PROOF Contents List of Illustrations viii Acknowledgements x Introduction 1 1 Mimesis and Film Languages 9 2 The Dream of Instant Translation 40 3 70 Before and Beyond Subtitles 4 Subtitling and the Ethics of Representation 5 6 102 Where Are the Subtitles? Metalepsis, Subtitling and Narration 143 Translating Multilingualism on Screen 176 Notes 204 Filmography 214 Bibliography 220 Index 235 vii PROOF Introduction This project had its genesis in several converging research interests. It developed out of my experience of teaching translation and audiovisual translation, out of a lifelong love of films, out of an interest in storytelling, and out of a belief in the importance of language learning. Gradually, these interests coalesced into two questions: what is the role of foreign languages in storytelling in the cinema? How does this relate to translation? As this book was in a late stage of preparation, a film was released which seemed to respond to both these questions. The film is Quentin Tarantino’s Inglourious Basterds. This is a war film, and also a film about war films. Like other films by Tarantino it is densely intertextual and self- consciously constructed. The three main players in the story are the SS Colonel Hans Landa, the irregular army unit of Jewish American soldiers known as the ‘Basterds’, and the escaped Jewish woman Shosanna Dreyfus, now owner of a cinema in Paris. The film is divided into five chapters, marked by chapter headings, which shift focus from character to character. The film’s 147 minutes are packed with typical Tarantino nods to previous Second World War films and to film history in general. The film is multilingual, alternating English and subtitled French and German, with even a smattering of Italian. By filming in several languages Inglourious Basterds recalls Second World War films like The Longest Day (1962), Von Ryan’s Express (1965), Battle of Britain (1969) and A Bridge too Far (1977), but the juxtaposition of languages alone doesn’t account for the importance of translation as a theme in the film. The film opens with French dialogue, subtitled in English. The ‘JewHunter’ Colonel Hans Landa is genially interrogating a wary French farmer, Perrier Lapadite. Landa’s French is exaggeratedly ornate, larded with elaborate syntactic constructions. A farm isn’t a farm, but an 1 PROOF 2 Translating Popular Film ‘exploitation laitière’, and so on. The rhetorical excess of Landa’s French is underlined by Lapadite’s monosyllabic replies. After several minutes of this, Landa preposterously claims, just as elaborately, that he has ‘run out’ of French, and asks whether they can continue in English: COLONEL LANDA: Monsieur LaPadite, je suis au regret de vous informer que j’ai épuisé l’étendue de mon français. Continuer à le parler si peu convenablement ne ferait que me gêner. Cependant, je crois savoir que vous parlez un anglais tout à fait correct, n’est- ce pas? [Monsieur Lapadite, I regret to inform you I’ve exhausted the extent of my French. To continue to speak it so inadequately would only embarrass me. However, I’ve been led to believe you speak English quite well.] PERRIER: Oui. [Yes.] COLONEL LANDA: Ma foi, il se trouve que moi aussi. Puisque nous sommes ici chez vous, je vous demande la permission de passer à l’anglais pour le reste de la conversation. [Well, it just so happens, I do as well. This being your house I ask your permission to switch to English for the remainder of the conversation.] PERRIER: Certainement. [By all means.] 1 This transparent device to allow a shift to English dialogue is a wink to the many narrative ‘excuses’ used in order to allow the speaking of English out of context in Hollywood films. But we discover later in the scene that the speaking of English has a second purpose within the context of the film’s plot, to lull the Jewish refugees hidden in the farmhouse into a false sense of security. This opening sequence of the film is fully 18 minutes long; much longer than its narrative function would seem to justify. By exaggerating the use of French and then ostentatiously foregrounding the shift into English (which will be followed by a return to French at the end of the scene), the film at once asserts and subverts its membership of an existing film tradition, in which the use of foreign languages is given little importance. Translation (or rather non-translation) is the plot device enabling the massacre of the Dreyfuses to take place and resulting in Shosanna’s escape, which sets the plot of the film in motion. Translation continues to structure the narrative in the rest of the film. In the second chapter, we find the Basterds toying with a German patrol. Raine offers the captured Sergeant Rachtman the services of not one, but two interpreters, the Austrian refugee Wicki and the German PROOF Introduction 3 turncoat Hugo Stiglitz. In excellent English, Rachtman refuses to cooperate and is killed. An interpreter is then required to interrogate the terrified Private Butz, who doesn’t speak English. Tarantino’s camera plays up the three- cornered dialogue between Raine, Butz and the interpreter Wicki, panning rhythmically backwards and forwards between them. Back in Paris, the conversation between Shosanna and Goebbels at the restaurant is interpreted by Goebbels’s interpreter Francesca. Francesca’s character is not important for the plot but she is thematically important for one very short scene only a second or two in length. This apparently gratuitous cutaway to a shot of Goebbels and Francesca having sex places her in a long tradition of sexualised screen linguists and interpreters (see e.g. Le Mépris (Godard, 1963); American Gigolo (Schrader, 1980); The Pillow Book (Greenaway, 1996)). The scene is brutal. Even though the shot is very brief it recontextualises Francesca’s role. In a film so full of polyglot characters, the interpreter’s skills are all but redundant. It is in the fourth section of the film that the importance of language really comes to the fore. British officer Archie Hicox is picked to lead the Allied mission to bomb the film premiere on the basis of his fluency in German. In the almost agonisingly drawn- out scene at the Louisiane bar, Hicox’s German is thoroughly tested. It is his ‘accent’, both acoustic and gestural, which ultimately lets him down. While ostensibly referencing language-as-plot-point in films such as The Great Escape (we remember when Gordon Jackson’s character is recaptured because he unthinkingly responds in English to a German officer), the scene is in fact a sly wink to the many Second World War films in which language is treated more cavalierly. Language is just as important in the film’s fifth and final section, where multilingualism breaks down. Raine and two of the Basterds try to infiltrate the film premiere disguised as Italians, despite not speaking a word of Italian. Bridget von Hammersmark’s sardonic remark about the poor language skills of the American soldiers is another nod to the linguistic sins of Hollywood. The revelation that, on top of native German, excellent English and superb French, Landa is also fluent in Italian threatens to scupper the whole plot, and it would, except for the fact that, as so often on screen, the code-switcher also switches sides. Landa’s departure from the cinema in search of a deal with the Allies finally heralds a break with the film’s multilingual theme,2 as negotiations are conducted from then on in briskly matter-of-fact English. The postponement of this shift into English as the dominant language of the narration is in itself a reference to previous films which either PROOF 4 Translating Popular Film ignore the claims of other languages on the narration entirely or summarily acknowledge them, only to shift to English at the earliest possible opportunity. The film’s intensely self- conscious code-switching both embodies and reflects on the growing tendency to mix languages in mainstream film. It plays with language as a narrative challenge and as an expressive resource. The film parodies the language management devices of earlier films and flaunts the ways in which foreign languages can contribute to narrative interest, humour, suspense and characterisation. In doing so it makes us think about the ways in which languages have been treated in mainstream cinema in the past. How have films told stories about multilingual situations, and how has that been made manageable for the films’ audiences? Most of the film’s main characters move easily between at least two languages, but the fact that only Hans Landa speaks all four of the film’s languages means that some interpreting is required. By making translation and the command of language central to the development of the plot, the film foregrounds the extent to which previous films have ‘designed out’ the need to engage with foreign languages in their narration. This film, one of whose themes is the battle of competing narratives, brings home to us the ways in which cinema asserts the right to tell stories about other language communities, and the sophisticated narrative devices that make this possible. While critics were swift to point out that Inglourious Basterds was a film about the cinema, very few saw fit to mention its treatment of language and translation. This is par for the course. Film criticism has been so preoccupied with the use of language as a metaphor3 for the communicative conventions and developing style of cinema that it has had little time to spare for considering the role of natural languages on the soundtrack. The national- cinematic paradigm with its assumption of monolingualism has until recently masked the multiplication of languages that, I will argue in this book, is not an occasional anomaly but is intrinsic to cinema. I do not set out to dethrone the notion of ‘film language’ which has proven critically very productive. Instead I seek to find ways of supplementing existing debates with considerations of the roles of foreign language on screen and the ways in which cinema negotiates Babel. In a seminal 1985 article in Screen, Ella Shohat and Robert Stam argue that questions of power inevitably lie behind the deployment and translation of languages in film. Textual-filmic uses of languages may also echo wider language-political developments in society. Critics have PROOF Introduction 5 been slow to follow up Shohat and Stam’s assertion that ‘the reality of language difference ... entails consequences for the cinema that have yet to be explored’ (Shohat and Stam 1985: 35), but a literature is gradually developing. Scholars of film and of translation have begun to look in increasing numbers at: translation and foreign languages as a theme for cinematic narrative; identity and politics in the use of foreign languages on screen; and the politics of audiovisual translation itself (a necessarily partial list would include Geist 1991; Gottlieb 2004; Dwyer 2005; Sanaker 2005; Williams 2005; Wood 2005; O’Sullivan 2007; Sanaker 2008; Viviani 2008; O’Sullivan 2009; Williams 2009). What this literature has so far not systematically addressed is the broader formal questions about how film works with and represents foreign languages (Martin 1984: 57).4 The translational transactions used to manage foreign languages in the cinema and the ways in which foreign language interacts with other signifying codes, including film sound, are still very imperfectly identified or understood. The central argument in this book is that the ways and devices by which film represents and makes manageable foreign languages to the viewer are a form of translation. This book is rooted in concrete devices and tropes which can add to our critical vocabulary of cinema and make us more aware of the ways in which the cinematic linguascape is constructed and managed. Translation is not meant here in a metaphorical sense. The translational transactions looked at in this book involve specific languages, though they do not always involve specific source and target texts. Not all of the languages are identifiable, and not all are ‘authentic’, but the shift between languages and the overlapping representations of languages constitute what Markus Nornes has referred to as ‘experiences of translation’. These experiences of translation have a specificity, even if behind it we find only the false frontage of the Hollywood movie set, which deserves serious analysis. The range of languages involved is extremely broad. I will move between a bi- or multilingual analytic position, which permits certain modes of analysis, and the position occupied by most viewers of subtitled film, which is one of lack of access to the source language. This will permit a very different sort of analysis; both, I hope, are equally important for my argument. Now a word about terminology. In many ways, this is a taxonomic project. Recognition of the bi- or multilingualism of films will require a different language with which to speak about it. The very term ‘foreign language’ is difficult. To speak of language as ‘foreign’ is to other its speakers from the outset. Foreign language is of course a mother tongue to other speakers, unless it is an invented language. To PROOF 6 Translating Popular Film speak of languages other than English as foreign may result in English functioning as an unmarked norm which is far from the intention here. Instead, the important distinction is one of access. ‘Foreign language’ is used throughout this book to refer not to a specific language, or from the point of view of a single language, but to refer to heterolanguage, in other words any language which is difficult or impossible of comprehension to all or part of a given film’s primary target audience in a given communicative context. As this study deals to a large extent with English-language film, the foreign languages in question will often but not always be languages other than English. We will also see examples where English is the foreign language and some intriguing instances of languages being at one and the same time ‘foreign’ and ‘domestic’. Incomprehension can characterise dialect as well as language; dialects too are potentially of interest to this study to the extent to which they are, or are perceived to be, incomprehensible to all or part of a target audience. The subtitling of a film by Ken Loach or Mike Leigh for a domestic British audience, for instance, would invoke questions of language and translation which are germane to the issues discussed in this book. The first chapter situates the question of foreign language on film within the context of audiovisual translation studies and introduces Meir Sternberg’s (1981) model of linguistic representation and Rainer Grutman’s notion of heterolingualism. Sternberg proposes that representations of foreign languages in narrative can be classified along a cline between vehicular matching and linguistic homogenisation, or avoided through referential restriction. I show how Sternberg’s model can be usefully applied and adapted to account for linguistic representations on screen. Against the backdrop of cinema as ‘universal language’, in the second chapter I discuss a series of cinematic devices, including the translating dissolve, the homogenising shift, narrative framing and ironic duplication of subtitled dialogue. I argue that these are manifestations of the dream of the instantaneity and redundancy of translation, which can be read as a response to the problems of linguistic otherness raised by the advent of sound. The third chapter draws on the work of Michel Chion to look at foreign languages as marked elements of a film’s dialogue track. Though Chion does not explicitly address the question of heterolingualism, his categories of theatrical, textual and emanation speech provide a working model for treatments of foreign language on screen. His categories of ‘causal’ listening, ‘semantic’ listening and ‘reduced’ listening offer a way of PROOF Introduction 7 understanding how spectators might be expected to process the different treatments of foreign languages on screen, and thus how filmmakers and scriptwriters design the delivery of heterolingual dialogue. Asking whether we can really talk about ‘untranslated’ film dialogue, I look at mise en scène, diegetic interpreting and voiceover as modes of translation which facilitate foreign speech on screen while avoiding or minimising the use of subtitles. In Chapter 4 I look in detail at subtitling and its role in the rise of multilingual films. I discuss the presentation of subtitling as an ethical representational choice and seek to problematise this through two case studies. First I analyse a small selection of six films which were entirely subtitled for their domestic audience: Incubus (1965), Sebastiane (1976), Men With Guns (1997), Passion of the Christ (2004), Apocalypto (2006) and Letters from Iwo Jima (2006). The films are pseudosubtitled, in other words the direction of translation is reversed relative to the on-screen ‘translation’ taking place (the scripts were written in English and translated into the foreign language, to be resubtitled in English on screen). This already puts into question the ethics of this linguistic strategy. A quantitative analysis of the subtitles suggests that the availability of subtitling as a mode of translation will influence script design, resulting on the one hand in dialogue-heavy scripts and on the other hand as almost dialogue-free cinema of spectacle. The second case study looks at Native American languages on screen and show how subtitles may become part of a set of mimetic clichés. The ethical representational choice in the age of subtitling may in fact be a refusal to subtitle. Chapter 5 interrogates the textual status of subtitles in the framework of Genette’s notion of the paratext. The unstable status of subtitles problematises Genette’s distinction between the epitextual and the peritextual. It goes on to look at ways in which subtitling in popular film can become textual, through: formal innovation and play in subtitling; the use of subtitling as an intertextual device; the physical relationship of subtitles to film; and the blurring of the line between subtitles and the diegesis through metaleptic effects which cross boundaries of narrative framing. Subtitling in popular film may become a metadiscourse on subtitling itself. The final section of the chapter discusses how subtitles become narrational, being deployed or withheld in order to underpin effects of focalisation and identification. The final chapter looks at multilingual films as a problem for screen translators. How does one translate a multilingual film text into what is traditionally expected to be a monolingual product? The usual PROOF 8 Translating Popular Film pattern is that the multilingual film tends to become monolingual. I look at the problems of conveying meaningful language shift through dubbing and/or subtitling in Le Mépris, The Yakuza (Pollack, 1974) and Kameradschaft (Pabst, 1931). However, we can also note a contrary tendency in recent international distribution, which is to benefit from the cultural capital of subtitles by partly subtitling a foreign-language film and partly dubbing it. In this case monolingual film texts are becoming multilingual in translation. The example of Haute tension/High tension (Aja, 2003) is discussed. I conclude by linking this new development in audiovisual translation to the fashionable multilingual aesthetic prevalent in popular ‘anglophone’ film. PROOF Index Abdalla, Khalid, 119 abusive subtitling, 147–50 accent, 3, 18, 19, 26–30, 35, 39, 58, 59, 78, 95, 96, 103, 113–15, 159, 161–2, 192 accented cinema, 100, 106, 108, 121–2 acoustic codes, 15–16 Adams, Douglas, 62–3 adaptation, 9, 11 Ako, Masi, 118–19 Alive! (1993), 26 Allen, Woody, 14–15, 32, 153 Altman, Robert, 135 Ambush at Blood Pass (1970), 148 America, America (1963), 32–4 Amistad (1997), 67, 68 AMPAS, 110, 111–12 Anatahan (1953), 98 anime, 147–8 AnimEigo, 148 Apocalypto (2006), 7, 105, 106, 110, 119–20, 122, 127, 128, 129, 211n32 Armstrong, Gillian, 28–9, 106 arthouse distributors, 178 Assmann, Aleida, 42 Atonement (2007), 29 attribution explicit, 30–5, 213n2 implicit, 32 audiodescription, 11 audiovisual translation see also subtitles/subtitling dominant types of, 11 feelings about, 12–13 overview, 9–13 politics of, 5 audiovisual translation studies (AVTS), 11 authenticity, 5, 24, 38, 56–7, 104, 114, 115, 116, 121, 126, 136–7, 200 autonomous interpreters, 89 Autumn Moon (1992), 171–3 Avatar (2009), 137–8, 206n7 awards, 110–12 Babel (2006), 20, 107, 139, 174 Babel Fish, 62–3 Babette’s Feast/Babettes Gæstebud (1987), 94 Balázs, Béla, 56–7 Bananas (1971), 32 The Battle at Elderbush Gulch (1913), 21 Battle of Britain (1969), 1 Baudry, Jean-Louis, 17 Bedazzled (2000), 141 Before Night Falls (2000), 95 Béhar, Henri, 143 Benioff, David, 119, 211n21 Bercovici, Eric, 39 Bergman, Ingmar, 72, 153 Berman, Antoine, 120, 183 Besson, Luc, 16 Best Foreign Film Academy Award, 110–12 Betz, Mark, 204n4 Be with Me (2005), 110, 111 The Big Steal (1949), 23, 36 bilingual actors, 30 bilingual interference, 28 The Bitter Tea of General Yen (1933), 45–7 Black Book (2006), 109, 178 Black Robe (1991), 116, 131, 189 Blanchett, Cate, 18, 28, 30 Die Blaue Engel/The Blue Angel (1930/1931), 50 Blue (1993), 16 Boorman, John, 13–14, 116, 210, 211n18 Borat (2006), 18 The Border (1982), 70 Border Blues (2004), 28 Bordwell, David, 35, 209n10 Botched (2007), 113 Boujedra, Rachid, 112–14 Branigan, Edward, 85, 100, 168 235 PROOF 236 Index Bresson, Robert, 153 Bride and Prejudice (2004), 173–4 Brides (2004), 111 Bridge on the River Kwai (1957), 136 A Bridge too Far (1977), 1 Bring Me the Head of Alfredo Garcia (1974), 23, 171 Broken Arrow (1950), 31, 131 Brooks, James L., 36 Brucio nel vento (2002), 178–80 Bubel, Claudia, 163, 169 Buffalo Bill and the Indians (1976), 135 Buffy the Vampire Slayer (1997–2003), 31–2 Bugsy Malone (1976), 161 Bulletproof Monk (2003), 58 Burt, Richard, 154 Caché (2005), 111 Calendar (1993), 81, 178, 208n15 camera movements, 57–8, 60–1 Cameron, James, 137 Capra, Frank, 45 captioning, 10 Carion, Christian, 115 Carla’s Song (1996), 34 Caught on a Train (1980), 18 causal listening, 6–7, 71, 72–3 Chaplin, Charlie, 18 Charlotte Gray (2001), 28–30, 106, 115 Che Part 1 (2008), 110 Cheyfitz, Eric, 38 Chion, Michel, 6–7, 19, 71–2, 94, 107, 136, 138 Chocolat (2000), 114–15 cinema see also film accented, 100, 106, 108, 121–2 documentary, 43 as universal language, 6, 16, 42–3 Cinema Babel (2007), 15 Clayton, Sue, 38 Clear and Present Danger (1994), 58 Clooney, George, 18 close-ups, 56–7, 59, 61–2, 65–6 Clouzot, Henri-Georges, 108 Code Inconnu (2000), 174 code-mixing, 37, 176 code-switching, 20, 90–1, 171, 176 corrupt subtitling, 142, 147, 152 crane shot, 62 Crank (2006), 161–2 Crichton, Michael, 51–2 Cronin, Michael, 13, 62, 89, 138, 174, 213n12 cross-cultural misunderstandings, 14–15 Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (2000), 105, 106 Crowther, Bosley, 12 Dalla nube alla resistenza (1979), 24–5 Dances with Wolves (1990), 109, 116, 119, 131–2, 134 Daughter of the Dragon (1931), 49–50 Dead Man (1995), 211n30 The Deer Hunter (1977), 136 Delabastita, Dirk, 15, 73–4 Denis, Claire, 144–5 Derrida, Jacques, 30, 176–7 Deserter (1933), 47–8 Design for Living (1933), 119 diagonal translation, 10 dialects, 6, 144 dialogue, 16, 17, 128–9 foreign language, 70–101 heterolingual, 7, 55, 69, 98, 104, 109, 115–16, 119, 122, 126, 141, 163, 166, 169, 171, 210n20, 211n20 macaronic, 23 overheard quality of, 162–3 untranslated, 169–70 Díaz Cintas, Jorge, 103 diegesis, 7, 16, 23, 26, 35, 45, 50, 55, 64, 84, 96, 100, 114, 142, 161, 163–5, 169, 201 diegetic consistency, 64 diegetic interpreting, 80–93, 102, 163–4, 166, 173, 174, 176 Diesel, Vin, 106 diglossia, 20 The Disappearance of Finbar (1996), 38 ‘disparity of knowledge’, 138–9, 168–9 District 9 (2009), 166, 169 Doane, Mary Ann, 57 documentary cinema, 43 domestication, 99 PROOF Index 237 dominant language, 114 Donner, Richard, 211n28 Double Vision (2002), 178 dubbing, 8–10, 103, 104, 211n23 feelings about, 12–13 multilingual films, 180–8, 198–203 vs. subtitling, 12 subtitling and, 198–203 Duck Amuck (1953), 161 Durovicov, Nataša, 107 DVD, 12, 41, 103, 107, 127, 159, 160, 177–9, 198, 202 Eastwood, Clint, 106 Eaters of the Dead (Crichton), 51–2 eavesdropping, 169, 174–5 Eikhenbaum, Boris, 57 Eisenschitz, Bernard, 13 ekphrasis, 9 Ellis, Simon, 166 emanation speech, 71 The Emerald Forest (1985), 13–14, 116–18, 131 English language norming of, 6 shift into, 37–8 English learners, 37–8, 50, 51 epitext, 7, 158, 159–60 ethnographic film, 104, 112, 126, 130 Everything You Always Wanted to Know About Sex But Were Afraid To Ask (1972), 24, 121, 153 experiences of translation, 5 explicit attribution, 30–5, 213n2 extradiegetic shift, 55–62 Fail Safe (1964), 85 fansubtitling, 147–8, 212n1 The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift (2006), 42 Fatal Instinct (1993), 161 Le fate ignoranti/Ignorant Fairies (2001), 195–8 film, as universal language, 6, 16, 42–3 film criticism, 4 film language, 4, 9–39, 138–42 see also language(s) filmmakers, as storytellers, 9 film metaphor, 57 film production, multiple-language, 44–5 film scripts, explicit attribution in, 34–5 film sound, 17 film titles, translation of, 40 Firefly (2002), 139–40 Fitzgerald, Thom, 97 Flags of Our Fathers (2006), 106 Flirt (1995), 24 Fluent Dysphasia (2004), 19 focalisation, 168, 169, 170–1 Ford, John, 205n10 foreign-language films, recutting for import, 11–12 foreign location shoots, 13–15 Friday Night (2002), 144–5 Friedkin, William, 108 Gambier, Yves, 11, 93, 94, 107 Genette, Gérard, 7, 158, 159, 161, 168 George of the Jungle (1997), 156–7 Ghost Dog (1999), 68 Gibson, Mel, 42, 105, 128 Gladiator (2000), 26 Godard, Jean-Luc, 181 The Goddess of 1967 (2000), 71 Golden Globes, 110 The Good German (2007), 18 Gottlieb, Henrik, 107, 189, 213n12 The Great Dictator (1940), 18 The Great Escape (1963), 3 Green Dragon (2001), 178, 190 Griffith, D. W., 21, 42, 204n3 Grillo, Virgil, 175 Grutman, Rainer, 6, 20, 73–4 half-dubbing, 10 Hamam/The Turkish Bath (1997), 170–1 Haneke, Michael, 111, 174 Harris, Mai, 158 Hartley, Hal, 24 Hashimoto, Shobal, 14 Haute tension/High tension (2003), 8, 200–2 Hawkins, Jack, 205n12 Hell in the Pacific (1969), 14 Hero (2002), 105, 106 PROOF 238 Index Heroes (TV show), 118–19, 148, 152 heteroglossia, 104 heterolingual dialogue, 7, 55, 69, 98, 104, 109, 115–16, 119, 122, 126, 141, 163, 166, 171, 210n20, 211n20 heterolingual films, 83, 95–6, 108, 114–15, 126, 197, 201 heterolingualism, 6, 20–6, 35–7, 45, 50, 70, 102, 108–10, 112, 139, 169, 180 heterolingual voice-over, 100 Hidalgo (2004), 134 Hill, Jane, 140–1 historical epic, 25 Hitchcock, Alfred, 205n18 The Hitch-Hiker’s Guide to the Galaxy (Adams), 62–3 Hoffman, Donald, 153 Hollywood, 2, 3, 5, 11, 26, 29, 37, 42, 68, 70, 114, 121, 130, 132 Hollywood Ending (2002), 14–15 Hollywood Foreign Press Association, 110 Hollywood Injun English (HIE), 132 homogenisation, 26–7, 28, 32, 64–5 homogenising shift, 6, 55–62 The Honest Courtesan (1999), 26 Hosseini, Khaled, 119 Hot Shots! (1991), 133 House, Juliane, 211n23 Huillet, Danièle, 24 The Hunt for Red October (1990), 19, 55–6, 121 Huston, Walter, 119 The Ice Runner (1992), 58 identification, subtitles and, 135–8 identity, 5 immigration, 37–8 implicit attribution, 32 The Impostors (1998), 163–5, 174 incidental voice-over, 100–1 Incubus (1965), 7, 24, 126, 127, 129, 153, 160, 185 indigenous languages, 130–5 Inglourious Basterds (2009), 1–4, 24, 34, 177 innovation, in subtitling, 147–52 instant translation, 62–6 intercultural communication, 112 interlingual translation, 9, 10 interlinguistic situations, 74 interlocutor, 90–1 international cast/crew, 14–15 The Interpreter (2005), 42, 67–8 interpreters, 15 autonomous, 89 native, 89 role of, 89–91 unreliable, 87–9 voice-over by, 94 interpreting, diegetic, 80–93, 102, 163–4, 166, 174, 176 intersemiotic translation, 9, 11 intertextuality, 152–7 intertitles, 16, 21–2, 42, 205n13 Into the West (2005), 211n29 intralingual translation, 9, 10, 204n1 in-vision signing, 11 Jakobson, Roman, 9, 31, 177 Japanese Story (2003), 178 Jarman, Derek, 16, 105 Jarmusch, Jim, 13, 29, 42, 68, 122–5 Jaworski, Adam, 38 Jervolino, Domenico, 15 Joffe, Roland, 82 Joyeux Noël (2008), 115, 178 Judgment at Nuremberg (1961), 59–62 K-19: The Widowmaker (2002), 19 Kameradschaft (1931), 8, 50, 178, 191–2, 211n24 Kassovitz, Mathieu, 144 Kaufman, Anthony, 111 Kawin, Michael, 175 Kill Bill 1 (2003), 100, 107 Kilpatrick, Jacquelyn, 205n20 King Arthur (2004), 166 The King is Alive (2000), 100 Kitching, Juta, 34–5 The Kite Runner (2007), 20, 23–4, 34, 107, 110, 115, 119 Kopit, Arthur, 135 Kozloff, Sarah, 99, 100, 114, 136, 163, 168 Kracauer, Siegfried, 71, 139 Kramer, Stanley, 59–60 PROOF Index 239 Lagaan (2001), 68–9 La haine (1995), 144 Langlois, Henri, 13 language learning, 141, 206n7 language(s), 17 choice of, for characters, 16 choosing, based on target audience, 19–20 dominant, 114 film, 4, 9–39, 138–42 indigenous, 130–5 managing, through narrative framing, 50–5 as metaphor, 4 mixing of, 4 representation of, 17–20 representing vs. represented, 18–20 untranslated, 140, 169–70 vehicular matching, 20–6 written, 45, 114 The Last Clean Shirt (1964), 170 The Last Laugh/Der letzte Mann (1924), 16 Last of the Dogmen (1995), 133–4 Last of the Mohicans (1992), 133, 134, 205n10, 213n12 The Last Samurai (2003), 107 Laszlo, Ernest, 59–60 Laverty, Paul, 34 law of standardisation, 120 Le dernier combat/The Last Battle (1983), 16 Lee, Ang, 105 Leigh, Mike, 6 Leslie, Alfred, 170 Letters from Iwo Jima (2006), 7, 106, 126, 127–9, 136 Levring, Kristian, 100 Lewis, Philip, 147 Licht, Alan, 208n1 linguistic indeterminacy, 31–2 linguistic representation, 6, 17–20, 112–26, 130 heterolingualism, 20–6 mimetic compromise in, 27–35 of Native American languages, 130–5 vehicular matching, 20–6, 38 lip-synchronisation, 10 listening causal, 6–7, 71, 72–3 reduced, 6–7, 71–3 semantic, 6–7, 71, 72–3 Loach, Ken, 6 The Longest Day (1962), 1 Lost in Translation (2004), 14, 42, 81 Lost (TV show), 118, 169 Love Actually (2003), 67 ludic function, of diegetic interpreting, 91–3 ludic subtitling, 160 Lust, Caution (2007), 190 macaronic dialogue, 23 MacDougall, David, 104, 126, 129–30 Macey, David, 62 machine translation systems, 62, 63–4 Madeo, Frederick, 136 Malick, Terrence, 66, 206n9 A Man Called Horse (1970), 83–4, 137, 169 Man on Fire (2004), 41, 148–9, 150, 151, 159, 198 Martin, Laura, 70 Marubbio, M. Elise, 134 Marvin, Lee, 14 McKiernan, D. W., 190 McTiernan, John, 59 Meek, Barbra A., 132 Meet the Natives (documentary), 165 mental subjectivity, 49–50 Men With Guns (1997), 7, 101, 106, 110, 115, 118, 120, 126, 127, 128, 129, 141, 191 Le Mépris/Contempt (1963), 8, 81, 180–3, 185 metaleptic shift, 173 metaphor, 4, 15, 57 metasubtitling, 166–75 metatext, 166 Midnight Express (1978), 18 Mifune, Toshiro, 14 migration, 112 mimesis, 15, 17, 74, 113 mimetic compromise, 27–35 mise en scène, 74–93, 115–16, 130, 211n22 The Missing (2003), 133, 134–5 PROOF 240 Index mobility, 112 Mock Spanish, 140–1 Molyneaux, Gerry, 126 monolingualism, 4, 114–15, 163, 177, 198–203 Monty Python and the Holy Grail (1975), 153–6 Monty Python’s Flying Circus (1992), 151 Moonlighting (1982), 96, 98 Moscow on the Hudson (1984), 37 Mowitt, John, 110, 111 Mr Wu (1927), 21–3 multilingual films, 7–8, 105–9 dubbing, 180–8, 198–203 subtitling, 188–203 translation of, 176–203 multilingual imagination, 138–42 multilingualism, 74, 107–8, 112–26, 169, 174, 176, 198–203 multilingual production, 11–12, 44–5 multiple addressing, 163 Mulvey, Laura, 136 The Mummy (2008), 136–7 The Mummy Returns (2001), 57 Murnau, F. W., 16 Mystery Train (1989), 122–3 Naficy, Hamid, 11, 108 Nahapetov, Rodion, 28 The Name of the Rose (1986), 23 narration, 15, 16 metasubtitling as, 167–75 vs. narrative, 18–20 narrative amnesia, 64–5 narrative framing, 6, 50–5 narrative metalepsis, 161 narratives construction of, 9 homogenising, 26–7 vs. narration, 18–20 narrators, 95–6 national-cinematic paradigm, 4 Native American languages, 7, 18, 31, 116, 130–5 native interpreters, 89 Natural Born Killers (1994), 134 natural language, 16, 17 The New World (2005), 206n7 Night on Earth (1991), 124–6 Night Watch (2006), 150, 152, 159 non-native speech, 18 non-translation, 169–70 non-verbal acoustic codes, 15–16 non-verbal visual codes, 16 Nornes, Abé Mark, 5, 50, 142, 145, 147, 150, 212n2 O’Connor, John J., 25–6 Oliveira, Manoel, 24 Once (2006), 138–9 One Day in Europe (2005), 68 One Million Years BC (1966), 20 One, Two, Three (1961), 18, 27–8, 74–7 on-set interpretation, 14–15 Ophüls, Max, 198–9 Oscars, 110–12 O’Shea, Stephen, 144 otaku communities, 12 ‘overhearing’, 46, 64, 81, 83, 98, 102, 130, 168, 169, 172–5 The Painted Veil (2006), 89–90 Paisà (1946), 139 The Paleface (1922), 130 paratext, 7, 158–9 Parker, Alan, 18 partial subtitling, 105–9, 121–2, 167-8, 174–5 Passion of the Christ (2004), 7, 42, 105–6, 120, 122, 126, 127, 128, 129, 159, 202 Peña, Guillermo Gómez, 104 perceptual subjectivity, 49–50 perfect translation, 40–2, 44 performative contradiction, 30–1 peritext, 7, 158, 159–60 Le Plaisir (1952), 198–200 plot devices, for language shifts, 37–8 Pocahontas (1995), 57, 64–6, 68 point of view, 169 polyglossia, 176–7, 181, 189 polylingualism, 17, 23 polyphony, 104 postcarding, 71 post-synchronisation, 10 Private (2004), 111–12 pseudo-originals, 118 pseudosubtitles, 119–25, 147, 160 PROOF Index 241 pseudotranslations, 118–20, 211n19 Pudovkin, Vsevolod, 43, 44, 47 Pym, Anthony, 118 Quest for Fire (1981), 20 Rabbit-Proof Fence (2002), 208n17 Rea, Stephen, 19 The Reader (2008), 18, 113 reading speed, 144 realism, 20 reality, translation of, into film, 15 recutting, 11 reduced listening, 6–7, 71–3 Reed, Carol, 77 referential restriction, 35–9, 50, 51 reflexive awareness, 89 relativised speech, 71 remakes, 11 Renoir, Jean, 12–13 repetition, 81–2 representation, 15 see also linguistic representation burden of, 112–26 mimetic compromise in, 27–35 rescoring, 11 revoicing, 10 Rich, B. Ruby, 114 Richie, Donald, 143 Ricoeur, Paul, 104, 206n1 Ride Ranger Ride (1936), 89 The Road to Zanzibar (1941), 160 Roanoak (1986), 131 Rohmer, Eric, 153 Roof, Judith, 57 The Russians Are Coming! The Russians Are Coming! (1971), 159 Le salaire de la peur/The Wages of Fear (1953), 108 Sammy and Rosie Get Laid (1987), 211n26 Sanaker, John Kristian, 25 Savage Innocents (1960), 28 The Savages (1972), 100 Sayles, John, 106, 115, 126, 128, 129, 211n31 The Scarlet Letter (1995), 82–3, 87 Schindler’s List (1993), 209n13 Schnabel, Julian, 95 Scott, A. O., 151 Scott, Tony, 41, 42, 66–7, 148 Scouts to the Rescue (1939), 130–1 screen translators, 7–8 script design, 126–30 script development, 35 Sebastiane (1976), 7, 20, 105, 127, 129, 153 selective reproduction, 27–8, 55 semantic listening, 6–7, 71, 72–3 Senn, Fritz, 41 Serenity (2002), 139 Seyhan, Azade, 139 Sherlock Holmes (2009), 109 Shining Through (1992), 51 Shōgun (1980), 14, 25–6, 39, 83–5, 169 Shohat, Ella, 4–5, 40, 114 signifying codes, 15–17 The Silence/Tystnaden (1963), 72 silent films, 11, 21–3, 42, 44, 130, 204n3 Silent Light/Stellet Licht (2007), 112 simultaneous interpreting, 11 Sinha, Amresh, 211n26 Sirocco (1930), 207n3 Skolimowski, Jerzy, 96 slang, 144 Slumdog Millionaire (2008), 107, 109–10, 118, 148, 152 Sobchack, Vivian, 140 Soderbergh, Stephen, 110, 115 Soldier Blue (1970), 131 Sophie’s Choice (1982), 18, 20 Sorcerer (1977), 108–9 sound, 17 sound mixing, 71–2 source text, 12, 13, 103, 119, 145, 157 La Spagnola (2001), 178, 190 Spanglish (2005), 36–7, 94–5, 99–100 Spartacus (1960), 26 speech, 128–9 emanation, 71 relativised, 71 textual, 71, 94 theatrical, 72 untranslated, 116 Spielberg, Steven, 67 Stam, Robert, 4–5, 40, 114, 122 State Secret (1950), 20–1, 119 Steiner, George, 15, 40 PROOF 242 Index Sternberg, Josef von, 50 Sternberg, Meir, 6, 17, 20, 27, 28, 30, 35, 113 Stilwell, Robynn J., 99 Stöhr, Hannes, 68 storytelling, 9, 128 Strangers in Paradise (1984), 122 Straub, Jean-Marie, 24 Streep, Meryl, 18 subtitles/subtitling, 6–10, 44–5, 102–42, 211n23 abusive, 147, 148–9, 150 advantages of, 103–4 average number of subtitles, 127, 208n5 commercial pressures to avoid, 102–3 corrupt, 142, 147, 152 for the deaf and hard-of-hearing (SDH), 10, 11, 190, 202 as diagonal translation, 102–3 vs. dubbing, 12 dubbing and, 198–203 fansubtitling, 147–8, 212n1 features of, 102–3 feelings about, 12–13 identification and, 135–8 innovations in, 147–52 intertextuality, 152–7 location of, 160–1, 163 metasubtitling, 167–75 multilingual films, 188–203 in non-standard language, 144–5 overhearing function and, 162–3 partial, 105–9, 121–2, 167–8, 174–5 pseudosubtitles, 119–25, 147, 160 script design and, 126–30 spatial issues of, 143–75 textual status of, 157–67 unobtrusiveness of, 143, 145, 147 suspense, 85 Syriana (2005), 107 Tabu (1931), 16 A Talking Picture (2003), 24 Tarantino, Quentin, 1, 24, 34, 106 target audience, choosing language of film based on, 19–20 target text, 12, 13, 103, 157 Taxi! (1932), 70–1 Taylor, Stephen, 181 television, 118–19, 204n4 Telling Lies (2001), 166–7 Ten Canoes (2006), 96, 198, 211n32 La terra trema (1948), 99 textual speech, 71, 94 That Night in Rio (1941), 90–1, 169 theatre, 16 theatrical speech, 71, 72 The Third Man (1949), 73, 77–80, 90 The 13th Warrior (1999), 34–5, 51–4 Thomas, Kristin Scott, 30 3 Needles (2005), 97–8, 178 thrillers, 25 Toury, Gideon, 120, 188 Traffic (2000), 20, 34, 101, 107, 115, 141 translating dissolve, 6, 45–50 translation, 4, 5 see also audiovisual translation concept of, 15 diagonal, 10 diegetic, 163, 173 diegetic interpreting and, 80–93 experiences of, 5 extradiegetic, 163, 173 instant, 62–6 interlingual, 9, 10 intersemiotic, 9, 11 intralingual, 9, 10, 204n1 iterative nature of, 62 lack of need for, 42, 44 machine, 63–4 of mise en scène, 74–93 of multilingual films, 176–203 perfect, 40–2, 44 understanding without, 66–9 translational narrating voice-over (TNV), 96, 98–101 translation memory software, 62 translation theory, 41, 176–7 Treasure of the Sierra Madre (1948), 23, 34, 81, 85–7, 119, 190 Trivedi, Harish, 15 Trouble in Paradise (1932), 28, 91–3 turn-taking, 81–2 PROOF Index 243 Ulysses (Joyce), 41 universal language, 6, 42–4, 63, 105, 204n3 unreliable interpreters, 87–9 untranslated language, 116, 138–42 Uso Justo (2005), 166–7 Valkyrie (2008), 59 vehicular matching, 20–6, 35, 38, 106, 112–26, 130, 132, 136, 190 verbal acoustic codes, 15–16 verbal redundancy, 76, 78, 103 verbal transposition, 28–30 verbal visual codes, 15–16 Viaggio in Italia/Journey to Italy (1954), 184–5 Vincendeau, Ginette, 11 visual codes, 15–16 visual storytelling, 128 visual/verbal redundancy, 76, 103 La vita è bella/Life is Beautiful (1997), 88 voice-over, 9, 10, 45–6, 59, 93–101, 103, 208n15, 208n17 voice recognition technology, 64 Volunteers (1985), 145, 146, 161–2 Von Ryan’s Express (1965), 1, 208n2 Wackiki Wabbit (1943), 160 Wadensjö, Cecilia, 81–2 Wahl, Christoph, 71 Waltz, Christoph, 204n2 War (2007), 192–5 War and Peace (Tolstoy), 188 war films, 1, 25 Water (2005), 112 Weinberg, Herman, 44–5, 158 Westerns, 25, 130–5 White, James Boyd, 139 Whitelaw, Alexander, 144 Wilder, Billy, 18, 27, 74 Williams, Alan, 17 Williams, Vaughan, 116 written language, 45, 114 The Yakuza (1974), 185–8, 195, 203 zoom, 62 Zoot Suit (1982), 70 PROOF