SELEUKEIA SIDERA I -2022SDÜ YAYIN NO: 122 ISBN: 978-605-9454-67-4 -2023 ( ) T f 52509 Web: E-posta: SELEUKEIA SIDERA KAZISI İçindekiler/Contents Önsöz/Foreword ....................................................................................................................... v Plate-1...........................................................................................................................................1 Giriş/Introduction ......................................................................................................................3 Plate-2.........................................................................................................................................13 The Research History of Seleukeia Sidera ............................................................................15 Bilge Hürmüzlü – Burak Sönmez History of Seleukeia ‘Sidera’ ..................................................................................................31 Hüseyin Köker Results of Geomagnetic Surveys and Evidence for Forging Activities in Seleukeia Sidera ...................................................................................................................51 Thomas Schenk Archaeogeophysical Investigations at Seleukeia Sidera ....................................................71 Çağlayan Balkaya – Olcay Çakmak – Hatice Evrim Tütünsatar Mapping the Ancient City of Seleukeia Sidera and Its Surrounding Landscape ...........89 Arie Kai-Browne The Ancient City of Seleukeia Sidera and Its Surrounding Area from A Palaeoecological Perspective ............................................................................................117 Çetin Şenkul - Yasemin Ünlü - Ahmet Köse Preliminary Report on the Theatre of Seleukeia Sidera ...................................................133 Ahmet Mörel Production and Economy in Seleukeia Sidera in the Roman Imperial Period: Blacksmithing Practices.........................................................................................................155 Bilge Hürmüzlü – Ünsal Yalçın – Semih Togan Tracing Early Christianity with Ground Penetrating Radar: The Case of The Transept Basilica at Seleukeia Sidera .....................................................171 Hatice Evrim Tütünsatar – Peter Talloen – Bilge Hürmüzlü The Necropoleis and Burial Customs of Seleukeia Sidera ...............................................197 Bilge Hürmüzlü – Lidewijde De Jong – Tamara M. Dijkstra ∼ iii ∼ A Group of Ostothekai from Seleukeia Sidera and The Surrounding Area....................205 İbrahim Acuce An Assessment of the Pottery Groups from Seleukeia Sidera.........................................217 Burak Sönmez – Bilge Hürmüzlü Hellenistic Pottery from Seleukeia Sidera in Pisidia.........................................................251 Mehmet Kaşka A Preliminary Evaluation of the Oil Lamps Found at Seleukeia Sidera ........................261 Murat Fırat Terracotta Figurines of Seleukeia Sidera.............................................................................281 Peter Talloen – Özgür Perçin The Inscriptions of Seleukeia Sidera ...................................................................................323 Gülcan Kaşka The Preliminary Archaeozoological Report of Seleukeia Sidera Ancient City .............341 Can Yümni Gündem – Sultan Sarı Ertaştan – Ebru Gündem ∼ iv ∼ Tracing Early Christianity with Ground Penetrating Radar: The Case of The Transept Basilica at Seleukeia Sidera Erken Hristiyanlığın İzini Yer Radarı ile Sürmek: Seleukeia Sidera’dan Bir Transept Bazilika Örneği Hatice Evrim Tütünsatar*1 – Peter Talloen**2 – Bilge Hürmüzlü***3 Aziz Paulus’un misyonerlik gezileri sırasında Seleukeia Sidera’ya ilk defa bir piskoposun atanması, kentte Hristiyanlığın ve dolayısı ile de kilise faaliyetlerinin başladığına işaret eden önemli bir kanıt olarak karşımıza çıkmaktadır. Konsillerde şehri temsil eden piskoposlar tarafından tasdik edildiği ve çeşitli Hristiyan yazıtlarında bahsedildiği gibi, Pisidia’nın Geç Antik Dönemde Hristiyanlaşması göz önüne alındığında, Seleukeia Sidera’da bir veya daha fazla Erken Hristiyanlık Dönemi kilisesinin olması beklenebilir. Ancak kentin Hristiyanlık Dönemi’ne ve kiliselerin varlığına dair arkeolojik buluntular yetersiz olmakla birlikte, bu durum, kentte yapılan jeofizik prospeksiyonların sağladığı kanıtlar sayesinde değişmiştir. 2017 yılından beri kentte gerçekleştirilen jeofizik ölçümler, toprak altında kalmış ve izleri gözle görülmeyen birçok yapıyı ortaya çıkardığı gibi kilise kalıntılarının varlığını da ortaya çıkarmıştır. Bu bölüm, Seleukeia Sidera’daki 2017 ve 2018 yıllarında gerçekleştirilen jeofizik ölçümleri ile tespit edilen (Schenk, 2020) bir bazilikanın sonuçlarını sunmaktadır. Çalışma kapsamında, kentte ilk yerleşim yeri olan Hisar Tepe’nin güneydoğusunda yer alan tarım arazisinde, arkeolojik alanlarda en sık tercih edilen Jeofizik yöntemlerden biri olan Yer Radarı (GPR) yöntemi ile 219 profil ölçüm gerçekleştirilmiştir. Araştırmada kullanılan GPR yöntemi, toprak altında saklı kalmış antik yapıların mimari detaylarını tahribatsız bir şekilde yüksek çözünürlüklü olarak belirlemek mümkün olmaktadır. Bu amaçla, veri işlem aşamalarının doğru uygulanması önemlidir. Çalışmada araziden elde edilen ham verilere bir gürültü giderme işlemi olan bant geçişli süzgeç uygulaması; gerekli enerji penetrasyon derinliği ve istenen çözünürlük gibi veri toplama parametreleri için hiperbol çakıştırma (0,08-0,15 m/ns arasındaki hızlar) kullanılarak hız hesaplanmıştır. Kaydedilen radar izlerinin doğru konumlandırılması, arka plan gürültüsünün giderilmesi ve istenen frekansların filtrelenmesi için gerekli olan bu veri işlemlerinden sonra, zaman-derinlik dönüşümü uygulanarak verilerin daha anlam* Isparta University of Applied Sciences, Gönen Vocational School, Cultural Heritage and Tourism Program, 32090 Isparta/TR, evrimtutunsatar@isparta.edu.tr, ORCID: 0000-00020712-3164. ** Bilkent University, Faculty of Humanities and Letters, Department of Archaeology, 06800 Ankara/TR, petertalloen@gmail.com, ORCID: 0000-0001-9644-3073. *** Süleyman Demirel University, Faculty of Arts & Sciences, Department of Archaeology, 32600 Isparta/TR, bilgehurmuzlu@gmail.com, ORCID: 0000-0002-3676-7436. ∼ 171 ∼ Tracing Early Christianity with Ground Penetrating Radar: The Case of The Transept Basilica at Seleukeia Sidera lı bir şekilde görselleştirilmesi sağlanmıştır. Sonuç olarak, elde edilen verilere veri işlem teknikleri uygulanarak bir transept bazilika mimari planı ortaya çıkarılmıştır. Çalışmada, GPR izlerinden elde edilen plan kullanılarak Transept bazilikanın örnek bir 3D rekonstrüksiyonu üretilmiştir. GPR sonuçlarına göre kilisenin planı incelendiğinde, doğuda yarım daire biçimli bir apsis ile doğu-batı eksenli, üç nefli; kuzey ve güney neften biraz daha geniş olan kuzeye ve güneye uzanan kolları ile Erken Hristiyanlık Dönemi kilise mimarisindeki transept bazilika planına uygun olduğu tespit edilmiştir. 2021 yılı çalışmaları sırasında içerisine bazilikayı da alan ve tarım için kullanılarak düzenli olarak sürülen arazide 1800 m²’lik bir alanda yoğun bir arkeolojik yüzey araştırması gerçekleştirilmiştir. Araştırma alanında yoğun miktarda seramik parçaları, mermer, harç, tuğla ve kiremit parçaları ele geçmiş ve tarlanın sınırları boyunca mevcut olan birkaç kireçtaşı kesme taş bloğu saptanmıştır. Yoğun yüzey araştırmasının amacı, jeofizik prospeksiyon ile tespit edilen bazilikanın yapım malzeme ve tekniklerine, süslemelerine ve kronolojisine ışık tutabilecek kalıntıları belgelemek ve incelemektir. Yoğun yüzey araştırması alanı, olası transept bazilika yapısını da içine alan, her biri 2 x 10 metre boyutlarında 90 alt gridden oluşan 30 x 60 metrelik bir plankare şeklinde düzenlenmiştir. Yüzeydeki tüm görünür arkeolojik buluntuların belirli bir zaman çerçevesi içinde ve birbirinden eşit aralıklar ile sistematik olarak toplanmasını içeren araştırma sırasında alanda seramikler dışında mimari terrakottalar, harç, cam, tessera, opus sectile parçaları, taş mimari parçalar, kemikler ve az miktarda demir cürufları da tespit edilmiştir. Araziden toplanan tarihlendirilebilir seramik parçaları arasında en baskın grubu Geç Roma İmparatorluk Dönemine ait örnekler oluşturmaktadır. Seramik malzemelerin yanı sıra bema parçaları, bir sütun kaidesinin bir kısmı ve mermer bir sütun gibi öğelerden oluşan mimari parçalar tespit edilmiştir. Yapıda kullanılan mermerin Dokymaion’dan ithal edildiği düşünülmektedir. Alandan beş adet opus sectile parçası da ele geçmiştir. Bunlardan biri sekizgen, biri altı köşeli yıldız ve üçü altıgen şeklindedir. Alanın çevresinde çiftçiler tarafından tarla sınırı olarak konulmuş olan kireçtaşı yapı blokları da incelenmiştir. Bunların, bir eksedranın bir kısmı, bir kapı eşiği, bir korniş bloğu ve bir plaster sütun kaidesinin parçaları olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Bu büyük boyutlu yapı bloklarının bazilika yapısına ait oldukları düşünülmektedir. Sonuç olarak çalışma kapsamında GPR sonuçlarını temel alan değerlendirmede, yoğun yüzey araştırması ile toplanan arkeolojik buluntular da göz önünde tutularak Seleukeia Sidera’daki transept bazilika, Pisidia ve çevresindeki diğer bazilika planlı kiliseler ile karşılaştırılmıştır. Bu bağlamda kentin Hristiyanlaşması Dönemine ilişkin veriler de arkeolojik araştırmalar çerçevesinde değerlendirilmiştir. Çalışma neticesinde, Seleukeia Sidera’da toprak altında transept planlı bir Erken Hristiyanlık Dönemi kilisesinin varlığı tesipt edilmiştir. Ayrıca, MS 5. yüzyılın sonlarından 6. yüzyılın başlarına kadar güneybatı ∼ 172 ∼ Hatice Evrim Tütünsatar – Peter Talloen – Bilge Hürmüzlü Anadolu’da yaygın olan yapılar ile benzer olduğu sonucuna varılmıştır. Bu bulgu, Seleukeia Sidera’nın Pisidia Bölgesi’nin Hristiyanlık tarihindeki önemini ve bölgenin dini faaliyetlerine katkısını vurgulamaktadır. Jeofizik yöntemler, arkeologların ve tarihçilerin toprak altındaki yapıları, yapıya hasar vermeden ortaya çıkarmada, etkin bir şekilde incelemelerinde ve daha geniş bir alanda araştırma yapmalarında avantaj sağlamaktadır. Bu araştırma, toprak altında yer alan bir kilisenin tespitinde arkeolojik yüzey araştırmalarının yanı sıra, jeofizik prospeksiyonun da katkısını gösterir vurgulamayı amaçlamaktadır. Introduction It is known from both literary and epigraphic sources that Seleukeia Sidera was an important Christian episcopal centre in Antiquity (Kaşka, 2019). Christianity in the region of Pisidia began with Saint Paul’s journey from Pamphylian Perge to Pisidian Antioch during his first missionary trip in 45-49 AD (Talloen, 2015, p. 200). According to the acts of Saint Paul, he must have passed through many Pisidian cities on this journey (Taşlıalan, 1991; Talloen, 2015). What is more, the saint is held to have appointed Artemon as the first bishop of Seleukeia Sidera on this trip4. In view of the Late Antique Christianization of the city, as attested by the bishops representing the city at the Ecumenical councils and mentioned in several Christian inscriptions, one or more Early Christian churches are to be expected at Seleukeia Sidera. Yet, no traces of churches could be documented through archaeological survey. This situation has now changed through the geophysical prospection of the lower city. The survey area discussed in this paper is located in the southeast part of the lower city of Seleukeia Sidera at Bayat (Pl. 2: 10; Fig. 1). As part of the Isparta Archaeological Survey (IAS) archaeological extensive and intensive surveys were conducted in 2008, 2014, 2016-2018 at Seleukeia Sidera and in its surroundings under the direction of Bilge Hürmüzlü (Süleyman Demirel University). Geophysical research, commencing with a geomagnetic prospection of the urban area, has been conducted as the part of a scientific cooperation between SDU and Hochschule für Technik und Wirtschaft Berlin (HTW) since 20165. This geomagnetic prospection covered an area of approx. 37.86 hectares between the years 2016 and 20206. In 2017, the geophysical research also came to include ground-penetrating radar (GPR) measurements, which have continued ever since7. This geophysical research revealed that the original settlement on 4 5 6 7 Le Quien vol. I, col. 1053; Talloen & Prodanova, 2021. See, in this volume, Schenk, Results of Geomagnetic Surveys and Evidence for Forging Activities in Seleukeia Sidera. Schenk et al., 2019: 106; Hürmüzlü et al., 2019, p. 67; Schenk, 2020, pp. 155-156; Tütünsatar et al., 2020. In 2017, the first GPR measurements for the research area were performed under by the team of HTW Berlin (Thomas Schenk, Jona Schlegel) and Hatice Evrim Tütünsatar (SDU). In 2018, some additional and repeated profiles were measured by Tütünsatar with the same ∼ 173 ∼ Tracing Early Christianity with Ground Penetrating Radar: The Case of The Transept Basilica at Seleukeia Sidera top of Hisar Tepe expanded into the plain below during the Roman Imperial period and continued as a flourishing urban centre into Late Antiquity8. Among the remnants of several public buildings to the south and east of Hisar Tepe, they revealed the presence of a church (Pl. 2: 10) near the former Macellum (Pl. 2: 7; Fig. 2; Schenk et al., 2019; Hürmüzlü et al., 2022, p. 214). It is very similar in plan to that of a transept basilica in Early Christian church architecture, with its extending arms - barely wider than the nave – to the north and south, and a semi-circular apse to the east of the main building (Krautheimer, 1969). The approximate dimensions of the basilica obtained by this geomagnetic survey are 39 m long (east-west) and 28-30 m wide (north-south) (Schenk et al., 2019, p. 111; Schenk, 2020, p. 157). 8 device. The GPR survey has been continued by the SDU Earthquake and Geotechnical Research Center since 2020. The team of SDU has performed a combined geophysical and archaeological survey of the site. For this study, GPR radargrams collected in 2017 and 2018 campaigns were re-analysed with new filter properties. The authors are thankful to Thomas Schenk and his team for his generous data share and fruitful discussions in 2017 and 2018. We are also thankful Prof. Dr. Thomas Schenk and his team for providing the GPR device, as well as sharing the valuable interpretations of the magnetic and GPR results and the fruitful discussions. All GPR data were processed by using GPR- Slice Software; for this we would like to thank the Earthquake and Geotechnical Research Center of the Süleyman Demirel University (Prof. Dr. Çağlayan Balkaya and Dr. Olcay Çakmak). Earlier research revealed that the city was originally built on the hill of Hisar Tepe, surrounded by a fortification wall (Pl. 2: 1) (Hürmüzlü, 2015, p. 170). The settlement was expanded during the Roman Imperial period, encompassing the plains around the hill (Bingöl, 2012; Hürmüzlü et al., 2016a, p. 206; Hürmüzlü et al., 2017, p. 233; Hürmüzlü et al., 2019, p. 83; Hürmüzlü et al., 2022) (Fig. 2). Since the territory of the ancient city was inhabited since the Early Bronze Age (Özsait, 1986, p. 326; Hürmüzlü et al., 2020), it is possible that some structures in the area overlap or that the centres of the settlement period may have shifted. Currently, the majority of the site consists of small-scale plots of arable land, including poorly ploughed or neglected areas covered by grass. Some standing remnants of ancient buildings (Pl. 2: 1, 2 and 6). ∼ 174 ∼ Hatice Evrim Tütünsatar – Peter Talloen – Bilge Hürmüzlü Fig. 1 ∼ 175 ∼ Tracing Early Christianity with Ground Penetrating Radar: The Case of The Transept Basilica at Seleukeia Sidera Fig. 2 Basilica planned structures had been built for at least five centuries before they were used as churches (Yegül, 1992, pp. 373 – 375). The Early Christian Basilica9 , both in function and design, started to be built in the early 4th century (Krautheimer, 1984, pp. 21 – 26). With the growth of the Christian community, the former houses churches could no longer accommodate the faithful and a new form of cult building was needed for Eucharistic celebrations and other rites; thus, the Early Christian Basilica arose. It is essentially an east-west oriented rectangular hall with two (occasionally four) longitudinal internal colonnades dividing the space into a central nave and two (or four) side aisles. The Early Christian Basilica focuses on its apse as the holiest part of the church, located at the eastern end of the central nave. Additionally, there were some basilicas with transepts or transverse aisles between the nave and the apse 9 For details on the Christian Basilica see: Sear, 1998; Krautheimer, 1984; White, 1990; Marconi, 2014; Yegül & Favro, 2019. ∼ 176 ∼ Hatice Evrim Tütünsatar – Peter Talloen – Bilge Hürmüzlü (Ward-Perkins, 1954, p. 78). The transept is located in front of the apse in the north-south direction and includes the bema and altar where the rituals of the Eucharist and sometimes sermons are performed. It is common for transept arms to extend beyond the north and south borders of the main hall. Transept basilicas appeared around the middle of the 4th century and started to be more common in Early Christian architecture in the 6th century10. According to Richard Krautheimer (1942, pp. 4 – 5, Fig. 3), there are three main types of transept structures. The first type is an undivided transept where the transept between the apse and the nave is not divided by any architectural element. The second is a three-part transept where the rows of the transept are divided into units by colonnades, which might carry either an architrave or a series of arches. The last one is the cross transept where the lateral aisles verge on transept arms. In order to get more detailed information on this transept basilica, as a more exceptional type of Early Christian church architecture, in terms of its architectural plan, construction materials and techniques, and chronology, an additional survey with Ground Penetration Radar was conducted in 2017 and 2018 (Schenk, 2020), followed by an intensive archaeological survey of the site in 2021. After shortly introducing the different methods, this paper will present the results of these surveys in order to reconstruct the plan, construction materials and chronology of the basilica and then try to situate it in the late antique church architecture of southwestern Anatolia. Fig. 3 10 For the history of the transept basilicas see Ward-Perkins, 1954; Krautheimer, 1969 and 1984; Balderstone, 2004 and 2007; Ceylan & Erdoğan, 2015, p. 353. ∼ 177 ∼ Tracing Early Christianity with Ground Penetrating Radar: The Case of The Transept Basilica at Seleukeia Sidera Results of the Surveys GPR survey of the Transept Basilica Archaeological structures produce different reflections of radar waves depending on the structure type and its contrast with surrounding sediments11. The aim of the GPR survey was to evaluate the unknown depth and level of preservation of the remains thought to belong to a transept basilica, based on the results of the aforementioned magnetic prospection. Previous GPR surveys of structures and churches with a basilica plan were considered in detail, together with the plans of (excavated) remains of basilicas in order to obtain an accurate interpretation of the GPR results12. Before starting the measurements, plants and small stones were removed. However, some parts of the area, where large amounts of stone were piled up, could not be measured (Fig. 4). Fig. 4 The design and geo-referencing of measurement grids in the field were made with the differential GPS Leica 900 in the WGS84 / UTM36 coordinate system. Firstly, a small area in the field was measured for the calibration of the device in order to test the method, the dielectric constant and the signal. Secondly, the field was staked out with the DGPS system, after which the profiles were 11 See, in this volume, Balkaya et al., Archaeo-geophysical Investigations at Seleukeia Sidera. 12 For some previous GPR surveys for churches: Chávez et al., 2005; Becker, 2009; Cardarelli & Filippo 2009; Imposa et al., 2009; Boschi, 2011; Sala et al., 2012; Haynes et al., 2013; Hulin et al., 2017; Balkaya et al., 2018; Fauchard et al., 2018. ∼ 178 ∼ Hatice Evrim Tütünsatar – Peter Talloen – Bilge Hürmüzlü marked with tapes and ropes at a distance of 25 cm, and then the odometer was calibrated to adapt it to the field and the topographical movement. Finally, traces and square grids, which consisted of many reflective profiles, were recorded as data. GPR measurements were conducted through 219 profiles, along parallel lines spaced by 25 cm, in a total of 8 sub-areas in 2017 and 2018. The last 52 profiles consisted of some re-measurement and a little addition to the northeast of the survey area. Reflection profiles are sliced, formed parallel to the floor surface. For the initial observation, only gain processing was applied to the radargrams; then, data processing analysis was applied for a detailed interpretation. GPR data were processed and depth slice amplitude maps were produced via GPRSLICE software. Fig. 5 represents an example of a radargram of 20 slices with 20% overlapping (GPR section) delineated by a series of vertical GPR traces of reflected signals along with the profiles according to discontinuities through the subsoil. Time slices consisting of radargrams are generated to visualize the amplitudes of GPR traces at several depths and the anomalies, marked with yellow lines, represent the points with a contrast in the dielectric constants. Fig. 5 After this survey, several data process stages were applied to the data. For the first step, the raw data was edited line by line and the velocity was calculated using hyperbola fitting (i.e., the velocities between 0.08-0.15 m/ns) for data acquisition parameters such as the depth of energy penetration necessary and resolution desired. The tabular velocity value for limestone has a range between 0.09 m/ns to 0.15 m/ns (OYO 1988; Reynolds, 1997; Annan, 2001; Mount & Comas, 2014; Zieliński, et al., 2016). Secondly, time-zero correction to place recorded radar pulse samples in their correct vertical position, background removal to remove banding noises seen across the radargrams, bandpass filter (Vertical High Pass Filter:200 MHz and Vertical Low Pass Filter: 800 MHz) were applied to the data so that the selected frequencies are removed from the radar waves. In the third step, the gain parameters were chosen for the radargrams. The selection of gain parameters that are numerical values changes the intensity or amplitude of the recorded waves. Migration, which is a geophysical signal ∼ 179 ∼ Tracing Early Christianity with Ground Penetrating Radar: The Case of The Transept Basilica at Seleukeia Sidera processing filter to remove hyperbolas in the data, was applied. Migration is an important process to obtain the most correct estimation of depth as it moves the radar reflections to a more correct place in a radargram by using the information of the velocity value. The proper migration is applied to the data (Fig. 6). For the last step, the time-depth conversion was applied. Fig. 7 shows the 2D- and 3D- solid volume images at the depth of 80 cm with the radargram of profiles as examples for the field. The traces of possible structures are coloured in black. Reflection profiles were placed on the grid at intervals of 25 cm. The x-axis represents the distance of profiles with the antenna on the surface, whereas the y-axis represents the time range for the measurement. The depth of the structure is estimated from an average velocity of the signals’ reflections into the subsoil. The profiles are sliced into 4 ns slices, about 20 cm in thickness, formed parallel to the surface. Time-sections were created from the obtained radargrams for each profile and visualized. The amplitude time slices created parallel to the surface show the outline of the basilica in the top 40-60 cm of the subsurface (Fig. 8). Fig. 6 ∼ 180 ∼ Hatice Evrim Tütünsatar – Peter Talloen – Bilge Hürmüzlü Fig. 7 Fig. 8 Fig. 9 shows the 60 cm – 1 m depth layer, in which the structure can be identified easily; the relatively shallow depth suggests that we’re dealing with the foundations of the building. The lengths and widths of the presumable ∼ 181 ∼ Tracing Early Christianity with Ground Penetrating Radar: The Case of The Transept Basilica at Seleukeia Sidera foundation walls, as well as the whole structure, can be measured from the obtained plan. The overall structure, with exterior walls approximately 1.00 m thick, has a rectangular form (39 m x 32 m) with an east-west orientation and is composed of five components. The central hall (n° 1) has three internal divisions, seemingly divided by a continuous wall (0.80 m wide) carrying round elements – perhaps columns (0.70 m in diameter); these three parts measure 19.2 m x 4.4 m for the north part, 19.3 m x 10.4 m for the central part, and ca. 19.2 m x 4.4 m for the south part. On the east side of the central hall is a transverse hall (n° 2) with a width of 5.6 m and an estimated length of 25.8 m, again with three internal divisions along the same lines as those of the central hall: the central part measures 5.6 m x 10.4 m and the northern part 5.6 m x 7 m, thus extending ca. 1.8 m beyond the line of the north wall of central hall; the length of the south part (with the width of 6 m) could not be determined due to the presence of a large pile of rubble on the surface. There is a semi-circular extension (n° 3) on the east side of the central part of this transverse hall, with a diameter (northsouth) of 10.4 m and a length (east-west) of 6 m. To the west of the central hall, there is a rectangular space (n° 4) with a width of 4.1 m and a length that appears to correspond to the width of the hall (ca. 21.2 m). It is internally divided into three parts, corresponding to the divisions of the central hall, with which they appear to be connected through three door openings in the west wall of the hall. The central door opening measures ca. 2.5 m, while the side doors have a width of ca. 1.2 m. Finally, traces of unclear structure (n° 5) measuring 16 m x 5 m, can be seen at the southwestern end of the building. Fig. 9 ∼ 182 ∼ Hatice Evrim Tütünsatar – Peter Talloen – Bilge Hürmüzlü These building traces revealed by the GPR survey are compatible with the plan of a tripartite basilica, with a transept (n° 2) located between the central hall or naos (n° 1) and the apse (n° 3) at the east end, and preceded by a vestibule or narthex (n° 4) to the west; the structures (n° 5) in the southwest part of the complex can perhaps be identified as an annex (Fig. 9 and 10). The side aisles of the naos (4.4 - 5 m) are typically narrower than the nave (9.8 m), with each part accessible from the narthex through its own entrance. Judging by the circular signals on the line between the central and southern part of naos, the aisles are separated from the nave not by walls but by a series of five columns (or pillars) set ca. 3 m apart between the west and east wall of the hall where engaged columns (or pillars) formed the extremities of the colonnade; the (slightly lighter coloured) line itself would then represent the stylobate of this colonnade. The plan of the transept is seemingly tripartite which would suggest that we are dealing with here type 2 of Krautheimer’s typology, the tripartite transept. Yet, the exact nature of the superstructure, such as the presence of columns and arches, is not clear. Therefore, also a continuous transept cannot be excluded; the tripartite plan would then simply be due to the presence of an enclosed bema in the central part of the transept (see below) rather than reflecting any division of the transept itself. The limited extension of the transept arms (only 1.8 m) beyond the line of the north (and south) wall, together with the relatively narrow width of the transept, rules out a continuation of the side aisle in the arms of the transept, which is the defining characteristic of the cross transept. In the central part of the transept, traces of a rectangular structure (2.7 m long and 2.0 m wide) can be observed; it can most probably be identified as the substructure of an altar. The more articulate corners of the structure could perhaps indicate the presence of columns carrying a baldachin, as they are too thick to represent the normally slim supports of an altar table itself. This would identify the central area as the altar platform or bema, located between the south and north arms of the transept. The latter appear to be separated from the bema, although the visible dividing lines may simply represent the steps of the altar platform, not actual dividing walls. The apse to the east of the bema is semi-circular and extends 6 m beyond the line of the east wall of the church. The semi-circular wall of the apse has an exceptional thickness of 1.6 m compared to the rest of the exterior walls; perhaps this was in order to carry the substantial weight of a semi-dome covering the apse. The three door arrangement in the west wall of the central hall, connecting the narthex to the naos, is also clearly visible in the GPR signals. With a width of 2.5 m, the central access to the nave is typically larger than the 1.2 m wide entrances to the side aisles. The tripartite division of the narthex, on the other hand, is remarkable and may hint at different functions for the spaces to the north and south of the central vestibule, perhaps housing stairwells to the galleries above the narthex and side aisles13. The absence of clear GPR signals of a continuous wall on the west side of the vestibule suggests that the west wall of the narthex may have been open, for the central part at least. The 13 For the presence of staircases leading to galleries see Mathews, 1971. ∼ 183 ∼ Tracing Early Christianity with Ground Penetrating Radar: The Case of The Transept Basilica at Seleukeia Sidera traces of an annex consisting of several spaces on the south side of the basilica are not part of a standard plan and therefore difficult to interpret. While the western part of the annex, with a width of 5 m and a length of 16 m, can still be made out from the GPR signals, debris on the surface prevented a survey of its east side, making a plausible reconstruction of the walls in that part impossible. Against the north wall of this western annex, GPR signals indicate a 2.5 m long and 1.0 m wide structure, measurements that recall those of a tomb similar to the basilica of Tlos (Korkut, 2020, pp. 157 – 166; Fig. 11). If this assumption is correct, it would identify the annex as a funerary chapel. Fig. 10 ∼ 184 ∼ Hatice Evrim Tütünsatar – Peter Talloen – Bilge Hürmüzlü Fig. 11 The Intensive Survey of the Basilica An intensive archaeological survey was undertaken in the 1800 m² area covered by the GPR survey in 2021. The area is currently used for agriculture and regularly ploughed. Ploughing has littered the surface with fragments of pottery, marble, mortar, bricks, and tile fragments, as well as a couple of limestone ashlar blocks present along the borders of the field. The purpose of the survey was to document and collect remains belonging to the buried basilica that could shed light on its construction materials and techniques, its decoration, and its chronology. The survey area was organised as a 30 by 60 m grid, consisting of 90 subgrids measuring 2 by 10 m, without utilizing the architecture of the transept basilica revealed through geophysical results as a reference (Fig. 12). The survey methodology involved the systematic collection of all visible archaeological objects on the surface within a specific time frame and at equal intervals from one another. Other than pottery, also architectural ceramics, mortar, glass, tesserae, opus sectile pieces, stone architectural fragments, bone and a low quantity of iron slag were found. ∼ 185 ∼ Tracing Early Christianity with Ground Penetrating Radar: The Case of The Transept Basilica at Seleukeia Sidera Fig. 12 The ceramic finds (#15.452 finds) included ceramic building materials (CBM) as well as pottery. The collected CBM consisted of brick (10% of all terracotta finds), roof tiles (86 %) and cover tiles (1 %). The relatively rich presence of roof and cover tiles indicate that the church was covered with a tiled roof. The bricks, on the other hand, may have been used in the walls of the basilica, but given the presence of tuff on the site and the building techniques utilized in church construction in the region14 , a combined use of bricks and tuff blocks in pillars and/or arches seems more likely. A total of 205 coarse pottery fragments (1% of the finds) were collected, along with 85 fragments of Sagalassos Red Slip Ware (SRSW)15. Additionally, four sherds of locally or regionally produced red slipped pottery, 12 fine ware fragments of non-diagnostic group, 114 sherds of cooking pots, 13 clay water pipes, and four oil lamp fragments were also collected. Among the pottery finds, 15 pieces could be dated. The majority (seven fragments) of the pottery finds belong to the Late Antique period. To be sure, the pottery cannot necessarily be connected to the use of the church given that we are dealing with surface material that has been exposed to post-depositional processes. Having said that, it can be used to indicate the chronological phases in the use of this part of the urban area. Therefore, the finds point towards Late Antiquity as the period of most intense usage of the area. Some 28 stone tesserae were also found on the surface of the church. This number suggests the presence of a mosaic floor inside the basilica. Among the few glass finds (# 9) collected from the area of the basilica, seven glass tesserae 14 For the use of tuff in the construction of churches in the region see Talloen & Beaujean, 2015. 15 Assist. Prof. Dr. Burak Sönmez documented, classified and dated the pottery and small finds recovered during the survey. We thank him for the valuable information on the evaluation of this material. ∼ 186 ∼ Hatice Evrim Tütünsatar – Peter Talloen – Bilge Hürmüzlü were present, indicating the possible decoration of surfaces such as walls and/ or semi-dome above the apse with glass mosaics. The 101 architectural fragments found on the field include pieces of decoration and furniture such as parts of the bema screen, part of a column base and of a marble column that were probably part of a colonnade, and flooring or covering slabs in marble, some of which were imported from Dokymaion. Five pieces of opus sectile were found on the field (Fig. 13). One of them had an octagonal shape, one is a six-pointed star, and three of them were hexagonal. The pieces were found scattered throughout the building and can therefore not be related to any specific part of the basilica, although the bema floor seems likely, as was the case in the City Basilicas at Patara (Ceylan & Erdoğan, 2016) and Tlos (Korkut & Urano, 2020, p. 43), and the Bouleuterion Basilica at Sagalassos (Talloen et al., 2016, p. 125). The decorative floor patterns of these churches were dated between the second half of the 5th and the early 6th century AD. The limestone building blocks lying around the field comprise a part of the seat of an exedra, a door threshold, a corniche block, and the base of a pilaster column (Fig. 14)16. For this large-sized building material a relationship with the buried structure is likely. Figure 15 showcases an illustrative instance of a virtual 3D reconstruction of the transept basilica, derived from the plan acquired from the GPR traces. A concise demonstration of a virtual 3D reconstruction of the transept basilica has been successfully produced, utilizing the plan derived from the GPR traces (Fig. 15). Fig. 13 16 Assoc. Prof. Ahmet Mörel kindly helped with the survey and interpretation of the architectural fragments. ∼ 187 ∼ Tracing Early Christianity with Ground Penetrating Radar: The Case of The Transept Basilica at Seleukeia Sidera Fig. 14 Fig. 15 ∼ 188 ∼ Hatice Evrim Tütünsatar – Peter Talloen – Bilge Hürmüzlü Discussion: Transept Basilicas in Southwestern Anatolia Although it is a more exceptional form of basilica, the transept basilica appears to have been quite popular in southwestern Anatolia, with several known examples in Pisidia, Pamphylia and Lykia. Most of these, however, belong to the (abbreviated) cross transept type, with an internal division. This is the case for the transept Basilica E1 at Sagalassos, Basilica A at Perge, the Episcopal church at Olympos, the City Basilica at Patara, and the City Basilica at Tlos17. In Sagalassos, however, there is a second transept basilica – designated Basilica E – built in the former sanctuary of Apollo Klarios, which is the result of the in situ conversion of the 1st century AD peripteral Ionic temple into an early Christian transept basilica (Talloen & Vercauteren, 2011, pp. 368 – 370; Talloen, 2019, p. 190). Measuring 17 m x 6 m, its transept too only extended slightly (1.4 m) beyond the northern and southern borders of the tripartite naos and was inserted near the eastern end of the basilica that was formed by a polygonal apse (Talloen & Vercauteren, 2011, p. 369). The bema again occupied the complete central part of the transept, creating a ‘tripartite’ transverse hall, exactly like the transept basilica at Seleukeia Sidera. Basilica E at Sagalassos thus provides the closest parallel for the transept basilica at Seleukeia Sidera, and given the close ties between these neighbouring cities, it seems plausible that these building projects were somehow related. The excavations in several parts of Basilica E indicate a date in the second half of the 5th or early 6th century AD for its construction, a date that would also fit the chronological indications for the transept basilica at Seleukeia Sidera. Conclusion Thanks to the clear results of the GPR survey, as a follow-up of an earlier geomagnetic prospection of the area, it is obvious that the foundations of an Early Christian Basilica lay buried below the surface in the southeast part of the lower city of Seleukeia Sidera. On the basis of its plan, the large church could be identified as a transept basilica, a type that was particularly common in southwestern Anatolia, especially during the late 5th – early 6th century AD. The short transept arms, extending barely beyond the outer walls of the aisles, are a feature shared with Basilica E at the neighbouring city of Sagalassos. The intensive archaeological survey of the site provided additional information, especially on the construction materials and techniques used in 17 For Basilica E1 at Sagalassos, dated to the second half of the 5th or early 6th century AD see: Talloen & Vercauteren, 2011, p. 366; Talloen, 2019, pp. 190 – 192; for Basilica A at Perge see: Grossmann, 2008, p. 102 and Ceylan & Erdoğan, 2015; for the Episcopal Church at Olympos see Evcim & Öztaşkın, 2019, pp. 134 – 136; for the City Basilica at Patara, dated to the second half of the 5th century, see: Ceylan & Erdoğan, 2016; for the City Basilica at Tlos see: Korkut & Urano, 2020. ∼ 189 ∼ Tracing Early Christianity with Ground Penetrating Radar: The Case of The Transept Basilica at Seleukeia Sidera the building: we see a monumental basilica built with (reused) limestone blocks, interior colonnades carrying arcades of bricks and tuff blocks, a roof covered with terracotta tiles, floors and walls clad with marble slabs, opus sectile and mosaics, and liturgical furniture made of marble. This opulent architecture and decoration befit a church in the monumental centre of the city and demonstrates the economic capabilities of the community responsible for its creation. Acknowledgments The Seleukeia Sidera excavations and surveys financial support was generously provided by the Süleyman Demirel University, the Turkish Historical Society, the Gerda Henkel Foundation (Germany), and HTW. We would also like to thank Prof. Dr. Thomas Schenk and his team for providing the GPR device, as well as sharing the valuable interpretations of the magnetic and GPR results. Assoc. Prof. Ahmet Mörel and Assist. Prof. Burak Sönmez and other team members (Hilal Uslu, Gurbet Kılınç, Fatma Nur Güner, Berke Çilbir, Mustafa Sarışahin and students of SDÜ Faculty of Architecture) kindly helped us with the archaeological survey and the interpretation of the finds. All GPR data were processed by using GPR- Slice Software; for this we would like to thank the Earthquake and Geotechnical Research Center of the Süleyman Demirel University (Prof. Dr. Çağlayan Balkaya and Dr. Olcay Çakmak). Figure List Fig. 1. Aerial view of Seleukeia Sidera with the Location of the Survey Area (inside the blue rectangle) to the Southeast of Hisar Tepe. (Seleukeia Sidera Excvation Archive). Fig. 2. Map of Seleukeia Sidera with the Results of the Geomagnetic Measurements in 2017-2018 (Schenk, 2020, p. 162). The Blue Rectangle Represents the Study Area. Fig. 3. Comparative Chart with Different Types of Transept Basilicas (Krautheimer, 1942, Chart). Fig. 4. a) The Area Covered by the GPR Survey; b) Temporary Gained Traces of GPR During Measurement on the Screen; c) GPR Profiles During Measurement with a GSSI SIR-3000 Control System and 400 MHz antennas; d) An Example of GPR Signal Travel Under the Surface During the Measurement. (by H. E. Tütünsatar). Fig. 5. A Radargram with the Example of Time Slice Thickness (20 slices with 20% overlapping) and the Trace Example of a Possible Structure. The Most Distinctive Reflections of the Radargram Represent the Traces of Possible Structures. (by H. E. Tütünsatar). ∼ 190 ∼ Hatice Evrim Tütünsatar – Peter Talloen – Bilge Hürmüzlü Fig. 6. The Comparison of a Raw and a Processed Radargram: a) The Raw Radargram of Profile 22; b) The Processed Radargram of Profile 22. (by H. E. Tütünsatar). Fig. 7. a) The Transparent 2D Image of Profile 22 with Solid Volume Images of 22 Profiles; b) The 2D Image 80 cm Beneath the Surface (z: 0.8 m). The x-axis Represents the Distance of Profiles with the Antenna on the Surface, Whereas the y-axis Represents the Time Range for the Measurement, and the z-axis Represents the Depth. (by H. E. Tütünsatar). Fig. 8. 2D Time-depth Slice Maps Created with the Amplitude Values of Profiles from Zero to 18 ns (i.e. approximately 0-1 m). The Processes of Time Zero Correction and Migration were Applied with GPR-SLICE Software (v7.0), GPRSLICE was Used for this Visualization of 177 Profiles for the Survey Area. (by H. E. Tütünsatar). Fig. 9. Reconstructed Plan of the Transept Basilica on the Basis of the GPR Results. The Numbers within the Blue Rectangles Indicate the Components of the Basilica. (by H. E. Tütünsatar). Fig. 10. Plan with the Different Components of the Transept Basilica as Reconstructed from the GPR Results. The Traces of Possible Structures are Coloured in Black. The Yellow Rectangles Represent the North and South Transept Arms of the Basilica. The Blue Rectangular Represents the Area of the Probable Annex. The Altar is Indicated by the Green Rectangle and the Entrances are Indicated with Purple Rectangles. The Debris on the Surface are Shown within the Orange Ellipse. (by H. E. Tütünsatar). Fig. 11. GPR Image of the Basilica and Detail of the Possible Grave or Stone Structure in the Southern Annex (within the yellow oval). (by H. E. Tütünsatar). Fig. 12. The Intensive Survey was Conducted within a Survey Area of 30 by 60 meter, Covered by a Grid Consisting of 90 sub-grids of 2 by 10 meters. (by H. E. Tütünsatar). Fig. 13. Examples of Marble Opus Sectile Pieces Collected During by the Intensive Survey of the Field. (Seleukeia Sidera Excavation Archive). Fig. 14. a) View of the Survey Area; b) Exedra Fragment; c) Door Threshold, d) Pedestal with Base; e) Piece of a Corniche Block; f) Epistyle Block; g) Pilaster Capital. (Seleukeia Sidera Excavation Archive). Fig. 15. A Virtual 3D Reconstruction of the Transept Basilica on the Basis to the Plan Obtained from GPR Traces. (by H. E. Tütünsatar). ∼ 191 ∼ Tracing Early Christianity with Ground Penetrating Radar: The Case of The Transept Basilica at Seleukeia Sidera Bibliography Annan, A.P. (2001). Ground Penetrating Radar. 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