procedure. The
following factors were identified: (1) appearance anxiety, (2) female subordination, (3)
desire to be a typical adolescent, and (4) timidity. Caution was used in interpreting the
factors since, in some cases, factor loadings were relatively small, some factors explained
relatively small amounts of variance, some factors had a low number of significant
loadings, and the sample size was not large. Items having low communalities were
eliminated. The factors were used to construct additional items as suggested by the factor
names. This procedure resulted in a revised test that contained 29 items.
Study 2: Retrospective Study of the Relation of the Measures to Anxiety
A second retrospective study was conducted to determine if the FCST relates to a
measure of anxiety. Subjects completed the FCST and the trait anxiety portion of the StateTrait Anxiety Inventory (Spielberger, 1977). This step was necessary to confirm that the
FCST items adequately encapsulated stress and anxiety associated with competitive
behavior.
Methods
A new sample of 57 undergraduate women (mean age 19.7 years, SD = 2.1) was
obtained from an introductory psychology course. The subjects were asked to imagine
themselves at age 14 and to answer the test questions according to how they imagined they
would have responded at age 14. They were told that this was important because the test
would eventually be administered to high school students and that their responses would
help us construct better questions. The STAI-T was administered according to standard
procedures. The response scales were identical to those used in Study 1.
Evolutionary Psychology – ISSN 1474-7049 – Volume 6(1). 2008.
-100-
Female competition
Results and Discussion
The correlation between total scores on the FCST and STAI-T was 0.63 (p < .01),
indicating that the FCST adequately assesses worry, but measures a construct that is also
somewhat independent of anxiety.
Study 3: Prototypicality
We used Buss and Craik’s (1980, 1981, 1983) method of obtaining prototypicality
ratings to determine how representative the items are of female-female competition stress.
Buss and Craik demonstrated that subjects’ prototypicality ratings of acts are useful in
determining which acts are more or less representative of dispositional categories, such as
dominance and submissiveness. The intent of the prototypicality study was to gather
information from a variety of sources, including adolescent girls, concerning the face
validity of the test items with respect to competition stress.
Methods
The instructions for rating prototypicality of items were adapted from those used by
Buss and Craik (1983). The instructions for the FCST items were:
In this study you are being asked to judge how well each item
reflects stress associated with female-female competition in adolescent
girls. These items reflect stress in Grade 8 girls associated with their
feelings about competing with other girls. Female-female competition is
the desire or behavior of one woman or girl to possess more of some
commodity than other women or girls. Research indicates that the kinds of
commodities females compete for are: an attractive appearance, social
status, group leadership, etc.
For an example, think of the work red. Imagine the truest red you
can. Now think of other examples of red, such as purple-red and redorange. Although you might still name the purple-red and red-orange
“red,” they are not as good examples of red as the true, clear red. In short,
some reds are “redder” than others.
Instead of red, the category is stress due to competition with other
adolescent girls. Please rate each act on the 7-point scale according to how
good it is as an example of stress in Grade 8 girls due to competition with
other girls. Please rate each item on the following scale:
1
2
extremely very
poor
poor
3
poor
4
average
5
good
6
very
good
7
extremely
good
Three separate samples of subjects participated in Study 3. The Undergraduate 1
Evolutionary Psychology – ISSN 1474-7049 – Volume 6(1). 2008.
-101-
Female competition
sample included 85 subjects (25 men and 61 women, mean age 23.4 years, SD = 2.3) who
received experimental credit in an introductory psychology course for their participation.
The Undergraduate 2 sample included 10 men and 29 women (mean age 24.1 years, SD =
2.8) who were recruited from an upper level summer course in psychology. And the High
School sample consisted of a group of 17 students entering Grade 12 (5 boys and 12 girls,
mean age 16.4 years, SD = 0.7), who were taking a summer undergraduate course in
psychology.
Results and Discussion
Table 1 contains a summary of FCST item prototypicality means for the three
samples. The mean prototypicalities (measured on a 7-point scale with 7 corresponding to
extremely prototypical) for Undergraduate 1, Undergraduate 2, and High School samples
are, respectively, 5.03, 5.02, and 5.22. There is good agreement on the prototypicality of
ratings from the three samples. Interestingly, the high school sample gave higher
prototypicality ratings than did either of the undergraduate groups, suggesting that
competition stress as assessed by the FCST is either more salient or more keenly felt by
school students.
Table 1. Comparisons of FCST Item Prototypicality Means for Two Undergraduate
Samples and One High School Sample
_________________________________________________________________________
FCST Item
1. I am anxious about my appearance as compared to
other girls.’
2. I worry that my girlfriends speak up more in class than
I do.c
3. I am proud of my ability to handle myself with other
girls.d
4. I worry about making myself more popular.
5. I am happy about how stylish my clothes are.d
6. I make suggestions to other girls that go unnoticed.
7. I feel ignored by the other girls.
8. I feel other girls have better figures than I do.
9. I worry about my ability to apply make-up.
10. I feel intimidated by girls who seem to have it “all.”
11. I have trouble keeping a guy interested in me.
12. I feel nervous about whether I am wearing the
“right” clothes.
13. I am afraid of going on dates with guys.
Evolutionary Psychology – ISSN 1474-7049 – Volume 6(1). 2008.
U1
(86)
Group (n)
U2
HS
(36)
(17)
6.1
6.2
6.0
3.6
3.9
3.2
5.0 a
5.1
5.2
6.0
5.9
4.3
5.8
5.8
4.3
5.9
5.7
5.6
5.8
5.8
4.6
5.5
5.9
4.8
5.6a
5.3
5.5
6.2
5.8
4.2
5.6
6.1
4.6
6.1
5.4
5.4
5.0
5.1
5.6
-102-
Female competition
14. The loudness of the other girls intimidates me.c
15. I feel intimidated by girls who dress better than I do.
16. I avoid situations where I have to compete with other
girls.
17. I feel weak or timid in relation to the other girls.
18. I am afraid of being thought of as a nerd by the
other girls.
19. The other girls look better than I do.
20. I am afraid to talk to the older girls.
21. I find it stressful maintaining the right teenage image.
22. I hang around mostly with a group of girls.c
23. I am less assertive than most girls my age.
24. I feel less attractive than most of the other girls.
25. I tend to avoid boys.
26. I feel somewhat afraid of the other girls.
27. I find P.E. class to be stressful.
28. I find it difficult trying to look like the other girls.
29. I compete with other girls for such things as looks,
clothes, money, status, etc.
3.9a
5.5
5.0
3.8
5.5a
4.9
3.8
5.5
5.1
4.8
5.6
4.9
5.2
4.7
5.8b
5.8
4.4a
5.1
3.7
4.3
5.7
4.0
4.4
4.9
5.0
5.6
5.8
4.3
5.0
4.1
4.5
5.7
4.3
4.4
4.4
5.1
5.7
6.1
4.6
5.4
5.1
4.7
6.1
5.0
4.6
4.6
5.2
5.6
Cronbach’s alpha
.91
.93
.94
_________________________________________________________________________
a
Females rated item to be significantly more prototypical than males did.
Males rated item to be significantly more prototypical than females did.
c
Items eliminated in final version.
d
Items scored using a reversed scale.
b
Using the Bonferroni correction for family-wise error, t-tests indicated only one
item with a significant sex difference in prototypicality ratings. The item, “The loudness of
the other girls intimidates me,” received higher protoypicality ratings by female raters
when all 3 samples were combined (t [138] = 3.52 p < .001). Overall, we concluded that
agreement was high between male and female raters concerning which items indicated
female competition stress.
The correlation of the item prototypicality ratings among the three samples are 0.84
(Undergraduate 1 with High School), 0.85 (Undergraduate 2 with High School), and 0.96
(Undergraduate 1 with Undergraduate 2). Because these correlations are correlated across
items rather than “randomly” drawn subjects, they cannot be tested for significance. The
high positive correlations of prototypicality ratings for pairs of samples indicates a high
degree of agreement regarding the prototypicality of the items and provides further
evidence for the validity of the FCST.
Finally, alpha coefficients (Cronbach, 1951) were calculated for the prototypicality
ratings. They ranged from 0.88 to 0.98. These results indicate high internal consistency of
the prototypicality ratings in all three samples. Thus, the data indicate that the FCST has
Evolutionary Psychology – ISSN 1474-7049 – Volume 6(1). 2008.
-103-
Female competition
reasonable reliability and validity.
Buss and Craik (1980, 1981, 1983) do not indicate how large an item
prototypicality must be before it is significant. We decided a priori than any items having a
mean prototypicality rating of less than 4.0 (i.e. less than “average”) across the three
samples would be eliminated from further use. Using this criterion, we eliminated three
items from the FCST. The final version of the FCST is shown in Table 1.
Study 4
Having established in a preliminary manner the reliability and validity of the FCST,
we administered it to a sample of junior high-school girls. The purpose of this phase of the
test development was to investigate the construct validity of the test using factor analysis.
A number of other tests were administered to the subjects as part of a larger research
project. Only the factor analysis of the following variables: FSCT items; Dissatisfaction
with Back, Breasts, Calves, Feet, Hands, Head, Hips, Shoulders, Stomach, Thighs, and
Waist; Body Mass Index (BMI), and Drive for Thinness from the Eating Disorders
Inventory (Garner, Olmstead and Polivy, 1983) will be discussed. The body image
variables were included because evidence suggests that much of female competition
concerns physical appearance and we were interested in whether dissatisfaction with
various body parts and drive for thinness would emerge as a separate factor.
Methods
The subjects in Phase 3 were 316 girls attending three junior high schools in
Richmond, British Columbia. The mean age of the subjects was 15.1 years with a range of
12 to 17 (SD = 1.7). Consent was obtained from the school district, principals, parents, and
subjects.
A female research assistant tested groups of ten to thirty subjects during school
hours. Subjects were seated at desks and were encouraged not to talk while completing the
questionnaires so as to ensure a maximum amount of privacy. The subjects completed a
battery of pencil-and-paper tests, including the FCST. The data from four subjects was
incomplete and, therefore, not included in any analyses.
Results and Discussion
A principal component analysis of the intercorrelations produced factors with six
eigenvalues greater than 1.0. A scree test of the eigenvalues also indicated six principal
component factors. We then computed the image covariance matrix for the test items
(Guttman, 1953) and factor analyzed it using the principal factor method. Factor analyzing
the image covariance matrix is particularly useful for studying the construct validity of a
test because it contains the covariances between each item and the other (n-1) items on the
test. Hence, it provides information on the factor structure of the true variance of the tests.
We used the direct quartimin rotation method to rotate the factors because it gives a cleaner
description of factors than orthogonal rotation and because it enabled us to see the
Evolutionary Psychology – ISSN 1474-7049 – Volume 6(1). 2008.
-104-
Female competition
relationships between the factors underlying the test.
Summing the diagonal elements of the image covariance matrix for the FCST items
and dividing by the number of items indicated that the image covariances accounted for
39% of the total variance of the test items. Thus, the image variance (common variance)
accounts for a respectable amount of the variance of the test.
We rotated through six factors using the image method of factor extraction.
Although the scree test and eigenvalue one rule indicated that six principal component
factors might be significant, a careful inspection of the factors indicated that only the first
two were meaningful and that the last four were factors primarily specific to particular
items. The correlation between factors was 0.51. We decided to interpret any loading equal
or greater than 0.25 as significant. The majority of the test items had loadings exceeding
this value on the first factor. Table 2 contains this structure matrix for the 2-factor solution.
The variables Dissatisfaction with Breasts, Calves, and Head had loadings exceeding 0.25
on this factor. However, neither BMI nor Drive for Thinness had significant loadings on
this factor. We interpreted the first factor as a female competition stress factor. The second
factor appears to relate generally to body image dissatisfaction. Of the variables related to
body image, only Dissatisfaction with Breasts and Dissatisfaction with Head do not load
significantly on this factor. The four FCST items that load significantly on this factor relate
directly to dissatisfaction with physical appearance, e.g., “I feel other girls have better
figures than I do.” We interpreted the second factor as concern about physical appearance.
Structurally, female-female competition stress is distinct from concerns about appearance.
While the FCST encompasses stress related to physical appearance, it goes beyond
assessing competition for looks.
We computed the internal consistency of the FCST. Coefficient alpha (Cronbach,
1951) equals 0.8866, suggesting that the FCST items represent a single variable. The
absence of any other test in the literature assessing stress of this kind makes it impossible to
assess the reliability of the FCST using an alternate form of the test. Further research is
necessary for assessing the temporal reliability of the test.
It is possible that one item, “I make suggestions to other girls that go unnoticed,”
could be eliminated. It did not have a loading above 0.10 on either of the interpreted factors
or a loading above 0.25 on a factor in any of the three through six factor solutions.
Moreover, its item total correlation was 0.094. However, it had a reasonable mean
prototypicality of 5.7 and its removal only changed the coefficient alpha for the test from
0.886 to 0.890. We decided not to delete it because it may be measuring some aspect of
female-female competition stress not measured by the other items.
Evolutionary Psychology – ISSN 1474-7049 – Volume 6(1). 2008.
-105-
Female competition
Table 2. Structure Matrix of 2-Factor Solution
_________________________________________________________________________
Item
I am anxious about my appearance as compared to other girls.
I am proud of my ability to handle myself with other girls.a
I am worried about making myself more popular.
I am happy about how stylish my clothes are.a
I make suggestions to other girls that go unnoticed.
I feel ignored by the other girls.
I feel other girls have better figures than I do.
I worry about my ability to apply make-up.
I feel intimidated by girls who seem to have it “all.”
I have trouble keeping a guy interested in me.
I feel nervous about whether I am wearing the “right” clothes.
I am afraid of going on dates with guys.
I feel intimidated by girls who dress better than I do.
I avoid situations where I have to compete with other girls.
I feel weak or timid in relation to the other girls.
I am afraid of being thought of as a nerd by the other girls.
The other girls look better than I do.
I am afraid to talk to the older girls.
I find it stressful maintaining the “right” teenage image.
I am less assertive than most girls my age.
I feel less attractive than most of the other girls.
I tend to avoid boys.
I feel somewhat afraid of the other girls.
I find P.E. class to be stressful.
I find it difficult trying to look like the other girls.
I compete with other girls for such things as looks,
clothes, money, status, etc.
Dissatisfaction with back
Dissatisfaction with breasts
Dissatisfaction with calves
Dissatisfaction with feet
Dissatisfaction with hands
Dissatisfaction with head
Dissatisfaction with shoulders
Dissatisfaction with stomach
Dissatisfaction with thighs
Dissatisfaction with waist
BMI
Drive for Thinness
Factor 1
Loadings
Factor 2
Loadings
.44
.19
.56
.21
.06
.57
.42
.36
.70
.53
.58
.29
.65
.33
.59
.54
.60
.47
.49
.35
.64
.33
.57
.18
.64
.45
.20
.12
.06
.24
-.09
.14
.49
.15
.21
.10
.16
.06
.24
.13
.15
.14
.34
.08
.22
.07
.30
-.04
.24
.24
.30
.14
.20
.28
.25
.22
.23
.29
.18
.29
.23
.14
.01
.21
.39
-.01
.49
.27
.25
.24
.33
.73
.67
.71
.50
.53
_________________________________________________________________________
a
Item scored in reverse.
Evolutionary Psychology – ISSN 1474-7049 – Volume 6(1). 2008.
-106-
Female competition
General Discussion
In this series of studies, we generated a number of items to measure stress
associated with female-female competition. We then gave the test to female subjects, and
based on analyses of their scores, revised the items. We conducted a retrospective study in
which a second sample of female subjects completed the FCST and a measure of trait
anxiety. The results from this study provided support for the validity of our stress
measures. We then asked three independent samples of subjects of various ages to rate the
prototypicality of the test items as examples of female-female competition stress. The test
was then administered to a sample of 316 adolescent girls along with several measures of
body image. The results were factor analyzed and two factors were interpreted. They were
Female-Female Competition Stress and Concern with Physical Appearance. We are
reasonably confident that the FCST holds up to initial psychometric scrutiny and have
provided evidence of both reliability and validity.
These results are particularly interesting in light of Faer, Hendricks, Abed, and
Figueredo’s (2005) study of the relevance of types of female competition on eating
disorders. Their work suggests that competition for mates may be a strong predictor of
bulimia while competition for status is a strong predictor of anorexia nervosa. They found
that competition for mates was a driving factor behind female competition for status as well
as perfectionism, body dissatisfaction, and the drive for thinness. Stress from female
competition (and susceptibility to this particular type of competition) may be a major risk
factor for developing anorexic behavior. Future studies should attempt to more strongly
explore not only this idea of different types of competition leading to different eating
disorders but also to the connection between life history strategies and eating disorders.
Much of the work on adolescence and stress has focused on the relationship
between life changing events, such as parents’ divorce, and adolescent coping (see
Compas, 1987 for a review). We suggest that the present measures have identified
“everyday” sources of stress for adolescent girls that are particularly problematic for some
individuals. Further investigation might focus, for example, on the following refinements:
identifying how girls throughout early, mid, and late adolescence cope with competition,
obtaining standardized scores from larger samples of girls, administering the FCST in
conjunction with other anxiety or stress measures or other yet-to-be-developed indices of
female-female competition in order to further establish construct validity. We also believe
that a further step should be to demonstrate that male-male competition and stress is not
associated with anorexic-type behavior in males. As well, the RSH focuses on suppression
of reproduction which speaks most directly to anorexic-type behavior. While we would
predict from the FCST that high levels of female-female competition might lead to
anorexic-type behavior, we would suggest that bulimia-type symptoms would not
necessarily show such a clear link (as bulimia does not typically lead to the suppression of
reproduction).
Researchers interested in younger adolescence (e.g., 12-14 years) may find some of
the items on our test irrelevant for many girls that age. An example would be the items
concerned with dating. The majority of young adolescent girls may have little or no
experience with dating and therefore may be unable to respond to those items. Similarly,
Evolutionary Psychology – ISSN 1474-7049 – Volume 6(1). 2008.
-107-
Female competition
other items may be reworded to be more appropriate for older girls.
Stress arising from female competition may have adverse health, behavioral, and
psychological consequences for adolescent girls. While no studies have examined the
outcomes of female competition stress in particular, stress during adolescence is associated
with a number of negative outcomes such as substance abuse (Brooks, et al., 2002; Bruns
and Geist, 1984; Budd, Eiser, Morgan and Gammage, 1985; Duncan, 1977; Rhodes and
Jason, 1990), poor physical health (Siegel and Brown, 1988), and depression (Hankin et al.,
2007; Kanner, Feldman, Weinberger and Ford, 1987; Tolor and Murphy, 1985). We have
been particularly concerned with the implications female competition stress had for the
RSH. The RSH suggests that natural selection shaped a mechanism for adjusting female
reproduction to socioecological conditions by altering the amount of body fat. In a modern
Western environment in particular, social and ecological cues which would have signaled
the need for temporary postponement of reproduction in ancestral environments may now
be experienced to an unprecedented intensity and duration, leading in many cases to a
concern with body image and weight and in some cases to anorexic-type behavior. We
hope that this test might provide a measure of insight into adolescents at risk for developing
anorexic-type behavior. We have not attempted to determine pathological or harmful levels
of stress associated with female competition, rather, we see this as a beginning step in a
largely untapped research area that has practical relevance not only for those interested in
eating disorders but also those who may be interested in other effects of female competition
on young girls.
Acknowledgements: Preparation of this article was supported in part by grants from the
Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada, the British Columbia Health
Care Research Foundation to Charles Crawford, as well as the Michael Smith Foundation
for Health Research and a University of Redlands faculty grant to Catherine Salmon. It also
benefitted from the comments of two anonymous reviewers.
Received 20 November 2007; Revision submitted 15 January 2008; Accepted 15
January 2008
References
Adams, G.R. (1977). Physical attractiveness research: Toward a developmental social
psychology of beauty. Human Development, 28, 217-239.
Adler, P.A., and Adler, P. (1996). Preadolescent clique stratification and the hierarchy of
identity. Sociological Inquiry, 66, 111-142.
Barash, D.P. (1982). Sociobiology and behavior (2nd ed.). New York: Elsevier.
Betzig, L.L. (1986). Despotism and differential reproduction: A Darwinian view of history.
Hawthorne, NY: Aldine de Gryuter.
Betzig, L.L., Borgerhoff Mulder, M.B., and Turke, P.W. (1988). Human Reproductive
Behavior: A Darwinian perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Boardway, R.H., and Weisfeld, G.E. (1994). Social dominance among English adolescents.
Poster presented at International Society for Human Ethology congress, Toronto,
Evolutionary Psychology – ISSN 1474-7049 – Volume 6(1). 2008.
-108-
Female competition
August.
Bowman, L.A., Dilley, S.R. and Keverne, E.B. (1978). Suppression of oestrogen-induced
LH surges by social subordination in talapoin monkeys. Nature, 275, 56-58.
Brooks, J. S., Adams, R. E., Balka, E. B., and Johnson, E. (2002). Early adolescent
marijuana use: Risks for the transition to young adulthood. Psychological Medicine,
32, 79-91.
Bruns, C. and Geist, C.S. (1984). Stressful life events and drug use among adolescents.
Journal of Human Stress, 10, 135-139.
Budd, R.J., Eiser, J.R., Morgan, M., and Gammage, P. (1985). The personal characteristics
and life-style of the young drinker: The results of a survey of British adolescents.
Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 16, 145-157.
Buss, D.M. (1988). From vigilance to violence: Tactics of mate retention in American
undergraduates. Ethology and Sociobiology, 9, 291-317.
Buss, D.M., and Craik, K.H. (1980). The frequency concept of disposition: Dominance and
prototypically dominant acts. Journal of Personality, 48, 379-392.
Buss, D.M., and Craik, K.H (1981). The act frequency analysis of interpersonal
dispositions: Aloofness, gregariousness, dominance and submissiveness. Journal of
Personality, 49, 174-192.
Buss, D.M., and Craik, K.H (1983). The act frequency approach to personality.
Psychological Review, 90, 105-126.
Byrne, D.G., Davenport, S.C., and Mazanov, J. (2007). Profiles of adolescent stress: The
development of the adolescent stress questionnaire (ASQ). Journal of Adolescence,
30, 393-416.
Campbell, A. (2004). Female competition: Causes, constraints, content, and contexts. The
Journal of Sex Research, 41, 16-26.
Compas, B.E. (1987). Stress and life events during childhood and adolescence. Clinical
Psychology Review, 7, 275-302.
Creel, S. (2001). Social dominance and stress hormones. Trends in Ecology and Evolution,
16, 491-497.
Crawford, C.B. (1989). The theory of evolution: Of what value to psychology? Journal of
Comparative Psychology, 103, 4-22.
Cronbach, L.J. (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. Psychometrika,
16, 297-334.
Cronk, L. (2000). Female-biased parental investment and growth performance among the
Mukogodo. In L. Cronk, N. Chagnon, and W. Irons (Eds.), Adaptation and human
behavior: An anthropological perspective (pp. 203-222), Hawthorne, NY: Aldine
de Gruyter.
Cronin, C.L. (1980). Dominance relations and females. In D.R. Omark, F.F. Strayer, and
D.G. Freedman (Eds.), Dominance relations: An ethological view of human conflict
and social interaction (pp. 299-318). New York: Garland.
De Bruyn, E.H., and van den Boom, D.C. (2005). Interpersonal behavior, peer popularity,
and self-esteem in early adolescence. Social Development, 14, 555-573.
Dublin, H.T. (1983). Cooperation and competition among female elephants. In S.K. Wasser
(Ed.), Social behavior of female vertebrates (pp. 291-313). New York: Academic
Evolutionary Psychology – ISSN 1474-7049 – Volume 6(1). 2008.
-109-
Female competition
Press.
Duncan, D.F. (1977). Life stress as a precursor to adolescent drug dependence.
International Journal of Addiction, 12, 1047-1056.
Ellis, B.J. (2004). Timing of pubertal maturation in girls: An integrated life history
approach. Psychological Bulletin, 130, 920-958.
Faer, L.M., Hendricks, A., Abed, R.T., and Figueredo, A.J. (2005). The evolutionary
psychology of eating disorders: Female competition for mates or for status.
Psychological Psychotherapy, 78, 397-417.
Finkelstein, D.M., Kubzansky, L.D., Capitman, J., and Goodman, E. (2007).
Socioeconomic differences in adolescent stress: The role of psychological
resources. Journal of Adolescent Health, 40, 127-134.
Frankel, K.A. (1990). Girls’ perceptions of peer relationship support and stress. Journal of
Early Adolescence, 10, 69-88.
Frisch, R.E. (1985). Fatness, menarche, and female fertility. Perspectives in Biology and
Medicine, 28, 611-633.
Frisch, R.E., and Barbieri, R.L. (2002). Female fertility and the body fat connection.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Garner, D.M., Olmsted, M.A., and Polivy, J. (1983). Development and validation of a
multidimensional eating disorder inventory for anorexia nervosa and bulimia.
International Journal of Eating Disorders, 2, 15-34.
Geary, D.C. (2000). Evolution and proximate expression of human parental investment.
Psychological Bulletin, 126, 55-77.
Guttman, L. (1953). Image theory for the structure of quantitative variates. Psychometrika,
18, 277-296.
Hankin, B.L., Mermelstein, R., and Roesch, L. (2007). Sex differences in adolescent
depression: Stress exposure and reactivity models. Child Development, 78, 279-295.
Hrdy, S. (1981). The woman that never evolved. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press.
Jasienska, G. (2003). Energy metabolism and the evolution of reproductive suppression in
the human female. Acta Biotheoretica, 51, 1-18.
Juda, M.N., Campbell, L., and Crawford, C.B. (2004). Dieting symptomatology in women
and perceptions of social support: An evolutionary approach. Evolution and Human
behavior, 25, 200-208.
Kanner, A.D., Feldman, S.S., Weinberger, D.A., and Ford, M.E. (1987). Uplifts, hassles,
and adaptational outcomes in early adolescence. Journal of Early Adolescence, 7,
371-394.
Kaplan, H., Hill, K., Hurtado, A.M., and Lancaster, J. (2001). The embodied capital theory
of human evolution. In P. T. Ellison (Ed.), Reproductive Ecology and Human
Evolution (pp. 293-318). Hawthorne, NY: Aldine de Gruyter.
Kennedy, J.H. (1990). Determinants of peer social status: Contributions of physical
appearance, reputation, and behavior. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 19, 233244.
Lancaster, J., and Kaplan, H. (2000). Parenting other men’s children: Costs, benefits, and
consequences. In L. Cronk, N. Chagnon, and W. Irons (Eds.), Adaptation and
Evolutionary Psychology – ISSN 1474-7049 – Volume 6(1). 2008.
-110-
Female competition
human behavior: An anthropological perspective (pp. 179-202). Hawthorne, NY:
Aldine de Gruyter.
Lott, B. (1981). Becoming a woman: The socialization of gender. Springfield, IL: Charles
C. Thomas.
Luthar, S.S., and Latendresse, S.J. (2005) Children of the affluent: Challenges to well
being. Current Directions on Psychological Science, 14, 49-53.
Merten, D.E. (2004). The best of friends : The politics of girls’ friendships. I. Securing her
experience : Friendship versus popularity. Feminism and Psychology, 14, 361-365.
O’Riain, M.J., Bennett, N.C., Brotherton, P.N.M., McIlrath, G., and Clutton-Brock, T.H.
(2000). Reproductive suppression and inbreeding avoidance in wild populations of
co-operatively breeding meerkats (Suricata suricatta). Behavioral Ecology and
Sociobiology, 48, 471- 477.
Rankin, J.L., Lane, D.J., Gibbons, F.X., and Gerrard, M. (2004). Adolescent selfconsciousness: Longitudinal age changes and gender differences in two cohorts.
Journal of Research on Adolescence, 14, 1-21.
Rhodes, J.R., and Jason, L.A. (1990). A social stress model of substance abuse. Journal of
Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 58, 395-401.
Salmon, C., Crawford, C.B., Dane, L. and Zuberbier. (in press). Ancestral mechanisms in
modern environments: Impact of competition and stress on body image and dieting
behavior. Human Nature.
Savin-Williams, R.C. (1987). Adolescence: An ethological perspective. New York:
Springer-Verlag.
Siegel, J.M., and Brown, J.D. (1988). A prospective study of stressful circumstances,
illness symptoms, and depressed mood among adolescents. Developmental
Psychology, 24, 715-721.
Spielberger, C.D. (1977). State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (form Y-2). Palo Alto: Consulting
Psychologists Press.
Surbey, M.K. (1987). Anorexia nervosa, amenorrhea, and adaptation. Ethology and
Sociobiology, 8, 47S-61S (supplement).
Tolor, A., and Murphy, V.M. (1985). Stress and depression in high school students.
Psychological Reports, 57, 535-541.
Toro, J., Gomez-Peresmitre, G., Sentis, J., Valles, A., Casula, V., Castro, J., Pineda, G.,
Leon, R., Platas, S., and Rodriguez, R. (2006). Eating disorders and body image in
Spanish and Mexican female adolescents. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric
Epidemiology, 41, 556-565.
Trivers, R.L. (1985). Social evolution. Menlo Park, CA: Benjamin/Cummings.
Voland, E., and Voland, R. (1989). Evolutionary biology and psychiatry: The case of
anorexia nervosa. Ethology and Sociobiology, 10, 223-240.
Walters, S. (1990). Tactics of intrasexual competition: An exploratory investigation of sex
differences. Unpublished masters thesis, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, B.C.
Walters, S, and Crawford, C. (1994). The importance of mate attraction for intrasexual
competition in men and women. Ethology and Sociobiology, 15, 5-30.
Wasser, S.K., and Barash, D.P. (1983). Reproductive suppression among female mammals:
Implications for biomedicine and sexual selection theory. Quarterly Review of
Evolutionary Psychology – ISSN 1474-7049 – Volume 6(1). 2008.
-111-
Female competition
Biology, 58, 513-538.
Wasser, S.K., and Isenberg, D.Y. (1986). Reproductive failure among women: Pathology
or adaptation? Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics and Gynecology, 5, 153-175.
Weisfeld, G.C. (1999). Evolutionary principles of human adolescence. New York: Basic
Books.
Weisfeld, G.E., Bloch, S.A., and Ivers, J.W. (1984). Possible determinants of social
dominance among adolescent girls. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 144, 115-129.
Weisfeld, G.E., and Weisfeld, C.C. (1984). An observational study of social evaluation: An
application of the dominance hierarchy model. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 145,
89-99.
Williams, C.G. (1966). Natural selection, the costs of reproduction, and a refinement of
Lack’s principle. American Naturalist, 100, 687-690.
Evolutionary Psychology – ISSN 1474-7049 – Volume 6(1). 2008.
-112-