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Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/agee
Nitrous oxide emission at low temperatures from manure-amended
soils under corn (Zea mays L.)
Olga Singurindy 1, Marina Molodovskaya, Brian K. Richards *, Tammo S. Steenhuis
Department of Biological and Environmental Engineering, Riley-Robb Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853-5701, USA
A R T I C L E I N F O
A B S T R A C T
Article history:
Received 21 October 2008
Received in revised form 10 March 2009
Accepted 10 March 2009
Available online xxx
Manure fertilization of soil significantly impacts the level of nitrous oxide (N2O) emission. Despite their
short duration, periods of significant N2O emissions during soil thaws in winter and spring are an
important portion of the total annual emissions from agricultural lands. The goal of this study was to
understand the effects of tillage, moisture content and manure application on N2O emissions from
agricultural soils at low temperatures. We summarize here both field and laboratory experiments. The
field chamber study was focused on quantification of N2O flux from a field (Hudson clay loam: fine, illitic,
mesic Glossaquic Hapludalf) growing corn (Zea mays L.) located in upstate New York. The field was
moldboard plowed in the fall and then fertilized with liquid dairy manure. Intact soil cores were
collected from the site both before and after field treatments for subsequent laboratory incubation that
included freeze–thaw cycles. The results demonstrated that tillage reduced N2O emissions in nonmanured soils by 20–30% in the 35–50 days following the tillage event, attributed to improved aeration
resulting from reduced bulk densities and pore space saturation. The maximal emission of
200 mg N m2 h1 was found at soil temperatures greater than 5 8C and at WFPS between 40 and
70%. Subsequent application of liquid manure caused an increase in the total intensity of N2O emission.
The emission of N2O from manure-amended soils was not limited to thawing events: emissions began at
soil temperatures below 0 8C and continued even after complete soil freezing. The tillage history prior to
manure application was found to have a significant influence on N2O emission during freezing/thawing
cycles following manure application. The subsequent total winter N2O emissions were greater from the
field areas that were tilled earlier in the fall, particularly in the first few freeze–thaw cycles, during which
the maximum N2O fluxes occurred.Increasing soil saturation in a wet area formed during a spring thaw
caused increasing N2O emissions up to a maximum of 200 mg N m2 h1 at 60–70% saturation.
However, emissions dropped dramatically with further increases in soil moisture, decreasing to
50 mg N m2 h1 in the most saturated areas (90% saturated). Overall, maximal emissions were found at
temperatures greater than 5 8C and at water filled porosities between 40 and 70%.
ß 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Nitrous oxide emission
Denitrification
Tillage effects
Soil freeze–thaw
Soil moisture content
1. Introduction
A primary source of gaseous N losses to the atmosphere comes
from the spreading of animal waste on agricultural fields,
amounting to 35% of the global annual emission (Kroeze et al.,
1999). Key agricultural management practices regulating N2O
formation and release from agricultural fields include use of
manure as a fertilizer, crop cultivation and land treatments. For a
given amount of N applied to soils, manure application typically
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 607 255 2463.
E-mail address: bkr2@cornell.edu (B.K. Richards).
1
Present address: Department of Earth and Ocean Sciences, University of British
Columbia, BC, Canada.
results in greater N2O emissions than does synthetic N fertilization
(Clayton et al., 1997).
Nitrous oxide is produced in soil by microbial nitrification and
denitrification processes. The most important factors controlling
these processes are soil mineral N (NH4+ and NO3) concentrations, oxygen partial pressure and, in the case of denitrification,
available carbon to fuel the heterotrophic processes (e.g. Clough
et al., 2003). Soil water content influences diffusion conditions in
the soil and thus impacts the supply of oxygen (Robertson and
Tiedje, 1987) which in turn controls the amount of N2O emitted.
When the water filled pore space (WFPS) exceeds 60%, denitrification becomes the dominant process producing N2O (e.g.
Lemke et al., 1999), however production of N2O declines when the
WFPS exceeds 80% because N2O is reduced to N2 (Veldkamp et al.,
1998). In contrast, any N2O production at WFPS below 60% is
0167-8809/$ – see front matter ß 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.agee.2009.03.001
Please cite this article in press as: Singurindy, O., et al., Nitrous oxide emission at low temperatures from manure-amended soils under
corn (Zea mays L.). Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. (2009), doi:10.1016/j.agee.2009.03.001
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typically attributed to nitrification, because increased diffusion of
O2 limits denitrification (Robertson and Tiedje, 1987).
Significant N2O emissions occur during winter and spring soil
thaw events, characterized by N2O peaks which usually last for
several days (Christensen and Tiedje, 1990). Despite its limited
duration, the phenomenon represents a significant fraction of the
total annual emissions from agricultural lands (e.g. Wagner-Riddle
and Thurtell, 1998) and may exceed 50% of the annual emissions
(Flessa et al., 1995). There are two possible explanations for N2O
emission during freezing–thawing cycles: (1) gradual accumulation of N2O produced in the unfrozen subsoil that is unable to
diffuse through the frozen soil surface until a thaw takes place (e.g.
Goodroad and Keeney, 1984) and (2) favorable denitrification
conditions at the time of soil thawing result in a surge of N2O
production due to greater carbon and nitrogen availability for
microbial activity and high degree of soil saturation (Edwards et al.,
1986; Nyborg et al., 1997).
A number of studies have measured N2O emissions from soils
exposed to repeated freeze–thaw cycles. The results are interesting
but also indicate large variability (and hence uncertainty) arising
from soil heterogeneity and the complex interactions between
chemical, physical and biological factors. Nitrous oxide emissions
have been reported to decrease with repeated freeze–thaw cycles
(Schimel and Clein, 1996; Prieme and Christensen, 2001). The
decrease in gas production suggests either depletion in microbial
nutrient availability or damage to soil microbes. Some studies
reported significant N2O losses from cultivated soils following
freeze–thaw cycles in spring (Nyborg et al., 1997; Wagner-Riddle
and Thurtell, 1998).
Thawing causes the disruption of soil structure (primarily
macroaggregates) and enhances microbial activity due to release of
organic C from plant and microbial detritus. The combination of
these two factors can change the denitrification potential of soil
and therefore influence N2O production during a freeze–thaw
event (van Bochove et al., 2000). Consequently, tillage practices
have significant effects on the water-stable aggregate distribution.
Reduced tillage also reduces total soil porosity and increases soil
water content, a factor known to restrict oxygen diffusion through
soil (Rice and Smith, 1982).
More research is needed to obtain a quantitative understanding
of how farm management practices can affect and ideally reduce
N2O emissions. Of special interest is understanding some of the
apparent complexities involving the interactions between tillage
practices and soil conditions and how these affect N2O emissions
soon after manure application when potential losses are the
greatest. A good example of the complexities involved in designing
manure management strategies is the practice of manure injection
into soil (for liquid slurries) or rapid plow down of surface spread
manures to reduce odor emissions (Webb et al., 2004). Although
this is known to reduce ammonia emissions, there are concerns
that these direct applications into soil may significantly increase
N2O emissions by increasing the pool of mineral N in soil
(Bouwman, 1996).
We focused our study on understanding the interactions
between tillage effects, moisture content, manure application
and N2O emissions from corn field soils at low temperatures.
2. Materials and methods
Field monitoring using chambers was carried out in order to
examine the evolution of nitrous oxide flux as affected by mild
winter temperature fluctuations (freeze–thaw cycles), soil
tillage, and winter liquid manure application. To further
investigate these phenomena under more controlled conditions,
soil columns were extracted from the field and monitored during
a series of laboratory experiments.
2.1. Field monitoring experiments
The experimental site was planted with corn on a clay loam soil
(Hudson series—fine, illitic, mesic Glossaquic Hapludalf) located on
a large dairy farm in central New York (Fig. 1). The mean annual
precipitation is 850 mm and the mean annual temperature is 10 8C.
The site was historically fertilized with dairy manure once a year,
either spring or fall. On October 10th, 2004, polyvinylchloride
chambers (each covering a rectangular area of 0.89 m2) were
installed in the field after corn harvesting and about 6 months after
the last fertilization. On November 4, 2004 one-half of the field
(designated here as area #1) was moldboard plowed. The
remaining half (designated as area #2) was plowed on December
16, 2004. On December 17, 2004 liquid dairy manure (5.4% dry
matter, total C 4.6–11.3% and total N contents ranging between 0.3
and 0.5%, wet weight basis) was injected into the field with a
tractor and a draghose at a liquid loading rate of 75,000 L ha1. The
experiment ended on 15 April 2005.
The number of chambers installed in the field varied, with 31
chambers permanently installed and 18 additional chambers
installed for specific campaigns. The distance between chambers
was 25 m, with a total grid area of 30625 m2 (3.06 ha). The
additional chambers were installed in the field during five
distinct 3-day campaigns, four during winter thawing events
and the fifth when spring thawing started at the end of the
experiment. Each chamber consisted of a frame permanently
located in the ground which could be sealed for 1–3 h with
removable plastic lid and additional plastic seal to prevent air
exfiltration from the chambers. Each chamber lid was equipped
with rubber septa to allow gas sampling with a syringe.
Triplicate gas samples were collected in evacuated crimp-sealed
minivials at the start and termination of each testing interval.
Twenty vertical metal tubes were installed at a depth of 5 cm
at 10 locations in the field in order to collect gas samples
during winter when the soil surface was frozen. During the
experiment, gas samples were collected at intervals ranging
from 1 to 4 days.
Soil temperature measurements were made using digital
thermometers. Soil samples were collected at 10 cm depth near
each chamber whenever air samples were taken, and were
transported to the laboratory for NO3, NH4+, pH, and gravimetric
moisture content analysis.
2.2. Laboratory experiments
For laboratory experiments, 16 intact soil cores (10 cm dia.,
20 cm deep) were collected from field areas #1 and #2 in
December 2004. Ten additional cores (5 each from manured and
non-manured areas) were collected on December 22, 2004, which
was 5 days after manure application. Cores were obtained by
hammering aluminum tubes (10 cm dia., 40 cm long) into the soil
and then carefully excavating them. No compression of the soil was
observed. The cores were transported to the laboratory and stored
outdoors (temperatures thus close to field conditions) for 3 days
prior to experimentation.
Each soil column microcosm system was built from the
aluminum column in which the soil core was extracted, which
had a head space of 20 cm. The top of each column was sealed and
a rubber septum was installed for sampling. Air samples (6 mL)
were taken with syringes every 6 h. After each sampling, the
columns were briefly opened to atmosphere and then resealed. Soil
column temperatures were monitored by two sensors installed in
the middle of six of the columns.
During the experiment, the soil cores were subjected to four
freeze/thaw cycles by shifting them between a freezer (set at
5.5 8C) and an incubator (25 8C) equipped with a circulation
Please cite this article in press as: Singurindy, O., et al., Nitrous oxide emission at low temperatures from manure-amended soils under
corn (Zea mays L.). Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. (2009), doi:10.1016/j.agee.2009.03.001
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3
Fig. 1. The topographic map of the field site area (428350 N, 768310 W) where field monitoring experiments were carried out and gas/soil samples were collected. Field areas #1
and #2 correspond to areas that were tilled on November 4th and December 16th, respectively.
fan. The duration of the experiment was 55 days. The
experiment was started at 22 8C. The columns were then placed
in the freezer. Soil temperatures were monitored every 2 h; circa
15 h were required for the columns to freeze and equilibrate. At
the end of the experiment soil samples were extracted from the
columns, sectioned at 5 cm depth intervals, and analyzed for
gravimetric moisture content, NO3, NH4+, and total carbon
content.
2.3. Soil and gas analysis
Air sample N2O concentrations were measured with a Varian
3700 gas chromatograph (GC) with a Ni63 electron capture
detector operated at 350 8C and with Ar:CH4 (95:5) carrier gas
(30 mL min1). Solution analysis for NO3 and NH4+ were carried
out according to APHA (1985). Soil pH, gravimetric moisture
content, and soil organic matter content were determined using
standard methods described in ASA (1965). Total carbon content
was determined via persulfate oxidation with an OIAnalytical
Model 1010 total organic carbon analyzer (O-I-Analytical). Soil
bulk density was determined using undisturbed soil cores (Birkeland, 1984). The water filled pore space, defined as the fraction of
total pore space filled with water (expressed as percent) was
calculated as
½bulk density gravimetric water content=water density
porosity
(1)
bulk density
(2)
porosity ¼ 1
particle density
WFPS ¼
The standard particle density used (2.65 g cm3) was modified by a
reduction of 0.02 g cm3 per percent of soil organic matter.
2.4. Statistical analysis
The error in measured concentration values within each
experiment was in all cases less than 0.5%. All concentration
measurements in both laboratory and field experiments were
repeated in triplicate therefore all reported measurements
represent averages of three samples each. Standard error bars
(Fig. 2) were included on the graphs to show the variation of the
data. A probability level of 5% (P = 0.05) was used to test the
statistical significance of all treatments.
3. Results
Field data collected before tillage and manure application
indicate that initial soil properties were similar in the areas with
subsequently differing tillage treatments with respect to soil
texture, pH, bulk density, soil C, and total N. There were no
significant differences found in average N2O flux or soil moisture
content at the beginning of experiment (Table 1).
3.1. Field measurements
Fig. 2 presents the N2O emission and gravimetric soil moisture
content measured from areas #1 and #2 in the 35 days prior to
manure application. Before tillage, the average N2O flux from the
field was 147 mg N m2 h1 (Table 1), and tillage resulted in an
immediate 40% reduction in area #1 (Fig. 2b). N2O emission
remained significantly greater in area #2 (Table 2) for the period
from 4 November to 2 December 2004, but during the final 2 days a
reduction to 77.5 mg N m2 h1 was observed. The opposite was
observed in area #1 soil, where the flux gradually increased and
reached a maximum of 166 mg N m2 h1 on 4 December. N2O
emission in both areas #1 and #2 generally increased with
Please cite this article in press as: Singurindy, O., et al., Nitrous oxide emission at low temperatures from manure-amended soils under
corn (Zea mays L.). Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. (2009), doi:10.1016/j.agee.2009.03.001
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Fig. 3. Field monitoring results from field areas #1 and #2 following manure
application: (a) Soil temperature—numbers above the temperature peaks represent
the thaw cycle number; (b) N2O emission—numbers above N2O peaks represent the
cumulative N2O emission (mg N m2 period1) during each thawing event, the top
number corresponding to area #1, the bottom to area #2.
Fig. 2. Field monitoring results from field areas #1 (tilled) and #2 (not yet tilled)
before manure application: (a) N2O emissions and (b) soil moisture content. The
black arrows indicate the first date and amount (total of 5 days) of precipitation that
caused increased in N2O emissions.
increasing soil moisture content (Fig. 2b) following three indicated
precipitation events. In area #2, the maximal emission of 186
mg N m2 h1 was observed on November 9th, 19th, and December
2nd (Fig. 2a). For area #1, the first two peaks (149 and 133 mg
N m2 h1) were concurrent with those in area #2, whereas the third
peak was delayed by several days relative to area #2.
Fig. 3 shows the course of the soil temperatures and N2O
emissions following tillage of area 2 and manure application of
the whole field on December 17. Soil temperature fluctuations
indicate nine cycles of freezing and thawing (Fig. 3a), with seven
cycles (lasting from 4 to 12 days) during which N2O emissions
occurred. Low levels of emission were found during the thaw
cycles between days 41 and 46. The thaw cycle starting at day 51
was apparently too brief to allow emission to occur. The numbers
above each peak in Fig. 3b represent the cumulative N2O
emissions (mg N m2 period1) during that thawing event (the
top number corresponds to area #1, the bottom to area #2).
Despite the fact that both field areas had been tilled by the time
of manure application, the results shown in Fig. 3b and Table 2
demonstrate continuing differences in N2O emissions between
two areas tilled at different times. The differences were greatest
during the first three thaw cycles (Table 2), where emissions
from earlier-tilled area #1 were much greater than from area #2:
e.g. 700 mg N m2 vs. 257 mg N m2 during the first cycle. The
greatest emission rate of 289 mg N m2 h1 was observed from
area #1 soil during the first thaw-related peak. However, this
difference in tillage history effects was no longer observed after
the long freezing period (with two short thaws) preceding
thawing cycle 4: subsequent N2O peaks were more consistent
and were both greater and longer. In some cases a low level of
N2O emission continued for a time after complete soil freezing,
continuing between first and second thawing cycles and
persisting for 3–4 days after the second and third cycles
(Fig. 3a). Emission of N2O also occurred just prior to the onset
of thawing cycle 6. The cumulative emissions of N2O for all
freeze/thaw cycles were 2860 and 2120 mg N m2 for areas #1
and #2 soils, respectively. The pH values were 7.3–7.7 and total N
varied from 0.5 to 0.7%. Total mineral nitrogen (NO3 + NH4) was
between 19 and 28 mg N kg1 of dry soil.
The results of a 3-day campaign during spring thawing are
shown in terms of soil saturation and N2O emission (Fig. 4). The
results show that the sample grid contained a large wet area where
the pore space reached a maximum saturation of 90%, compared to
30–50% saturation in the rest of the field (Fig. 4a). Corresponding to
this is the pattern of N2O emissions (Fig. 4b), which increased with
increasing soil saturation up to about 60–70% to a maximum of
200 mg N m2 h1. However, at greater 70–90% saturation in the
middle of the wet area, N2O emissions dropped dramatically to
50 mg N m2 h1.
3.2. Laboratory experiments
The freeze/thaw cycles resulting from the freezer/incubator
cycling are evident in the soil core temperatures in Fig. 5a. The
Table 1
Soil characteristics from two parts of the field (#1 and #2) at the beginning of the field monitoring experiments, before tillage and manure application.
Area
Sand (%)
Silt (%)
Clay (%)
pH (in water)
Total C (%)
Total N (%)
Bulk density
(g cm3)
Soil moisture (%)
Nitrous oxide flux
(mg N m2 h1)
#1
#2
15
16
53
54
32
30
7.2
7.1
1.8
1.7
0.2
0.2
1.25
1.
21
22
148
146
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corn (Zea mays L.). Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. (2009), doi:10.1016/j.agee.2009.03.001
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Table 2
Summary of cumulative N2O emissions (mean standard deviation) from field chamber and soil column experiments. Statistical comparisons made between areas 1 and 2: values
followed by asterisks are statistically different (P = 0.05).
Experiment and time frame
Field chambers
After tilling, before manure application
After tilling and manure application (first three freeze–thaw cycles)
After tilling and manure application (entire period)
Soil columns
Collected after tilling, before manure application (four freeze–thaw cycles)
Collected after tilling, after manure application (first freeze–thaw cycle)
Collected after tilling, after manure application (four freeze–thaw cycles)
laboratory cores extracted from field areas #1 and #2 had differing
bulk densities and therefore differing initial WFPS levels of 35%
(area #1) and 70% (area #2).
During these four freeze/thaw cycles, the N2O emissions from
the soil cores collected before manure application were greater for
area #2 in terms of peak rates (Fig. 5b) as well as cumulative
emissions (1631 mg N m2 vs. 1992 mg N m2 for areas #1 and #2,
respectively; Table 2). The greater N2O emission corresponded to
the higher soil water content. In area #2 soils the emission peaked
immediately after thawing (approximately 300 mg N m2 h1
maximum during the first cycle) and declined markedly thereafter
(Fig. 5b). The general trend in emissions over time was similar for
both treatments, with the greatest emissions occurring in cycle 1,
cycles 2 and 3 having similar emissions, and lower emissions
during the last thawing cycle.
Period
(days)
Area #1 (tilled November 4)
(mg N m2)
Area #2 (tilled
December 17) (mg N m2)
35
41
121
2425 120*
1043 34*
2860 115*
3302 159*
588 19*
2120 88*
1631 24*
1425 27*
6128 96
1992 37*
1189 23*
6332 89
50
10
50
Unsurprisingly, the soil cores collected after manure application had greater N2O emission rates (Fig. 5c) than those collected
before application, with a maximal emission rate of approximately
396 mg N m2 h1 observed from area #1 soil cores during the first
thaw-related peak. The area #1 cores had a significantly greater
cumulative emission during the first thaw cycle (Table 2).
However, the cumulative emissions of N2O from the four freeze/
thaw cycles did not differ significantly during the four cycles 6128
and 6332 mg N m2 for areas #1 and #2 soils, respectively. In
accordance with the field measurements, the most intensive
release of N2O was found immediately after thawing started (with
temperatures climbing over 0 8C at the point of measurement) in
all four freeze/thaw cycles. However, emissions were not limited to
the thaw periods: low levels of emission were recorded 2 days
before first and third thaws, continued between the first and
Fig. 4. Field monitoring results from 3-day chamber array campaign during spring thaw event. (a) Degree of soil saturation and (b) emission of N2O. Chambers were located at
each grid point (25 m grid spacing), with a total grid area of 30,625 m2 (3.06 ha).
Please cite this article in press as: Singurindy, O., et al., Nitrous oxide emission at low temperatures from manure-amended soils under
corn (Zea mays L.). Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. (2009), doi:10.1016/j.agee.2009.03.001
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Fig. 5. Result of laboratory experiment with undisturbed soil cores collected from field areas #1 and #2: (a) soil temperature, (b) N2O emission from columns collected before
manure application, and (c) N2O emission from columns collected after manure application.
second thaw events, and also continued 2 days after soil freezing in
the second cycle. Finally, unlike the non-manured soil cores, there
was no reduction of N2O emission during the fourth thaw,
presumably due to the high availability of C (and mineral N) in the
manured soils.
4. Discussion
The soil water filled pore space strongly affected N2O
production, likely via effects on oxygen availability. Fig. 6
integrates the combined effects of WFPS and soil temperature on
measured N2O flux. Generally, the optimal conditions for N2O
production were at temperatures greater than 5 8C and at soil
WFPS levels between 40 and 70%. Temperatures lower than 5 8C
reduced soil microbial activity and consequently reduced
emissions. The maximal flux of N2O was found at moisture
levels of approximately 55% WFPS, which corresponds well
to the results obtained by Davidson et al. (2000) for different
soil types. Oxygen deficiency and an associated increase in
N2O production could even occur at lower saturation levels
in soils with high microbial activity. With good soil aeration
(WFPS of 40–60%), both organic and clay soils had increased
N2O production at a lower temperature than did silt or loam
soils, which could be associated with greater organic matter
degradation rates in the organic and clay soils (Koponen et al.,
2004). High water content favors denitrification associated with
the limitation of oxygen diffusion. We could not perform an
isotopic analysis needed to show the possible changes of N2O/N2
ratio in our specific experimental conditions. Maag and Vinther
(1996) demonstrated that N2O/N2 ratio in denitrification
increases with a decrease of temperature, and thus enhance
N2O production.
Though the gravimetric water contents were sometimes similar
(especially after intense precipitation; Fig. 2b) in the tilled and
non-tilled parts of the field, the WFPS was different because of the
differing bulk densities (1.06 g cm3 tilled vs. 1.25 g cm3 nontilled). Subsequent tillage of area #2 followed by manure
application homogenized the two areas of the field with respect
to soil bulk density and WFPS. Nevertheless, significant differences
in N2O emissions between areas #1 and #2 were still identified
during the first three freezing–thawing cycles (Fig. 3b), the total
N2O emission being greater in the better pre-aerated soils of area
#1. A possible explanation for the high peaks of N2O during
thawing was that greater microbial activity resulted in greater
mineralization/nitrification rates as well as greater oxygen
consumption.
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Fig. 6. Generalized relationship of N2O emission with temperature and WFPS: field
data before manure application.
Emission of N2O was always observed during thawing in both
laboratory and field experiments. Surprisingly little spatial
variability was observed in the field measurements except during
the intensive spring thawing such as the 3-day campaign in the
early spring, when more ice and snow started to melt at the soil
surface. The sample grid encompassed a wet area that was
substantially wetter than the rest of the field (Fig. 4a). Corresponding to this is the pattern of N2O emissions, which increased with
increasing soil saturation up to about 60–70% WFPS. However, at
higher WFPS levels (with the wet spot nearing saturation), N2O
emissions dropped dramatically: under saturation, anaerobic
conditions would dominate and, consistent with expected trends,
favor N2 production during extended denitrifying conditions. A
similar phenomenon was observed by Nyborg et al. (1997). In
addition, drainage problems are well-known in this specific soil
type, especially in spring.
Our field measurements demonstrate that N2O emission
continued even after complete soil freezing (Fig. 3). Teepe et al.
(2001) observed constant N2O emission for several days in freezing
periods as evidence of microbial activity in the frozen soil.
Goodroad and Keeney (1984) reported that N2O emission was due
to the temperature fluctuations that cause microbial activity at the
soil surface. Kaiser et al. (1998) suggested that N2O emissions
during the time of deepest soil freezing occurred as a result of N2O
production in deeper soil horizons, with the gas escaping through
frost-induced cracks. In our study, during the period from 41 to 65
days after manure application, considerable snow precipitation
caused the formation of the deep snow and ice layer that prevented
the escape of nitrous oxide. During the subsequent thaw, the
trapped N2O was released within few days, resulting in a high
emission peak. The fact that these peaks were wide may be due to
the melting snow causing elevated soil moisture conditions that
favored denitrifier activity.
Edwards and Cresser (1992) showed that 8–20% of the soil
water remained unfrozen for several days although the soil
temperature was 5 8C. There are significant amounts of unfrozen
soil water down to 20 8C (Rivkina et al., 2000), mostly because of
7
salting-out effects. The unfrozen water covers the soil matrix with
the thin water film which in turn is covered with ice, creating
conditions are favorable for denitrification, because microorganisms are isolated from oxygen by the ice barrier (Teepe et al.,
2000).
In addition, field and laboratory data demonstrated that, in
some cases, thawing begins at the temperatures below 0 8C
followed by production of N2O. As a result a small peak of N2O
emission was observed before thawing cycle number 6 (Fig. 3b).
This phenomenon occurred as a result of the presence of ions in
the soil solution. Gas samples taken at 5 cm depth in the field
and from soil cores during freezing (soil temperatures 5 8C)
demonstrated accumulation of N2O. A portion of the large flux
of N2O that was released just after thawing (temperatures
close to 0 8C) might have originated from the liberation of N2O
stored in the frozen soils, an effect much more pronounced with
the manure-applied soils. These results are in agreement with
the laboratory observations of Koponen et al. (2004) who
suggested that there was N2O production in soils at least down
to 6 8C.
In the laboratory experiments with cores collected before
manure application (Fig. 5b), the maximum thaw-related N2O
emission occurred during the first thaw cycle. The first cycle peak
was also higher in field #1 soil (Fig. 3b). Koponen and Martikainen
(2004) found a similar difference for N2O emission between the
two cycles. Schimel and Clein (1996) reported a similar phenomenon for CO2 emissions from tundra and taiga soils. They
concluded that freeze–thaw cycles caused a flush of microbial C
and N during the first cycle, but after repeated cycles the ability of
microbial communities to decompose soil organic matter falls. An
additional explanation given by Koponen and Martikainen (2004)
is that amount of organic and inorganic substances declines from
cycle to cycle, leading to lower thaw-related N2O emissions in
subsequent cycles. Moreover, it can be due to the high availability
of C as a result of film microorganisms killed during freeze/thaw
cycles (Christensen and Tiedje, 1990) coupled with high concentrations of both inorganic and organic solutes (Edwards and
Cresser, 1992) may cause favorable conditions for N2O formation in
water films.
In our previous study (Singurindy et al., 2006) we observed that
this specific soil has a high capacity for NH4+ fixation by clay
minerals. Moreover, nitrate and ammonium immobilization by soil
microbial biomass shortly after field N application (Müller et al.,
2002) would increase the potential for N2O emission during
freezing–thawing periods. Manured soils (high content of active
biomass and organic material) and clay dominated aggregates
therefore have an elevated potential for N2O emission during
freeze/thaw events. This conclusion is in line with observations
that the greatest thaw-related emissions were measured from
organic soils and soils with a high content of clay-associated
aggregates (Christensen and Tiedje, 1990; van Bochove et al., 2000;
Singurindy et al., 2008).
5. Conclusions
In this study, we have characterized the N2O emission effects of
late fall tillage and liquid dairy manure application to soil. Tillage
reduced N2O emission in non-manured soils for the 35–50 days of
our observation periods. The differences in the emissions were
attributed to the reductions in bulk density and water filled pore
space (and thus improved aeration) in the tilled area.
Application of liquid manure to the soil increased the total
intensity of nitrous oxide emission, and the majority of winter
emissions occurred during periodic soil thaw events. In both field
and laboratory studies, the timing of tillage prior to manure
application was found to have a significant influence on N2O
Please cite this article in press as: Singurindy, O., et al., Nitrous oxide emission at low temperatures from manure-amended soils under
corn (Zea mays L.). Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. (2009), doi:10.1016/j.agee.2009.03.001
G Model
AGEE-3390; No of Pages 8
8
O. Singurindy et al. / Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment xxx (2009) xxx–xxx
emissions, which were greatest from the earlier-tilled field area
during the initial freezing/thawing cycles following manure
application. In addition, in the field study, the cumulative winter
emissions following manure application were greater from the
earlier-tilled area. The emission of nitrous oxide from manureamended soils started at temperatures below 0 8C and continued
after complete soil freezing.
A large wet area formed during a substantial spring thaw had a
maximum pore space saturation of 90%, compared to 30–50%
saturation in the rest of the field. Corresponding N2O emissions
increased with soil moisture to a maximum of 200 mg N m2 h1 at
60–70% saturation. However, emissions dropped dramatically
with further increases in soil moisture, decreasing to
50 mg N m2 h1 in the most saturated areas. Overall, maximal
emissions were found at temperatures greater than 5 8C and at
water filled porosities between 40 and 70%.
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by USDA-NRI project no. 123527
and Vaadia-BARD Postdoctoral Award No. F1-357-04 from BARD,
The United States - Israel Binational Agricultural Research and
Development Fund. We thank Hardie Dairy Farms for their
cooperation and technical assistance.
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Please cite this article in press as: Singurindy, O., et al., Nitrous oxide emission at low temperatures from manure-amended soils under
corn (Zea mays L.). Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. (2009), doi:10.1016/j.agee.2009.03.001