Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences xxx (2019) 1-12
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Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences
journal homepage: www.jpharmsci.org
Pharmaceutics, Drug Delivery and Pharmaceutical Technology
An Ex Vivo Evaluation of Moxifloxacin Nanostructured Lipid Carrier
Enriched In Situ Gel for Transcorneal Permeation on Goat Cornea
Shilpkala Gade 1, Krishna Kumar Patel 1, Chandan Gupta 2, Md. Meraj Anjum 1,
Deepika Deepika 1, Ashish Kumar Agrawal 1, Sanjay Singh 1, *
1
2
Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering and Technology, IIT (BHU), Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Bombay College of Pharmacy, Kalina, Santacruz, Mumbai, Maharastra, India
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history:
Received 21 November 2018
Revised 4 March 2019
Accepted 2 April 2019
The study was designed to fabricate the moxifloxacin nanostructured lipid carriers (MOX-NLCs) loaded in
situ gel for opthalmic application to improve the corneal permeation and retention and also subside the
toxic effect associated with intracameral injection of moxifloxacin in endophthalmitis treatment.
Initially, Box-Behnken design was used to optimize the various factors significantly affecting the final
formulation attributes. MOX-NLCs with particle size 232.1 ± 9.2 nm, polydispersity index 0.247 ± 0.031,
zeta potential 16.3 ± 1.6 mV, entrapment efficiency 63.1 ± 2.4%, and spherical shape was achieved. The
optimized MOX-NLCs demonstrated the Higuchi release kinetics with highest regression coefficient.
Besides this, FTIR, differential scanning calorimetry, and X-ray diffraction results suggested that MOX had
excellent compatibility with excipients. Furthermore, the results of ex-vivo permeation study demonstrated 2-fold higher permeation (208.7 ± 17.6 mg), retention (37.26 ± 2.83 mg), and flux (9.57 ± 0.73 mg/
cm2 h) compared with free MOX in situ gel. In addition, MOX-NLCs exhibited normal corneal hydration
and did not show any sign of structural damage to the corneal tissue as confirmed by histology.
Therefore, the findings strongly suggest that MOX-NLCs in situ gel with higher permeation and retention
can be a better alternative strategy to prevent and treat the endophthalmitis infection.
© 2019 American Pharmacists Association®. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
lipid nanoparticle(s) (LNP)
ophthalmic drug delivery
drug delivery system(s)
nanoparticle(s)
factorial design
Introduction
Endophthalmitis is a purulent infectious inflammatory condition in the intraocular fluid (aqueous and vitreous).1 It mainly arises
after intraocular surgeries, particularly cataract surgery and may be
owing to hematogenous (i.e., via blood vessels) dissemination from
the remote primary source and even may result into loss of vision if
left untreated.2
Moxifloxacin (MOX) is a commonly prescribed synthetic fluoroquinolone antibiotic for the prophylaxis after cataract surgery to
prevent endophthalmitis or to treat it.3 In the current therapy, it is
either given topically or as an intracameral injection in the anterior
chamber. Both the administration has its limitation during therapy.
Topical administration of MOX solution faces the short retention
time in the eye, high lacrimal drainage, and low permeability across
Conflict of interest: Authors have no conflict of interest.
This article contains supplementary material available from the authors by request
or via the Internet at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xphs.2019.04.005.
* Correspondence to: Sanjay Singh (Telephone: þ91-9415290851).
E-mail address: ssingh.phe@iitbhu.ac.in (S. Singh).
the cornea which collectively contributes to extremely low ocular
bioavailability (1%-7%).4 However, corneal endothelial toxicity and
toxic anterior segment syndrome is a major concern during the
intracameral injection.
The existing ocular blood barriers in the eye inflicts the major
challenges to the drug delivery, which restrict the access of the drug
to the deeper tissues of the eye.5 The ocular blood barriers present
in the uvea are namely blood-aqueous barrier (anterior chamber)
consisting of the endothelial cells which limits the entrance of
hydrophilic drugs into the aqueous humor; blood-retinal barrier
made up of retinal pigment epithelium; and the tight wall retinal
capillaries which restrict the entry of most of the xenobiotics from
blood stream. In addition, human cornea consists of 3 layers
including lipophilic epithelium, hydrophilic stroma, and endothelium. Therefore, the drug molecule should possess the higher log p
value (2-4)6 for the optimum corneal permeability. All the disease
complications (inflammation) along with ocular barriers imposing
the major impediment to the diffusion of drug across cornea are
foremost cause of drug subtherapeutic level in the aqueous humor.7
To overcome the short washout period, poor retention, and poor
penetration of drugs across the cornea, a unique approach with
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xphs.2019.04.005
0022-3549/© 2019 American Pharmacists Association®. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
2
S. Gade et al. / Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences xxx (2019) 1-12
high retention period and permeation across cornea is thereby
desired.
Currently, nanostructured lipid carrier (NLC) has gained the
researchers attention and emerged as a better alternative to the
solid lipid nanoparticles, liposome, emulsion, etc.8 Physiologically
present biodegradable solid and liquid lipids both are used simultaneously to synthesize the NLCs. It offers superior permeation via
passive diffusion through the transcorneal route and retention in
addition to the higher drug loading, better stability, excellent
biocompatibility, low systemic adverse events, easy scale up, and
reduced drug expulsion while storage.9
Additionally, polymeric in situ gels are emerging ophthalmic
formulations due to their ease of application, reduced dosing frequency, and increasing patient acceptance. Any modulation in the
temperature (T), pH, ions, and ultraviolet irradiation can trigger the
gelation in the solution of certain sensitive polymers which offers
controlled drug release, higher retention time, and longer washout
period. Biodegradable polymers including poly-caprolactone, polyD-Lactic acid, pectin, gellan gum, chitosan, alginic acid, xyloglucan,
poly-DL-lactide-co-glycolide, and poly-caprolactone are used to
prepare the in situ gel system.10
This study was aimed to develop topical in situ gel containing
moxifloxacin loaded nanostructured lipid carrier (MOX-NLCs) for
enhancing the corneal permeation, prolonging the washout period,
and exhibiting better eye compatibility. Further, MOX-NLCs ex vivo
permeation and retention on the freshly excised goat cornea were
evaluated. In addition, MOX-NLCsetreated corneas were subjected
to histologic studies to find out the probable toxicity of MOX-NLCs
on the corneal cells.
Optimization of Process Variables
Primary Screening of Critical Parameters
The fractional factorial (5 factors, 2 levels) design was used
for the identification of critical factors affecting the particle size
(PS), zeta potential (ZP), and % entrapment efficiency (% EE) of
NLC formulation.14 Therefore, solid: liquid lipid ratio (LR), homogenization speed (HS), homogenization time, temperature
(T), and surfactant concentration (SC) was evaluated to attain
the purpose. Total 16 batches were designed by the software.
Using the generated preliminary experimental data, critical
factors were identified and selected for further optimization of
final NLCs.
Optimization by Box-Behnken Response Surface Design
The Box-Behnken design with 3-factor 3-levels was selected to
create the experimental batches. Meanwhile, the impact of independent variables including HS, SC, and LR was also studied on PS,
ZP, and %EE of NLC using Box-Behnken response surface analysis.
Total 15 runs with combination of different levels of process and
formulation factor were generated by the software.
Physicochemical Characterization of MOX-NLCs
The descriptive methodology used to perform the PS, polydispersity index (PDI), and ZP analysis.15 Encapsulation efficiency of
NLC,13 scanning electron microscopy (SEM),16 atomic force microscopy (AFM),16 differential scanning calorimetry (DSC),17 X-ray
diffraction study (XRD)17 are included in the Supplementary
Material.
Materials and Methods
Materials
All materials used in the study are listed in the Supplementary
Material.
Selection of Lipids
The solid and liquid lipids were preferred based on the relative
solubility of MOX in the different lipid and the relative miscibility of
solid and liquid lipid with each other. The separate methodology
described in the previous study11,12 was employed to determine the
solubility of MOX in different lipids.
In Vitro Release Study of NLC
In vitro drug release of MOX-NLC was performed in pH 7.4
simulated tear fluid using dialysis bag diffusion method. Overnight
soaked dialysis membrane (cut-off molecular weight 12,00014,000 Da) was filled with 5 mL of MOX-NLC and immersed in 100
mL dissolution medium stirring with 100 rpm on magnetic stirrer
and maintained at 37 ± 0.5 C. Meanwhile, 2 mL of sample pipette
out at the defined interval up to 24 h and replaced with equal
volume of fresh simulated tear fluid. Finally, the samples were
analyzed in UV spectrophotometer at 292 nm to determine the
concentration.
Antimicrobial Activity
Preparation of Moxifloxacin Loaded Nanostructured Lipid Carriers
MOX-NLC was synthesized using hot homogenization ultrasonication method.13 Briefly, 10 mg MOX dissolved in 2 mL chloroform was dispersed in the melt of glyceryl monostearate (GMS)
and Capmul MCM mixture (ratios varying from 60:40 to 80:20)
maintained at 72 C, 10 C above the lipid’s melting point.
Sequentially, the above melt mixture was disseminated in
aqueous solution (20 mL) of poloxamer-188 using high speed
homogenizer (Ultra Turrax; IKA, Staufen, Germany) for 15 min.
Eventually, the resulting primary emulsion was cooled and
ultrasonicated (Dr. Hielscher, Buchholz in der Nordheide, Germany) for 3 min at 60% amplitude with the frequency of 0.5 s to
obtain the desired MOX-NLCs formulation and then cooled at
room temperature. Furthermore, the resulting nanosuspension
was centrifuged (20,000 rpm for 30 min) to remove free drug
present in the supernatant, and the MOX-NLCs pallets were
redispersed in the distilled water to produce final concentration of
2 mg/mL equivalent to MOX.
Broth dilution technique was employed to detect the minimum
inhibitory concentration (MIC) in 96-well plate against Staphylococcus aureus strain. MOX solution and MOX-NLCs (equivalent to 32
mg MOX concentrations) was sequentially diluted in the 96-well
plate preoccupied with 100 mL LB medium and inoculated with
100 mL of 0.5 10 6 CFU S. aureus to obtain the 8, 4, 2, 0.5, 0.25,
0.125, 0.0625, 0.0312, and 0.0156 mg/mL final MOX concentration.
After 24 h incubation at 37 C, the absorbance at 570 nm was
measured using microplate reader (SYNERGY/HTX; BioTek Instruments, Inc., Winooski, VT) to determine the MIC.
Furthermore, agar diffusion technique was carried out to validate the result of broth dilution method and antimicrobial efficacy
of MOX-NLC. In this method, formulation (equivalent to MIC) was
allowed to diffuse through solidified agar medium inoculated with
S. aureus suspension for 24 h at 37 C. After 24 h, the zone of inhibition was calculated by means of Vernier caliper and compared
with control. The whole protocol was followed according to previous study.18
S. Gade et al. / Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences xxx (2019) 1-12
Stability Studies
The optimized MOX-NLCs were studied for it stability up to 90
days at 30 ± 2 C/65% ± 5% RH. The stored samples were analyzed at
regular intervals for any variation in PS, PDI, ZP, and %EE and
compared with initial data. Furthermore, one-way ANOVA (Dunnett post test; compared all time point with initial data i.e., 0 days)
was performed for each parameter individually to determine the
significance difference.
Preparation of MOX-NLC Loaded In Situ Gel
Sodium alginate (1% w/v) and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose
(0.5% w/v) were dissolved in the water on magnetic stirrer. Subsequently, the final MOX-NLCs suspension was dispersed in the
above polymeric solution to produce the MOX-NLCs in situ gel
suspension (equivalent to 2 mg/mL of MOX).19 Finally, the pH was
adjusted to 6.4 with the help of 0.1N NaOH/0.1N HCl after addition
of the buffering and osmolality agents.
Characterization of MOX-NLC Loaded In Situ Gel
Clarity and Gelling Capacity
The prepared formulation was visually checked for clarity,19 and
then gelling capacity of formulation was measured in terms of
gelling time by instilling the 50 mL of the in situ gel in a vial having 2
mL of simulated tear fluid and observed visually.20
Measurement of Viscosity of In Situ Gel
Brookfield viscometer (AMETEK Brookfield, Middleborough,
MA) with spindle No 63 was used to determine the viscosity of in
situ gels.21 Viscosities of in situ gel solutions were measured before
and after gelling at varying angular velocities (50 rpm & 100 rpm)
maintained at 37 ± 1 C. The objective of varying the spindle speed
was to determine the flow behavior of gel.
Particle Size and PDI Analysis of Gel
PS and PDI of gel were determined by photon correlation
spectroscopy using Delsa Nano C, PS analyser after 10 times dilution
of in situ gel.
Texture Profile Analysis
Texture profile analysis was performed using a TA-XT2® Texture
Analyzer (Stable Micro Systems, Surrey, UK) to find out the mechanical property of gel.21 In texture profile analysis mode, a back
extrusion 35 mm probe was compressed twice with 0.1 g trigger
force into the samples at the rate of 1 mm s 1 to a depth of 30 mm
allowing delay period of 5 s between 2 compression cycles. Subsequently, from the obtained resultant force-time plots, the values
of the adhesiveness, cohesiveness, and hardness were determined.
Collection and Processing of Goat Eye
Freshly excised goat eyes procured from the butcher’s house
were immediately stored in Krebs ringer solution. Further, the eyes
were dissected to obtain the corneal tissue pieces (3 cm2) and were
stored in Krebs ringer solution under 80 C to keep the eye
preserved.22
In Vitro Release of In Situ Gel
In vitro release of in situ gel was studied on Franz diffusion cell
using the overnight soaked (in pH 7.4 simulated tear fluid) cellulosic dialysis membrane (M.wt 12,000-14,000 Da.). The pH 7.4
simulated tear fluid was used as the release medium in receptor
3
compartment. The whole release apparatus was maintained at 37 ±
1 C with continuous stirring on hot plate magnetic stirrer. The 1 mL
aliquot was removed on specified time interval and replaced with
fresh medium. Eventually, the withdrawn sample was diluted
suitably and analyzed with UV spectrophotometer at 292 nm to
determine the released drug concentration.
Ex Vivo Corneal Permeation and Retention Study
Ex Vivo Transcorneal permeation studies were carried out on
Franz diffusion cell (internal area 1.77 cm2) using the freshly
procured goat cornea.23 The Central Animal Ethical Committee,
Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu
University approved the given protocol for ex vivo corneal
permeation study. The excised cornea clipped in between receptor and donor compartment of a Franz diffusion cell in such a
way that inner epithelial surface was opposite to the receptor
compartment. Here, the receptor compartment was occupied
with the simulated tear fluid (pH 7.4) as release medium. MOXNLC loaded in situ gel/MOX loaded in situ gel equivalent to 1
mg MOX was instilled in the donor cell over cornea. The release
medium in receptor compartment was maintained at 37 C and
stirred constantly using a magnetic stirrer. Predefined aliquot was
pipetted out during the study from the receptor compartment at
definite time interval up to 12 h and analyzed for MOX content at
292 nm in a UV/Visible spectrophotometer after appropriate dilutions with tear fluid.
Furthermore, the treated corneal tissue was washed thrice using
the phosphate buffer saline to remove loosely adhered formulation
and free drug. Recovered tissue was homogenized using homogenizer (IKA) in phosphate buffer saline to recover the MOX retained
in the corneal tissue in each sample. Finally, the homogenized
corneal tissues were centrifuged at 5000 rpm at 4 C for 10 min. The
supernatant was collected and analyzed spectrophotometrically at
292 nm after proper dilution to determine the amount retained in
the tissue after permeation study.
The permeation flux across the cornea was calculated using the
formula:
Permeation Flux ¼
Slope of the amount permeated vs time graph
Internal Area of Diffusion cell
Hydration of Cornea
The cornea without sclera tissue was treated with MOX, placebo,
and MOX-NLCs in situ gel for 12 h to determine the corneal hydration. The cornea treated with 0.9% w/v saline was used as control. Each treated cornea was weighed, saturated with methanol for
5 min, and stored overnight at 80 C for complete drying. After
drying, the cornea was reweighed, and % hydration was
calculated.24
Histopathologic Study
Corneal tissue was treated with different formulation group
including MOX, placebo NLCs, MOX-NLC in situ gel, and 0.9% w/v
saline (taken as control) for 12 h. The treated corneal tissue was
cut in to 40 mm transverse section using Leica cryotome (Leica,
Wetzlar, Germany) to prepare glass smears, and the transverse
sections were dehydrated using graded solutions of ethanol.
Finally, the transverse sections of corneal tissues were stained
with hematoxylin and eosin dye, and the stained sections were
observed under inverted microscope at the magnification 40
and analyzed.25
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S. Gade et al. / Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences xxx (2019) 1-12
Result and Discussion
Effect on Particle Size
Lipid Screening
As shown in Table 1, the PS of all 15 batches varied from 180.5
± 10.1 to 387.8 ± 16.5 nm. Based on the nonsignificant lack of fit
test (F value 0.47 and p value 0.732) and lowest PRESS value
3155.78, quadratic model was preferred to explain the effect. The
following polynomial equation was generated from ANOVA for
evaluating the factor's effect on PS using Design expert 7.0
software.
The miscibility of 2 different lipids and the drug solubility in
the lipids affect the characteristic like entrapment efficiency,
loading capacity, and stability of NLCs12 which are critical prerequisite for pharmaceutical applications. Out of 4 liquid lipid,
MOX had maximum solubility in Capmul (1.5 mg/mL) compared
with capric glyceride (0.6 mg/mL), capric triglyceride (0.68 mg/
mL), and Hariol (0.49 mg/mL). Similarly, glyceryl monostearate
melt maximally dissolved the MOX (1.3 mg/mL) than stearic acid
and behenic acid, etc. Therefore, based on the results of preliminary solubility data of MOX in different lipids, glyceryl
monostearate (solid lipid) and Capmul (liquid lipid) were selected
for NLCs formulation. Furthermore, the solubility of MOX in lipid
mixture (Capmul and GMS) was enhanced slightly to 1.8 mg/mL.
Meanwhile, the selected lipid produced the homogenous mixture
(ratio 80:20, 70:30 and 60:40) without separation compared with
other combinations. Separation of oil droplets was tested by filter
paper test method.
Optimization of MOX-NLCs
Total 15 experimental batches depicted in Table 1 were
designed using Box-Behnken design with 3-factors 3-levels to
obtain the optimized level of independent variables for preparing the MOX-NLCs with desired responses. At the same time,
the best suitable model for illustrating the impact of various
variables on formulation parameter was determined on the basis
of nonsignificant lack of fit model and lowest predicted residual
error sum of squares value (PRESS value) for different models.
Moreover, based on the model suggested, a polynomial equation
correlating the effect of various formulation factors on responses
was generated by ANOVA test. The positive and negative coefficient value for particular variables in this equation describes
the direct and indirect effect on responses.
Interestingly, the statistical analysis of data in hands suggested
that quadratic model was best model for describing the effect of
variables on PS and % EE (Table 2). ANOVA of responses and factors
for quadratic model produced the equation in terms of A, B, C, AB,
AC, BC, A2, B2, C2, where, A, B and C represents HS, surfactant
concentration and LR, respectively.
PS ¼ þ222:97
49:03*A
23:05*B þ 27:9*C þ 12:75*A*B
1:40*A*C þ 6:30*BC þ 60:24*A2 þ 20:99*B2
0:56*C2
(1)
It is clear from the Equation 1 and Figures 1a-1c that HS and SC
had inverse relation ( ve coefficient), while solid to liquid LR had
direct relation (þve coefficient) with the PS. The equation has larger
magnitude for A (HS) 49.03 and B (SC) 23.05, whereas the A2
and B2 is þ60.24 and 20.99, respectively. Both values are larger
compared with the baseline factor (223); therefore, the HS and SC
significantly affected the PS. At the same time, the effect of HS and
SC was increased more than proportionally as the values of HS and
SC was increased. On the other hand, the C (LR) magnitude þ27.9
representing that PS will increase on increasing the LR, but the
value of C2 is 0.56, so will have negligible effect on the PS. However, Figures 1a and 1b clearly show that on further increasing the
HS up to maximum, PS increased perhaps due to droplet recoalescence or Ostwald ripening. Besides that, surfactant leads to
decreased interfacial tension and according to Laplaces pressure
theorem, as the interfacial tension decrease the disruption of
droplet into fine particles increase.
Effect on Entrapment Efficiency
The quadratic model was the best model to precisely demonstrate the effect of variables on the %EE. The quadratic model with
lowest 344.5 PRESS value and nonsignificant lack fit test (10.11, F
value and 0.09, p value) generated the following polynomial
equation based on the ANOVA test for responses.
EE ¼ þ69:23
1:00*A þ 5:35*B þ 9:88*C þ 0:55*AB
0:40*AC þ 2:20*B*C
4:47*A2
10:57*B2
2:32*C2
(2)
Table 1
Summary Table of Box-Behnken Design
Exp. Run
Actual Values
Batch
HS
SC
LR
PS
F1
F2
F3
F4
F5
F6
F7
F8
F9
F10
F11
F12
F13
F14
F15
15,000.00
10,000.00
15,000.00
20,000.00
20,000.00
15,000.00
15,000.00
15,000.00
10,000.00
10,000.00
15,000.00
20,000.00
15,000.00
10,000.00
20,000.00
0.50
1.00
1.50
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.50
1.00
1.00
1.50
1.00
1.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
80:20
80:20
80:20
80:20
60:40
70:30
60:40
70:30
60:40
70:30
70:30
70:30
60:40
70:30
70:30
293.7
356.7
257.8
255.8
211.4
233.4
180.5
211.9
306.7
318.6
223.6
246.1
241.6
387.8
264.3
Mean ± SD, n ¼ 3.
Dependent Variables
ZP
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
16.7
21.9
14.2
10.7
11.2
9.8
10.1
17.3
18.6
17.4
13.2
14.1
9.8
16.5
10.3
13.8
16.8
21.4
17.8
18.1
16.4
22.6
17.9
15.9
20.4
16.7
22.4
14.5
12.8
13.5
EE
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
1.2
1.4
2.1
1.7
1.3
1.9
2.5
1.4
2.1
2.3
1.8
2.7
1.7
1.3
1.5
56.7
75.3
73.6
71.5
50.4
68.5
51.6
70.1
52.6
58.6
69.1
58.7
43.5
50.8
48.7
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
4.2
4.9
5.7
3.1
4.1
5.3
3.7
4.8
3.6
4.2
4.2
4.3
2.9
3.3
4.1
5
S. Gade et al. / Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences xxx (2019) 1-12
Table 2
Precisely Collected Data of Lack of Fit Test and Model Summary Statistics for Suggested Quadratic Model
Responses
PS
EE
Lack of Fit Test
Sum of Square
Degree of Freedom
Mean Square
F Values
p Values
Remarks
164.65
21.34
3
3
54.88
7.11
0.47
10.11
0.7323
0.0913
Suggested
Suggested
Std. Dev
r2
Adjusted r2
Predicted r2
PRESS
8.90
2.13
0.9913
0.9813
0.9756
0.9475
0.9306
0.7161
3155.78
344.52
Model Summary Statistic
PS
EE
The values of entrapment efficiency obtained in the range of
43.5 ± 2.9 75.3 ± 4.9% are depicted in Table 1. From the Equation 2,
it was deduced that the entire factors cumulatively contributed the
similar extent of effect on %EE, the qualitative effect was different.
The HS with magnitude 1 (A) and 4.47 (A2) had inverse relation
and decreased the %EE on increasing the HS (from 10,000 to
20,000). Conversely, SC with þ5.35 (B), 10.57 (B2), and LR
with þ9.88 and 2.32 (C2) shown in Equation 2 had direct relation
Suggested
Suggested
with %EE. The data in hands and Figures 1d-1f concluded that EE
increased with increase in the fraction of liquid lipid (from 80:20 to
60:40) and SC apparently due to high solubility of MOX in lipids and
more voids produced in the NLCs due to different polymorphic
structure of the 2 different lipids that can accumulate more drug
and the presence of sufficient SC to cover the newly formed particles that prevent the drug expulsion and ultimately form the
stable nanoparticles.
Figure 1. 3D plot elaborating the effect of various factors on the PS (a, b, c) and %EE (d, e, f) of MOX-NLCs.
6
S. Gade et al. / Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences xxx (2019) 1-12
Process and Variable Control
SEM Analysis
Various diagnostic tools were analyzed to determine the process
control including plot between the predicted versus actual
response values, residual versus predicted values, and residual
versus run values and many more. Figure 2 elucidated that all the
process and formulation variables were well controlled as all the
values for PS and %EE falls within the normal range.
The shape and surface characteristics of the optimized batch of
MOX-NLC were evaluated by scanning electron microscopic analysis (Fig. 4a). The SEM micrograph revealed the spherical shape and
uniform distribution of particles, which was also evident from the
narrow PDI obtained in the photon correlation spectroscopic
analysis.
Selection of Optimized Formulation
Atomic Force Microscopy
HS and SC, having highest magnitude in polynomial, equation
were the critical parameters to optimize the PS, while LR and SC
proved to be the important factor to obtain the maximum EE. Based
on the extent of variable’s effect on PS and EE, the constraint was
applied to factors level to achieve the set of optimized or predicted
factors level, PS and %EE (Table 3). Optimized MOX-NLCs with
predefined response were derived from numerical optimization
technique using the desirability approach (desirability plot with
predicted level and responses; Fig. 3). The values of statistically
predicted optimized levels of different variables along with predicted responses are provided in Table 3. Further, keeping the
optimized factor's level in mind the optimized MOX-NLCs batch
was prepared and found that prepared MOX-NLCs had almost
similar PS 232.1 ± 9.2 nm and % EE 63.1 ± 2.4 as predicted. Besides
that, it had 0.247 ± 0.03 PDI and 16.3 ± 1.6 mV ZP. Though MOXNLC had low ZP; however, poloxamer also provides the steric stabilization to prevent the agglomeration.26
Atomic force microscopy (Fig. 4b) of NLCs was performed to take
2-dimensional and three-dimensional views and also to measure
average height, roughness, diameter, and skewness of MOXincorporated NLCs. Average height of NLCs was found to be 149 ±
10.2 nm which was equivalent to the diameter obtained in the SEM.
Average height of NLCs did not vary significantly than SEM data,
indicating that particles were spherical in shape.
In Vitro Release Study of NLC
In vitro release studies performed in dialysis bag are shown in
the Figure 4c. Unlike the 97.5 ± 8.7% immediate release of drug from
pure MOX within 8 h, release from MOX-NLCs was slow where 36.3
± 3.2% MOX released within 6 h followed by up to 82.3 ± 7.8%
sustained release in 24 h. The initial fast release could be attributed
to the surface-adsorbed MOX on the nanoparticles; however, the
slow diffusion of MOX from the lipid matrix of NLCs resulted in
Figure 2. Process diagnostic plots between predicted versus actual (a and d); residual versus predicted (b and e); and residual versus run responses (c and f) showing that responses
for PS and EE were within the range with controlled process variables.
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S. Gade et al. / Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences xxx (2019) 1-12
Table 3
Summary of Predicted and Experimental Values of PS and EE at Model Optimized Levels of Process Variables
Batches
Predicted
Experimental
Process and Formulation Variables
Responses
HS (rpm)
SC (%w/v)
LR
PS (nm)
EE (%)
PDI
ZP (mV)
13,565
13,600
1.08
1.10
2.76
2.75
238.4
232.1 ± 9.2
64.2
63.1 ± 2.4
e
0.247 ± 0.03
e
16.3 ± 1.6
sustained release of MOX.27 Further, the kinetic study of release
data revealed that the drug release followed the diffusion mechanism as the Higuchi kinetics had best regression coefficients (r2,
0.911) indicating that MOX release from MOX-NLC was directly
proportional to square root of time.28 Similarly, the “n” value was
below 0.5 in Peppas model supporting the Fickian diffusion of MOX
from NLCs.
lyophilized MOX-NLC thermogram perhaps due to the molecularly
dissolved state of MOX or may be due to presence of amorphous
state of MOX in the NLCs. Interestingly, the molecular dissolved
state in NLCs might be the outcome of somewhat higher solubility
of MOX in the different lipids. Hence, the findings of DSC study
deduced that MOX was either present in the molecularly dissolved
or amorphous form in the lipid matrix.
FTIR Study
XRD Study
As shown in Figure 5a, FTIR spectra of MOX had the prominent
specific band at 1760 cm 1 corresponding to C¼O stretching, 1320
cm 1 due to C-N stretching, and 1622 cm 1, 1518 cm 1, and 1451
cm 1 corresponding to aromatic C¼C stretching. Moreover, an aromatic C-H bending for substituted benzene was found at 1875
cm 1. The MOX also contains spectral peak for most reactive primary amine group at 3539.35 and 3459.6 cm 1. Furthermore, all
these peaks were also present intact in the physical mixture (MOX,
GMS, Capmul, and poloxamer-188) and MOX-NLCs demonstrating
the excellent physicochemical compatibility of drug and excipients
and no sign of interaction.
The reduced intensity of scattered pattern shown in Figure 5c
obtained in XRD findings also support the fact that crystallinity of
MOX was diminished in the MOX-NLCs. The MOX had many characteristic intense diffraction (2q) peaks at 10.26 , 14.65 , 17.15 ,
17.57, 20.53 , 23.769 , 24.238 , 27.628 , 29.308 , 34.28 , 38.795 ,
43.32 , and 49.43 . Moreover, physical mixture of MOX and
excipient demonstrated the majority of peaks with reduced intensity, but at the same time, most of the diffraction peak diffraction pattern was disappeared in the MOX-NLCs diffraction pattern
suggesting the presence of homogeneously dispersed molecular
form of MOX in NLC’s lipid matrix. The relative reduction of
diffraction intensity may also be either due to reduced crystal
structure or change in the crystal orientation.30
DSC Study
DSC data elucidate the degree of crystallinity based on the
melting enthalpy of different samples. Similarly, the shift in the
drugs melting point gives the idea about physicochemical
compatibility among the drug and the other component of
formulation.29 It is evident from the Figure 5b that the DSC thermogram of MOX had endothermic peak at 239.9 C corresponding
to the melting temperature, whereas the same peak was absent in
Stability Studies
The statistical analysis (one-way ANOVA) of stability data obtained at different time period for MOX-NLCs archived in Table 4
demonstrated insignificant variation in the PS, PDI, and EE after
90 days incubation. Furthermore, the ZP of the MOX-NLCs was
sufficient to stabilize the formulation owing to poloxamer-188
Figure 3. Desirability plot of predicted values of PS (a) and EE (b) based on the optimized processing and formulation factors.
8
S. Gade et al. / Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences xxx (2019) 1-12
Figure 5. Drug excipient compatibility study. (a) FTIR spectra; (b) DSC thermogram;
and (c) XRD diffraction pattern of MOX-NLCs and different other samples.
Figure 4. Characterization of optimized MOX-NLCs. (a) HR-SEM image, (b) AFM image,
and (c) In vitro release profile of MOX-NLCs.
steric stabilizing property which can easily compensate the missed
electrostatic repulsion.26
when studied on agar plate swabbed with S. aureus bacteria. This
may be due to higher penetration, sustained release, and enhanced
uptake of MOX-NLCs by the microorganism. The findings of antimicrobial study indicated that MOX-NLCs possessed the enhanced
antimicrobial potential.
Antimicrobial Efficacy Test
Characterization of MOX-NLC Loaded Gel
The results of broth dilution methods revealed that MOX and
MOX-NLCs has same MIC of 0.125 mg/mL. Though, they had similar
MIC against S. aureus, Figures 6a and 6b revealed that MOX-NLCs
exhibited higher zone of inhibition compared with MOX alone
Clarity
The in situ gel was visually observed for clarity against black &
white background and found to be clear. Clarity is a quality control
test to reduce number of the large particles in the formulation
S. Gade et al. / Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences xxx (2019) 1-12
9
responsible for cross-linking of alginate polymer and thus gel
formation.
Table 4
Stability Data of MOX-NLCs
Parameters
0 Days
30 Days
60 Days
90 Days
Particle
size (nm)
PDI
EE (%)
232.1 ± 9.2
237.3 ± 12.5a
247.6 ± 14.8a
258.6 ± 10.8a
0.247 ± 0.03
63.1 ± 2.4
0.261 ± 0.03b
61.7 ± 2.5c
0.275 ± 0.04b
60.4 ± 3.1c
0.298 ± 0.06b
59.6 ± 3.2c
Mean ± SD; n ¼ 3.
The one-way ANOVA was performed to determine the significance difference.
a
Represents nonsignificant difference of PS at different time point versus 0 d.
b
Represents nonsignificant difference of PDI at different time point versus 0 d;
similarly.
c
Represents nonsignificant difference of EE at different time point versus 0 d.
which may cause irritation and tear flow and hence the loss of drug
from ocular surface.
Gelling Capacity
The in situ gel formed gel matrix within fraction of seconds in
presence of tear fluid due to replacement of monovalent Naþ of
sodium alginate with Caþ2 ions present in tear fluid, which is
Measurement of Viscosity of In Situ Gel
The findings of rheological studies are shown in Table 5. Besides increase in the viscosity of MOX-NLCs of in situ gel from
246.4 ± 9.67 to 461 ± 8.78 cps on gelling with tear fluid, the
viscosity of control gel was also enhanced on addition of MOXNLCs in gel before as well as after the gelling. Moreover, the viscosity of in situ gel decreased with respect to increasing spindle
speed from 461 ± 8.78 cps (50 rpm) to 291 ± 9.72 cps (100 rpm).
These findings inferred that in situ gel had shear thinning
property (Pseudoplastic; non-Newtonian flow); conversely, the
MOX-NLCs supplemented in situ gel (Sol form) showed Newtonian flow.
PS and PDI of In Situ Gel
The PS distribution of gel system was investigated to determine
the probable interaction of MOX-NLCs and gel components in terms
of particle aggregation. The PS of MOX-NLC after incorporation in
gel was 234.6 ± 8.7 nm with 0.301.0 ± 0.04 PDI whereas, PS of NLC
Figure 6. S. aureus zone inhibition on agar plate by pure MOX (a) and MOX-MLCs (b); whereas, (c, d, e, and f) represents the histologic images of untreated cornea; placebo gel
treated MOX free NLC in situ gel, and MOX-NLCs in situ gel treated cornea, respectively.
10
S. Gade et al. / Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences xxx (2019) 1-12
Table 5
Rheological and Mechanical Properties of Control Gel and MOX-NLCs In Situ Gel
Gel Properties
Control (sol)
Control (gel)
MOX-NLCs In Situ Gel (sol)
MOX-NLCs In Situ Gel (gel)
Viscosity (cps)
Cohesiveness
Adhesiveness (N-mm)
Hardness (N)
135.4 ± 9.89
0.82 ± 0.09
14.22 ± 1.12
3.97 ± 0.44
398.6 ± 7.90
0.93 ± 0.12
27.58 ± 2.26
7.33 ± 0.53
246.4 ± 9.67
0.78 ± 0.08
14.39 ± 1.45
3.66 ± 0.46
461 ± 8.78
0.83 ± 0.07
28.12 ± 1.92
7.56 ± 0.69
(Mean ± SD; n ¼ 3).
suspension was 232.1 ± 9.2 nm with 0.247 ± 0.03 PDI. Therefore,
attained data supported the fact that incorporation of MOX-NLCs in
the gel did not affect the nanoparticles attribute adversely and had
shown stable nanoparticle.
Texture Profile Analysis
The mechanical properties of control in situ gel and MOX-NLC
loaded gel before and after gelling are depicted in the Table 5.
The results showed significant change in all the properties of MOXNLC loaded in situ gel before and after gelling. The cohesiveness was
increased from 0.78 ± 0.08 g to 0.83 ± 0.07 for MOX-NLCs in situ gel;
however, adhesiveness and hardness were increased from 14.39 ±
1.45 to 28.12 ± 1.92 N-mm and from 3.66 ± 0.46 to 7.56 ± 0.69 N,
respectively. Moreover, the results of mechanical property depicted
in Table 5 clearly indicated that addition of MOX-NLCs to in situ gel
did not have significant effect on the hardness, cohesiveness, and
adhesiveness compared with the control in situ gel.
Interestingly, interaction of Ca2þ ions with in situ gel had
favorable effect on concerned mechanical properties including
cohesiveness, adhesiveness, and hardness. Where, higher values of
adhesiveness and hardness were due to increased viscosity. The
higher values for adhesiveness favor the higher adhesion to the
surface and thus prolong the retention time on corneal surface.
However, the hardness had moderately high value which favors the
easy removal from the tissue surface. Unlike the hardness and
adhesiveness, lower cohesiveness is preferred which renders less
irritancy and easy spreadability on ocular surface.26
In vitro Release of In Situ Gel
The in vitro release profile of MOX and MOX-NLC in situ gel is
shown in Figure 7a. In vitro release of in situ gel of MOX-NLCs was
slow but had similar pattern to the in vitro release of NLCs. MOX in
situ gel almost completely released (96.5 ± 6.23%) the drug in 12 h.
On the contrary, MOX-NLCs in situ gel reflected the slow steady
release and released only 68.83 ± 5.61% of MOX in 24 h. The higher
viscosity of in situ gel imposed the slow diffusion of MOX within the
polymeric matrix and slowed down the release from in situ gel, and
thereby the release of MOX-NLC from in situ gel was slow compared
to the in vitro release of MOX-NLCs.
Figure 7. In vitro release and ex vivo permeation data of MOX-NLCs in situ gel. (a) In vitro release pattern; (b) ex vivo permeation profile; (c) cumulative amount of drug release from
MOX-NLC loaded gel; (d) flux of MOX-NLCs across the goat cornea.
S. Gade et al. / Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences xxx (2019) 1-12
Ex Vivo Permeation Study
Comparative ex vivo permeation was determined to evaluate the
permeability potential of MOX-NLCs supplemented in situ gel on
the goat cornea. The complete permeation profile in Figure 7b
indicated the total amount of MOX permeated across the cornea
at each time point. The MOX-NLCs in situ gel exhibited 2 times more
permeation across the freshly excised goat cornea 20.87 ± 2.53% in
12 h than pure MOX in situ gel which showed only 10.48 ± 1.19%
permeation. Similarly, the total fraction of drug permeated and the
flux of MOX-NLCs in situ gel across cornea was 208.70 ± 17.65 mg
and 9.57 ± 0.73 mg/cm2 h, respectively (Figs. 7c and 7d), which was
significantly higher than MOX in situ gel. At the same time, the
amount of MOX retained in the corneal tissue was 21.78 ± 2.34 mg
for MOX in situ gel & 37.26 ± 2.83 mg for MOX-NLCs in situ gel
(Fig. 7c). The increased permeation and retention of MOX-NLCs
across the cornea was perhaps as a result of the depot formation
in close proximity of cornea which released the drug in sustained
fashion and also due to enhanced endocytosis of NLCs by corneal
epithelium.
Corneal Hydration
Higher corneal hydration is a marker of disruption or toxicity to
the corneal tissue and therefore needed to be evaluated. The normal
corneal hydration level lies in between 75% to 80%, and significant
variation in this level signifies the alteration in the tissue structure.
Interestingly, the corneal hydration of the MOX-NLCs and MOX in situ
gel were 79.68 ± 3.7% and 77.13 ± 4.1%, respectively, which was
reversible. The hydration within the normal range proved that the
MOX-NLCs did not have any toxic effect on the cornea.
Histopathologic Study
Histopathologic study of eye was conducted by exposing eye to
the formulation, and no inflammation was observed in the image of
inverted microscope. The images 6C, 6D, 6E, and 6F represent the
untreated, placebo in situ gel treated, MOX free NLCs in situ gel
treated, and MOX-NLCs in situ gel treated cornea.
Conclusion
MOX-NLCs were efficiently prepared using hot homogenization
technique and successfully incorporated in in situ gel. The MOXNLCs showed improved antibacterial activity in agar plate zone
inhibition method. The incorporation of MOX-NLCs in in situ gel
improved the viscosity and mechanical properties essential for the
enhanced retention and permeation of MOX. Furthermore, the results of ex vivo permeation study supported the hypothesis where
MOX-NLC in situ gel showed significantly higher permeation flux,
cumulative permeated, and retained amount of MOX compared
with pure MOX in situ gel. Meanwhile, the results of % hydration
and histopathologic study on cornea suggested that formulation
had not altered the normal corneal structure or had no corneal
toxicity. Thus, the data in hands collectively deduced the conclusion
that the prepared formulation is a better alternative to the current
endophthalmitis antibiotic therapy.
Acknowledgment
The financial support to carry out the research was provided by
Indian Institute of Technology, (BHU), Varanasi, India, as the
Research Support Grant. Author also acknowledges the CIFC, IIT
11
BHU, Varanasi for carrying out the XRD, SEM, and AFM study.
Further, author acknowledges the Bharati Vidyapeeth College of
pharmacy, Navi Mumbai for carrying out the DSC analysis. The
author also indebted to MHRD, Govt. of India for providing monthly
fellowship to Ms. ShilpkalaGade.
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