(PDF) Peralta, E., Luna, L. y Gil, A. 2021. Inferences on mobility and subsistence patterns from degenerative joint disease and entheseal changes. Trends in the farmer/forager border (Central-Western Argentina). Homo. Journal of Comparative Human Biology 72(4): 327-346.

This study tests the hypothesis that the incorporation of cultigens about ca. 2000 years BP substantially changed hunter-gatherer subsistence and mobility in the Atuel River valley (Central-Western Argentina), where the frontier of pre-Hispanic domesticated resource dispersion was defined. Degenerative joint disease and entheseal change markers were analyzed on skeletal remains from Cañada Seca-1, a burial archaeological site with commingled skeletal remains dated about ca. 1500 years BP (MNI = 24). The results show lower mobility in comparison with hunter-gatherer remains from the neighboring Pampa region and quite different manual activities compared to low-level producers. These trends are explained as a result of a mixed subsistence strategy and mobility in an area where the incorporation of domesticated plants was neither a linear nor a fast process, and a stereotypical view proves to be insufficient to understand it. Although further information is required for future discussions, the present research highlights the potential of commingled skeletal remains for this kind of study.

Article Homo 72/4 (2021), 327–346 J. Comp. Hum. Biol. Published in print December 2021 Inferences on mobility and subsistence patterns from degenerative joint disease and entheseal changes. Trends in the farmer/forager border (Central-Western Argentina) Eva Ailén Peralta1,*, Leandro H. Luna2, Adolfo F. Gil1 1 Instituto de Evolución, Ecología Histórica y Ambiente, CONICET, Urquiza Ave. 314, San Rafael, 5600, Argentina. Instituto Multidisciplinario de Historia y Ciencias Humanas, CONICET; Facultad de Filosofía y Letras, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina. * Corresponding author: evaailenperalta@gmail.com 2 With 3 figures and 8 tables Abstract: This study tests the hypothesis that the incorporation of cultigens about ca. 2000 years BP substantially changed hunter-gatherer subsistence and mobility in the Atuel River valley (Central-Western Argentina), where the frontier of preHispanic domesticated resource dispersion was defined. Degenerative joint disease and entheseal change markers were analyzed on skeletal remains from Cañada Seca-1, a burial archaeological site with commingled skeletal remains dated about ca. 1500 years BP (MNI = 24). The results show lower mobility in comparison with hunter-gatherer remains from the neighboring Pampa region and quite different manual activities compared to low-level producers. These trends are explained as a result of a mixed subsistence strategy and mobility in an area where the incorporation of domesticated plants was neither a linear nor a fast process, and a stereotypical view proves to be insufficient to understand it. Although further information is required for future discussions, the present research highlights the potential of commingled skeletal remains for this kind of study. Keywords: mechanic stress; maize; food production; activity patterns Seca-1 (CS-1) site, an ossuary of maize consumers located in the Atuel River valley dated ca. 1500 years BP. The aim was to identify the patterns of body use and their connection with mobility and manual tasks. The region was occupied by hunter-gatherers before ca. 2000 years BP and a low proportion of cultigens was later incorporated, whose significance for human economy constitutes a main topic of debate. Considering this context, the present research evaluates from a bioarchaeological perspective whether human strategies were modified after 2000 years BP in the Atuel valley, with subsequent changes in daily activities and in the distribution of mechanical stress indicators. Finally, the present study evaluates the applicability of bone activity markers in contexts of subsistence shifts. Introduction The Atuel River valley (Central-Western Argentina) has been seen as the Southern border of American pre-Hispanic agriculture, supported by the presence of macroremains of domestic plants such as Zea mays, Cucurbita sp., Chenopodium quinoa, Phaseolus vulgaris, and Lagenaria sp. since ca. 2200 years 14C BP (Lagiglia 1980; Lagiglia 2001; Neme & Gil 2012). Further research has proposed a flexible subsistence strategy for groups that lived in the Atuel River valley, alternating between hunter-gathering and low-level food production. This assumption is supported by stable isotope values that indicated an incipient consumption of domesticated C4 plants such as maize (Gil et al. 2010; Gil et al. 2011; Gil et al. 2018). Although the role of maize in the diet has been strongly debated, and its consumption can be supported (Gil et al. 2018; Peralta 2019), the problem of its impact on hunter-gatherer subsistence and mobility is still unsolved in the area. To address this issue, we approached the study of degenerative joint disease (DJD) and entheseal changes (EC) in a sample of 24 individuals from Cañada Hunter-gatherers, agriculture and small-scale food production: concepts and bioarchaeological implications It is generally assumed that domestication impacted multiple aspects of human life, including subsistence, technology, diet, mobility, demography, and human health © 2021 E. Schweizerbart’sche Verlagsbuchhandlung, 70176 Stuttgart, Germany DOI: 10.1127/homo/2021/1526 eschweizerbart_xxx www.schweizerbart.de 0018-442X/2021/1526 $ 5.00 328 E. A. Peralta, L. H. Luna, A. F. Gil (Cohen 1977; Redman 1990; Colledge & Conolly 2007; Vigne 2015). Traditionally, hunter-gathering and farming were built as polarized subsistence systems and later re-discussed as extremes of a broad spectrum of adaptive strategies (Winterhalder & Kennett 2006; Gepts et al. 2012; Winterhalder & Kennett 2020). Some authors have characterized intermediate subsistence systems as low-level food production in which groups highly dependent on huntergathering introduced cultigens and eventually domesticated fauna (Smith 2001; Winterhalder & Kennett 2006; Winterhalder & Kennett 2020). This proposal was used in southern Mendoza to characterize the archaeological contexts that include cultigens (Gil et al. 2018; Peralta 2019; Gil et al. 2020). It is important to clarify that the lines of inquiry driven in the region did not support intensive agriculture so far. Intensive agriculture and sedentarism took place in Northwestern Argentina, where studies about subsistence shifts through entheseal changes and degenerative joint disease are very scarce (Peralta 2019; Peralta 2020). The present research explores the implications of lowlevel food production in terms of body use and physical activities. A double process of resource intensification and mobility reduction has been suggested for the Atuel valley for the end of the late Holocene period (ca. 2000 yr BP) (Neme 2007; Gil et al. 2018). In highly mobile societies, physical demands in the lower extremities have been frequently associated with daily human locomotion (Ruff & Hayes 1983; Cohen & Armelagos 1984; Quevedo 2000; Marchi et al. 2006; Sparacello & Marchi 2008; Marchi 2008; Lieverse et al. 2011). Residential and logistic movements characteristic of hunter-gatherers have been linked to high levels of degenerative joint disease of the knee, ankle-foot, and lumbar vertebrae (Larsen 1997; Knüsel 2000; Quevedo 2000; Larsen & Ruff 2011; Lieverse et al. 2011). In similar contexts, a high prevalence of entheseal changes was observed at the plantaris, soleus, gluteus, and adductor muscles (Lieverse et al. 2011; Scabuzzo 2012; Lieverse et al. 2013). By contrast, the opposite scenario, in which lower extremities are exposed to less stress due to a reduction in mobility, is expected in the context of an intensification process (Bettinger & Baumhoff 1982; Larsen & Ruff 2011; Lieverse et al. 2011). At the same time, an increase in diversity and intensity of manual tasks with food production could be expected in some contexts and would be related to higher physical demands in upper limbs evidenced by higher prevalences of entheseal changes and degenerative joint disease (Sparacello & Marchi 2008; Henderson 2013; Sparacello et al. 2020; Varalli et al. 2020). Considering this model, the present study hypothesizes that lower limbs were less affected and upper limbs were more affected in CS-1 than in other hunter-gatherer populations, while both extremities were similarly affected compared to populations that included low-level food production. Late Holocene Central-Western Argentina and human occupation of the Atuel valley The Atuel River valley (34°48′55″LS, 68°22′07″LO) is located in Central-Western Argentina, in Mendoza province, an arid-semiarid environment occupied by hunter-gatherers since ca. 10000 years BP. The Atuel valley shows drastic changes in the archaeological record ca. 2200 years 14C BP. These mainly consist of an increase in the number and size of archaeological sites, the first occupation of marginal areas (the high Andes and Payunia desert), the development of new technologies (ceramic and stone grinding technology), the increase in the use of obsidian as raw material (probably indicating changes in social networks), and the exploitation of new food resources, like small size fauna, and a wider spectrum of wild animals. The earliest evidence of domestic plants was recorded both in the valley and in the whole region during this time (see Neme 2007; Neme & Gil 2008; Llano & Andreoni 2012; Otaola et al. 2012; Salgán et al. 2012; Neme et al. 2015; Sugrañes 2016). It has been proposed that these changes were the result of the intensification process in resource exploitation, consequence of the spatial saturation and a derived imbalance between human demography and available resources ca. 2000 years BP (Neme 2007). Intensification involved diet breadth expansion, including low-ranking resources with higher procurement and processing costs, which required a reduction in mobility to achieve these tasks (Bettinger & Baumhoff 1982). The presence of cultigens was assumed to be associated with a shift towards a farming/agricultural strategy. The change from a hunter-gatherer economy to a food production lifestyle was firstly explored in the region as a historicalcultural phenomenon (Lagiglia 1980) and more recently as a consequence of the above-mentioned intensification process (Neme 2007). In terms of food consumption, stable isotope analyses improved the knowledge about dietary patterns during the last 2200 years 14C BP. Based on δ13Ccol, δ13Capa, and δ15N data, maize signal was detected in the human diet of several groups in the Atuel River valley with high temporal and spatial variability in the incorporation of this cultigen (Gil et al. 2018; Peralta 2019). Dietary intakes in CS-1 showed a maize consumption of about 30% (Gil et al. 2018; Peralta 2019; Peralta et al. 2021). Simultaneously, human mobility was explored through δ18O values. In CS-1, δ18O values had a low resolution to evaluate changes in mobility associated with the incipient incorporation of cultigens and low-level food production (Ugan et al. 2012; Gil et al. 2018). As a consequence of the intensification process, domesticated resources (principally Zea mays) were partially incorporated as part of the human diet, but the precise impact of this introduction in terms of mobility and subsistence patterns remains unclear. The hypotheses of this study state that in the context of the introduction of domesticated resources and low-level food production: 1) mobility tended to decline, exposing lower extremities to less mechanical eschweizerbart_xxx Inferences on mobility and subsistence patterns from degenerative joint disease 329 et al. 1984; Bridges 1989; Cheverko & Bartelink 2017; Schrader 2019; Becker 2020). Specific changes have also been recorded, such as a high level of DJD in the agriculturalist female left arm (Bridges 1992). Punctual activities have also been proposed in particular hunter-gatherer contexts, including spear-throwing, bow and arrow use, grinding, and scraping of animal hides (Angel 1966; Merbs 1983; Schrader 2019; Becker 2020). Entheseal changes (EC) are modifications on muscle attachment sites (entheses) (Benjamin et al. 1986; Dutour 1986; Benjamin & Ralphs 1998; Benjamin et al. 2002; Villotte & Knüsel 2013). They are the object of similar controversies, and some authors have paid attention to the multiple factors that may determine these changes, mainly age, sex, body size, and pathological conditions (Wilczak 1998; Weiss 2003; Weiss 2004; Weiss 2007; Henderson 2008; Sparacello & Marchi 2008; Weiss et al. 2012; Villotte et al. 2016). Previous studies attempted to rank muscles from most to least used for human samples from different origins, but some problems of equifinality arose (al-Oumaoui et al. 2004; Lieverse et al. 2009). Specific activities were proposed in specific contexts, such as watercraft and spear throwing (Lieverse et al. 2009; Sparacello et al. 2020), some authors propose that agriculturalists have lower scores for entheseal changes than hunter-gatherers and industrial workers (Henderson 2013), while others suggest increased upper body demands with maize intensification (Shuler et al. 2012). Lower extremity stress seems to be linked to both high hunter-gatherer mobility and high agricultural workload (Eshed 2010; Lieverse 2013; Schlader 2015). Many researchers have identified a trend showing a decrease in DJD and EC in the lower limbs as a consequence of a decline in workload derived from reduced mobility (Hoyme & Bass 1962; Larsen 1995; Formicola 1997; Ruff et al. 2006; Holt & Formicola 2008; Sparacello & Marchi 2008; Larsen & Ruff 2011; Marchi et al. 2011; Stock et al. 2011; Carlson & Marchi 2014; Varalli et al. 2020). In turn, it was considered that changes in subsistence-related activities are better reflected in the upper limbs in a transitional context between hunting-gathering and low-level food production (Eshed et al. 2004; Eshed 2010; Varalli et al. 2020). This is because the arms and shoulder are seen as more ‘activity-specific’ than the legs and pelvic girdle in which changes may be caused mainly by walking (Henderson 2008). stress than in previous hunter-gatherer contexts, and that 2) daily tasks regarding food processing activities increased in intensity and extent displaying a more similar pattern to that observed among low-level food producers in the upper limbs. Expectations are: 1) lower frequencies of DJD and EC in lower extremities and higher frequencies in upper extremities compared to the patterns observed by Scabuzzo (2012) for typical hunter-gatherers of the Pampa Region (Argentina) and 2) similar frequencies of DJD and EC in both extremities compared to those observed by Salega (2016) for hunter-gatherers that introduced low-level food production in the Central Highlands Region (Argentina). A greater frequency of DJD and EC in males than in females, mainly in the lower limbs, is also expected. This entails that males were commonly engaged in hunting risks and higher mobility than females, in line with the ethnoarchaeological evidence available (Lee & DeVore 1968; Brown 1970; Bridges 1989; Molleson 1994; Panter-Brick 2002; Eshed et al. 2004). Additionally, it is assumed that these differences would not be correlated with body size (Weiss 2003; Weiss 2004; Weiss 2007). Stress markers of activity DJD and EC have been suggested as useful proxies for past activity patterns. Studies based on these indicators have contributed to discussions about the characterization of lifestyles and subsistence for different types of societies (Cohen & Armelagos 1984; Kennedy 1989; Bridges 1992; Bridges 1994; Capasso et al. 1999; Lieverse et al. 2009; Eshed et al. 2010; Villotte et al. 2010; Schrader 2012; Peralta 2017; Peralta 2020). Several controversies have arisen related to the multi causality of these bone markers, which may be not affected by daily activities only but also by age, sex, body size, and genetic conditions, among others (Weiss & Jurmain 2007; Santos et al. 2011; Jurmain et al. 2012). Many attempts have also been made to establish standardized methods that could be replicated by different researchers with low intra and interobserver errors (Mariotti et al. 2004; Villotte 2006; Mariotti et al. 2007; Weiss & Jurmain, 2007; Villotte et al. 2010; Jurmain et al. 2012; Henderson et al. 2013; Henderson et al. 2016; Henderson et al. 2017a; Henderson et al. 2017b). Degenerative Joint Disease (DJD), or osteoarthrosis, is an alteration of synovial joints producing changes in both periarticular and internal bone tissues (Rogers & Waldron 1995; Waldron 2009; Berenbaum 2013). Some researchers did not observe significant differences in prevalence among groups with different types of subsistence (Bridges 1992; Knüsel 1993; Bridges 1994), although others identified major changes in articular loadings. Many studies have proposed that workload declined with the introduction of agriculture, resulting in a reduction of DJD (Larsen 1982; Larsen 1984; Cohen & Armelagos 1984; Schrader 2019; Becker 2020), while others identified a consistent trend of DJD increasing with food production (Lallo 1973; Goodman Material and methods Foragers and farmers in the Atuel valley: Cañada Seca-1 (CS-1) site Many archaeological contexts with burials, including CS-1, were identified in the Atuel valley, most of them dated during the end of the Late Holocene (Neme & Gil 2010; Peralta 2019). CS-1 is an archaeological site with an exclusive eschweizerbart_xxx 330 E. A. Peralta, L. H. Luna, A. F. Gil ses studied are presented in Table 1. Bones were considered observable when more than 75% of the surface/margin of auricular surface or entheses was present and in a good condition of preservation. This criterion was independent of the complete or fragmented bone condition. funerary function. Since it is an ossuary with commingled remains, it was not possible to individualize skeletons (Peralta et al. 2021). The elements were recovered without systematic excavations during the 1990s, and the burial context was unfortunately lost (Lagiglia 1991), a common aspect of field activities in those times. The site is located in the Atuel River middle valley (34°74’ LS, 68°23’ LO; 610 m.a.s.l.) (Fig. 1) and is dated in 1398 years cal. BP (Peralta et al. 2021). Isotopic analyses show δ13Ccol, δ13Capa, and δ15N mean values of –15‰, –9.7‰, and 11‰, respectively (Gil et al. 2018; Peralta et al. 2021). These data were framed within the isotopic ecology of the Atuel valley and interpreted as a result of C4 energy and protein intakes (Harrison & Katzenberg 2003; Kellner & Schoeninger 2007; Schoeninger 2009). In the Atuel valley, C4 resources are mainly defined as Zea mays (Gil et al. 2010; Gil et al. 2011; Gil et al. 2018; Gil et al. 2020). A maize consumption close to 30% was proposed for CS-1 employing FRUITS, a Bayesian model for diet reconstruction (Gil et al. 2018; Peralta et al. 2021). In consequence, the chronological and spatial location of CS-1 and its isotopic evidence become relevant for a discussion about bioarchaeological concerns in low-level food production societies. The Minimum Number of Individuals (MNI) for CS-1 is 24, including 4 subadults, 2 juveniles, and 18 adults (Peralta 2019; Peralta et al. 2021). We identified one young adult female, three middle adult males, three middle adult females, and two old adult males. Since CS-1 only included commingled skeletal remains, os coxae and skulls were not associated with appendicular bones. A total of 155 appendicular bones from both sides (humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia, and calcaneus) were analyzed. Frequencies of elements, articular surfaces, and fibrous and fibrocartilaginous enthe- Sex and age estimations Sex was estimated in previous research (Peralta 2019; Peralta et al. 2021); the procedure included both traditional methodologies for the os coxae (Phenice 1969; Bruzek 2002) and skulls (Buikstra & Ubelaker 1994) and alternative ones based on bone metrics of long bones and the calcaneus (Steele 1976; Berrizbeitia 1989; Holland 1991; Bruzek 1995; Silva 1995; Introna et al. 1997; Trancho et al. 1997; Seidemann et al. 1998; Wilbur 1998; Alemán Aguilera et al. 2000; López-Bueis et al. 2000; Robledo et al. 2000; Trancho et al. 2000; Murphy 2002; Frutos 2003; Luna 2008). Age estimations were only obtained following the recording of the pubic symphysis and auricular surface (Todd 1920; Todd 1921; Meindl et al. 1980; Lovejoy et al. 1985; Meindl & Lovejoy 1989). Unfortunately, the commingled condition of the burial precluded the evaluation of age-at-death influence on long bone EC and DJD (Peralta 2017; Peralta 2020). Degenerative joint disease and entheseal changes recording methods The recording of DJD was performed analyzing articulation surfaces and margins separately (Luna et al. 2017). Each articulation was divided into four quadrants, each of which was rated on a scale from 0 to 3. Results were added and divided by the number of quadrants effectively recorded, which allowed including articulations with different degrees of preservation. Intensity margin scores were defined as fol- Fig. 1. Location of Cañada Seca-1 (CS-1) in the Atuel valley. eschweizerbart_xxx 331 Inferences on mobility and subsistence patterns from degenerative joint disease Table 1. Recorded articular surfaces, fibrous entheses (F), and fibrocartilaginous entheses (FC). Px: proximal articulation; Dx: distal articulation; R: right; L: left. Element Surface/entheses Laterality N N_F N_M N_IN Humerus Px R 10 11 9 3 L 9 5 13 19 7 10 9 Dx Pectoralis major (F) Deltoid (F) 12 R 9 L 13 9 L 13 Brachioradialis (F) R 9 L 13 Extensor (FC) R 9 L 11 Flexor (FC) R 8 L 11 Subscapularis (FC) R 8 L 7 Teres minor (FC) R 5 L 7 R 5 L 6 R 6 L 7 Infraspinatus (FC) Ulna 11 L R Supraspinatus (FC) Radius R Px R 18 L 19 Dx R 8 L 8 Biceps (FC) R 12 L 10 Px R 13 L 13 Dx R 9 L 11 Supinator (F) R 12 L 15 R 12 L 15 Pronator quadratus (F) Triceps (FC) Brachialis (FC) R 11 L 13 R 12 L 13 eschweizerbart_xxx 332 E. A. Peralta, L. H. Luna, A. F. Gil Table 1. continued. Element Surface/entheses Laterality N N_F N_M N_IN Femur Px R 14 13 10 8 L 15 Dx R 11 L 10 Gluteal tuberosity (F) R 15 L 16 Linea aspera (F) R 15 L 16 Iliopsoas (FC) R 8 L 12 11 9 3 5 8 2 Gluteus minimus (FC) Gluteus medius (FC) Tibia Calcaneus R 8 L 11 R 9 L 10 R 11 L 8 Dx R 12 L 11 Quadriceps (F) R 10 L 12 Soleal line (F) R 10 L 12 Plantaris (FC) R 8 L 7 Px activity markers in human skeletal remains (Scabuzzo 2010; Scabuzzo 2012; Salega 2016). To make possible the comparison between CS-1 results and previously published data, we decided to replicate the methodological procedures. Robusticity (rugosity or hypertrophy), stress lesions (pitting or furrowing), and ossifications (bony spurs or projections) were recorded. Robusticity and stress lesions were considered as a continuum of increasing muscle and/or ligament strain and were combined in the recording procedure (Hawkey & Merbs 1995). The resulting scores ranged from 0 to 6: 0 = absence of expression; 1 = cortex slightly rounded, palpable elevation, although without distinct crests or ridges; 2 = uneven cortical surface with a mound-shaped elevation; no sharp ridges or crests formed; 3 = sharp crests or ridges formed; 4 = pitting (< 1 mm depth) into the cortex with lytic appearance; 5 = deeper pitting (> 1 mm but < 3 mm depth) covering more surface area; may vary in length but never > 5 mm; 6 = marked pitting > 3 mm depth and > 5 mm length. Since ossifications are considered the result of abrupt macro trauma, rather than continuous muscle use, they were analyzed and interpreted separately using the following score: 0 = absence; 1 = slight exostosis, usually lows: 0 = no changes associated with DJD; 1 = slight irregularities (< 1 mm); 2 = osteophytes clearly visible (1–5 mm long); 3 = osteophytes > 5 mm. Cases of ankylosis were included in the last category. In turn, surface scores were recorded using the following categories: 0 = no porosity; 1 = < 1/3 of surface affected by porosity; 2 = 1/3 to 2/3 of surface affected; 3) > 2/3 of surface affected. Eburnation was included at this stage. The percentage of affectation was also relieved; in this case, four categories were considered: 0 = not affected; 1 = less than 25% of periarticular alteration and surface porosity; 2 = 25 to 50% affected; 3 = more than 50% affected. Results were presented by articulation and anatomical portion (upper or lower limbs). Each articulation was composed of both joint surfaces (three for elbow), and each surface was recorded separately and later grouped by joint. Carpals, metacarpals, tarsals (excluding the calcaneus) and metatarsals were excluded from the recording of the wrist and the ankle. The methodology developed by Hawkey & Merbs (1995) was applied to fibrous entheses. Although the method have some weaknesses, the election was conditioned by previous regional research that employed this method to explore eschweizerbart_xxx 333 Inferences on mobility and subsistence patterns from degenerative joint disease Table 2. Frequency of degenerative joint disease in each joint considering margin and surface. Margin Joint Shoulder 0 1 Surface 2 3 0 1 2 3 % n % n % n % n % n % n % n % n 68.4 13 26.3 5 5.3 1 0 0 78.9 15 21.1 4 0 0 0 0 F 50 4 50 4 0 0 0 0 50 4 50 4 0 0 0 0 M 100 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 IN 60 3 20 1 20 1 0 0 100 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 Elbow 50 33 40.9 27 7.6 5 1.5 1 84.8 56 13.6 9 1.5 1 0 0 F 52.6 10 47.4 9 0 0 0 0 89.5 17 10.5 2 0 0 0 0 M 46.7 14 40 12 13.3 4 0 0 86.7 26 13.3 4 0 0 0 0 IN 52.9 9 35.3 6 5.9 1 5.9 1 76.5 35 17.6 1 5.9 1 0 0 Wrist 69.4 25 25 9 5.6 2 0 0 97.2 35 2.8 1 0 0 0 0 F 80 8 20 2 0 0 0 0 90 9 10 1 0 0 0 0 M 62.5 10 31.3 5 6.3 1 0 0 100 16 0 0 0 0 0 0 IN 70 7 20 2 10 1 0 0 100 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 Hip 100 29 0 0 0 0 0 0 96.6 28 3.4 1 0 0 0 0 F 100 13 0 0 0 0 0 0 92.3 12 7.7 1 0 0 0 0 M 100 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 IN 100 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 Knee 55 22 42.5 17 2.5 1 0 0 92.5 37 7.5 3 0 0 0 0 F 43.8 7 50 8 6.3 1 0 0 93.8 15 6.3 1 0 0 0 0 M 62.5 10 37.5 6 0 0 0 0 87.5 14 12.5 2 0 0 0 0 IN 62.5 5 37.5 3 0 0 0 0 100 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 Ankle 43.5 10 52.2 12 4.3 1 0 0 100 23 0 0 0 0 0 0 F 62.5 5 37.5 3 0 0 0 0 100 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 M 18.2 2 72.7 8 9.1 1 0 0 100 11 0 0 0 0 0 0 IN 75 3 25 1 0 0 0 0 100 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 rounded in appearance, extending < 2 mm from the cortical surface; 2 = distinct exostosis extending > 2 mm but < 5 mm from the cortex surface; 3 = exostosis extending > 5 mm from the bone surface or covering an extensive area of the cortical surface. The methodology proposed by Henderson et al. (2016; 2017a) was posteriorly applied for the fibrocartilaginous entheses. For the recording process, each enthesis was divided into two zones: Zone 1 is the entheseal margin at which fibers attach most obliquely to the bone, while Zone 2 encompasses the remaining fibrocartilaginous entheseal footprint and the remaining margin. In most entheses, Zone 2 is the closest to the joint surface (Henderson et al. 2016; Henderson et al. 2017a). Eight features were recorded: bone formation (BF1) and erosion in Zone 1 (ERO1), textural change (TC), bone formation (BF), erosion (ERO), fine porosity (FPO), macroporosity (MPO), and cavitation (CAV) in Zone 2. Each feature was characterized from 0 to 2, except for TC that was recorded as absent (0) or present (1) (see Table S1 for score characterization of each feature). Fibrocartilaginous entheseal changes were analyzed with Principal Components Analyses (PCA) using the software PAST 3.15 (Hammer et al. 2001) to determine which of them best explain the variance identified. The results of both fibrous and fibrocartilaginous entheses were presented separately showing the frequencies of changes by entheses and anatomical portion (upper and lower limbs). Finally, since Weiss (2003; 2004) demonstrated that muscle markers may correlate with body size, it is necessary to discard the influence of body size in EC variation before trends of activity patterns can be inferred and interpreted. Therefore, Weiss’ methodology to infer body size (2003; 2004; 2007) was used. Z-scores were calculated to create two composite (or aggregate) variables: upper/lower limb muscle marker and upper/lower limb size. The upper/lower limb muscle marker composite was generated by averaging z-scores for 77 component variables: 38 insertion sites from humeri (including pectoralis major, deltoid, and brachioradialis) and 39 femoral insertion sites (including linea aspera and gluteal tuberosity). Each variable was scored in the cat- eschweizerbart_xxx 334 E. A. Peralta, L. H. Luna, A. F. Gil Table 3. Frequency of entheseal changes in fibrous enthuses. Ossifications Robusticity-stress lesions Enthesis 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 % n % n % n % n % n % n % n % n % n Pectoralis major 57.1 8 35.7 5 0 0 0 0 7.1 1 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 F 57.1 4 28.6 2 0 0 0 0 14.3 1 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 M 66.7 2 33.3 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 IN 50.0 2 50 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Deltoid 84.6 11 15.4 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 F 83.3 5 16.7 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 M 100 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 IN 80 4 20 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Brachioradialis 94.1 16 5.9 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 F 100 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 M 75 3 25 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 IN 100 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Supinator 69.6 16 17.4 4 13 3 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 F 83.3 5 16.7 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 M 72.7 8 9.1 1 18.2 2 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 IN 50 3 33.3 2 16.7 1 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Pronator quadratus 80 16 20 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 F 100 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 M 57.1 4 42.9 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 IN 88.9 8 11.1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Gluteal tuberosity 42.1 8 31.6 6 15.8 3 10.5 2 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 F 33.3 3 44.4 4 11.1 1 11.1 1 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 M 33.3 2 33.3 2 33.3 2 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 IN 75 3 0 0 0 0 25 1 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Linea aspera 54.5 12 27.3 6 18.2 4 0 0 0 0 86.4 19 4.5 1 9.1 2 0 0 F 50 4 37.5 3 12.5 1 0 0 0 0 87.5 7 12.5 1 0 0 0 0 M 50 4 25 2 25 2 0 0 0 0 87.5 7 0 0 12.5 1 0 0 IN 66.7 4 16.7 1 16.7 1 0 0 0 0 83.3 5 0 0 16.7 1 0 0 Quadriceps 62.5 10 31.3 5 6.3 1 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 F 87.5 7 12.5 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 M 28.6 2 57.1 4 14.3 1 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 IN 100 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Soleal line 55 11 30 6 15 3 0 0 0 0 90 18 10 2 0 0 0 0 F 60 6 30 3 10 1 0 0 0 0 90 9 10 1 0 0 0 0 M 55.6 5 22.2 2 22.2 2 0 0 0 0 88.9 8 11.1 1 0 0 0 0 IN 0 0 100 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 eschweizerbart_xxx 335 Inferences on mobility and subsistence patterns from degenerative joint disease Table 4. Mean score (x) for each enthesis and rank ordering (r) of mean score from high to low. Robusticity-Stress lesions Enthesis Pectoralis major Females Males n x r n x r 7 0.86 1 3 0.33 3 Deltoid 6 0.17 2 2 0 5 Brachioradialis 10 0 4 4 0.25 4 Supinator 6 0.17 3 11 0.45 1 Pronator quadratus 4 0 5 7 0.43 2 Gluteal tuberosity 9 1 1 6 1 1 Linea aspera 8 0.62 2 8 0.75 3 Quadriceps 8 0.12 4 7 0.86 2 Soleal line 10 0.5 3 9 0.67 4 while ECs were recorded using both Henderson et al. (2016; 2017a) and Hawkey & Merb’s (1995) proposals. Data available in publications for the Pampa and Central Highlands are uneven compared with data obtained for CS-1, so comparisons were conditioned by how results were structured by each author. Concerning DJD, the frequencies between the CS-1 and Pampa samples were compared by sex accounting for degrees of severity. The frequencies between the CS-1 and Central Highland samples were only compared considering the presence of articular defects in the margin and surface without distinguishing by sex or severity. Regarding EC, comparisons at the fibrous entheses were conducted between the CS-1 and Pampa samples; sex and degrees of severity of the individuals were considered. Change frequencies at fibrocartilaginous entheses were compared between the CS-1 and Central Highland samples. Differences were tested with the Mann-Whitney test using PAST 3.15. egories of robusticity and stress lesions defined by Hawkey & Merbs (1995). A composite variable of upper limb size was created by averaging z-scores for two humeral size variables (humeral vertical head diameter and humeral epicondylar breadth). A composite variable of lower limb size was created by averaging z-scores for two femoral size variables (maximum head diameter and epicondylar breadth). Weiss’ measures of maximum length were not considered due to the large number of fractured humeri and femora. All humeral and femoral measurements were made according to Buikstra & Ubelaker (1994). Ulna, radial or tibial measurements in the size aggregate variable for upper and lower limbs were not included due to the impossibility of matching isolated bones. The composite variable upper/lower limb muscle marker was correlated using two-tailed Spearman tests with the composite upper/lower limb variable (Weiss 2003; Weiss 2004). To correlate the composite variable upper/lower limb muscle marker with sex, the eta coefficient was employed. Both tests were run with SPSS software. All the recording was fulfilled by the first author. Intraobserver error in the recording of DJD and EC was calculated after two observations made two weeks after the other. Differences between both observations were tested applying the Intraclass Correlation Coefficient (ICC) for DJD variables (Landis & Koch 1977) and the Gamma Coefficient (GC) for EC variables (Flom 2021). Results Intraobserver error ICC values for osteophytes and porosity were 0.92 and 0.89, respectively (“almost perfect” following Landis & Koch 1977). GC values for fibrocartilaginous EC variables ranged from 0.89 to 1, while for fibrous EC, variables were between 0.76–0.79 (evidence of strong association following Flom 2021). Samples for comparison To interpret the trends obtained about body use in CS-1, published DJD and EC data from two neighboring bioarchaeological samples were used for comparison. Scabuzzo (2010; 2012) recorded DJD and fibrous EC following Merbs (1983) and Hawkey & Merbs (1995) methodology, respectively, in hunter-gatherers’ skeletons from the Pampean region. In turn, Salega (2016) obtained information about a low-level food production population from the Central Highlands. The last author recorded DJD using a method developed by herself, Degenerative joint disease Regardless of intensity, the elbow was the most affected joint (50%) in the upper limbs. This joint reached low percentages of moderate (7.6%) and high scores (1.5%) for periarticular osteophytes. Intraarticular porosity had a DJD prevalence of 15.1% at the elbow (Table 2). The shoulder followed the elbow with 31.6% of DJD prevalence at margins and showed the highest percentage of DJD for intraarticular porosity eschweizerbart_xxx 336 E. A. Peralta, L. H. Luna, A. F. Gil Fig. 2. Feature loadings at PC1. PC1 explains 33% of the variance. Fig. 3. PCA comparing fibrocartilaginous entheseal changes between males (circles) and females (triangles). (21.1%). The wrist was less affected at both the joint margin and surface (30.6% and 2.8%, respectively) compared with the elbow and shoulder. Moderate scores were observed at margins in the shoulder, elbow, and hand-wrist joints. Severe scores only occurred at margins in the elbow. Considering the whole sample, the ankle was the most affected joint at margin level (56.5%, Table 2). The knee showed a high percentage of DJD at margins (45%) and a lower percentage on the joint surface (7.5%). Moderate scores were recorded only at margins in the knee and anklefoot joints. Severe scores were not observed, and the hip was almost unaffected by DJD. Females showed higher percentages of DJD at margins in the shoulder (50%) and knee (56.3%) and on the surface in the shoulder (50%), wrist (10%), and hip joints (7.7%). Males showed higher percentages at margins in the elbow (53.3%), wrist (37.5%), eschweizerbart_xxx 337 Inferences on mobility and subsistence patterns from degenerative joint disease Table 5. Frequency of entheseal changes in fibrocartilaginous entheses. Enthesis % Biceps 72.7 F 80.0 M 76.9 IN 50 Brachialis 84 F 83.3 M 91.7 IN 71.4 Extensor 85 F 83.3 M 100 IN 0 Flexor 84.2 F 81.8 M 100 IN 50 Infraspinatus 100 F 100 M 100 IN 100 Subscapularis 73.3 F 66.7 M 100 IN 33.3 Supraspinatus 90.9 F 80 M 100 IN 100 Teres minor 100 F 100 M 100 IN 100 Triceps 95.8 F 100 M 91.7 IN 100 Iliopsoas 50 F 55.6 M 28.6 IN 75 Gluteus 84.2 minimus F 88.9 M 66.7 IN 100 Gluteus medius 84.2 F 100 M 71.4 IN 75 Plantaris 46.7 F 80 M 25 IN 50 0 n 16 4 10 2 21 5 11 5 17 10 7 0 16 9 6 1 13 6 6 1 11 4 6 1 10 4 5 1 12 6 5 1 23 5 11 7 10 5 2 3 BFO1 1 % n 27.3 6 20 1 23.1 3 50 2 16 4 16.7 1 8.3 1 28.6 2 10 2 16.7 2 0 0 0 0 15.8 3 18.2 2 0 0 50 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 20 3 33.3 2 0 0 33.3 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4.2 1 0 0 8.3 1 0 0 45 9 33.3 3 71.4 5 25.0 1 2 0 % 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6.7 0 0 33.3 9.1 20 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 11.1 0 0 n 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 % 54.5 60 53.8 50 56 83.3 50 42.9 95 100 100 0 100 100 100 100 84.6 83.3 83.3 100 73.3 83.3 50 100 90.9 80 100 100 91.7 83.3 100 100 83.3 100 75 85.7 80 77.8 71.4 100 n 12 3 7 2 14 5 6 3 19 12 7 0 19 11 6 2 11 5 5 1 11 5 3 3 10 4 5 1 11 5 5 1 20 5 9 6 16 7 5 4 ERO1 1 % n 45.5 10 40 2 46.2 6 50 2 44 11 16.7 1 50 6 57.1 4 5 1 0 0 0 0 100 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 15.4 2 16.7 1 16.7 1 0 0 26.7 4 16.7 1 50 3 0 0 9.1 1 20 1 0 0 0 0 8.3 1 16.7 1 0 0 0 0 16.7 4 0 0 25 3 14.3 1 20 4 22.2 2 28.6 2 0 0 TCH 2 0 % 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 n 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 % 54.5 60 53.8 50 56 83.3 50 42.9 95 100 100 0 100 100 100 100 84.6 83.3 83.3 100 73.3 83.3 50 100 90.9 80 100 100 91.7 83.3 100 100 83.3 100 75 85.7 80 77.8 71.4 100 1 n 12 3 7 2 14 5 6 3 19 12 7 0 19 11 6 2 11 5 5 1 11 5 3 3 10 4 5 1 11 5 5 1 20 5 9 6 16 7 5 4 0 % n % n 45.5 10 95.5 21 40 2 100 5 46.2 6 92.3 12 50 2 100 4 44 11 84 21 16.7 1 100 6 50 6 83.3 10 57.1 4 71.4 5 5 1 100 20 0 0 100 12 0 0 100 7 100 1 100 1 0 0 89.5 17 0 0 90.9 10 0 0 100 6 0 0 50 1 15.4 2 100 13 16.7 1 100 6 16.7 1 100 6 0 0 100 1 26.7 4 93.3 14 16.7 1 100 6 50 3 100 6 0 0 66.7 2 9.1 1 100 11 20 1 100 5 0 0 100 5 0 0 100 1 8.3 1 100 12 16.7 1 100 6 0 0 100 5 0 0 100 1 16.7 4 83.3 20 0 0 80.0 4 25 3 83.3 10 14.3 1 85.7 6 20 4 90 18 22.2 2 100 9 28.6 2 100 7 0 0 50 2 16 15.8 3 0 0 68.4 13 31.6 6 0 0 68.4 13 31.6 8 4 4 16 8 5 3 7 4 2 1 1 2 0 3 0 2 1 6 0 5 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 13.3 20 12.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 1 0 88.9 8 11.1 1 33.3 2 66.7 4 75 3 25 1 47.4 9 52.6 10 37.5 3 62.5 5 71.4 5 28.6 2 25.0 1 75 3 93.3 14 6.7 1 100 5 0 0 87.5 7 12.5 1 100 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 88.9 8 11.1 1 100 9 33.3 2 66.7 4 83.3 5 75 3 25 1 100 4 47.4 9 52.6 10 84.2 16 37.5 3 62.5 5 87.5 7 71.4 5 28.6 2 71.4 5 25 1 75 3 100 4 93.3 14 6.7 1 93.3 14 100 5 0 0 100 5 87.5 7 12.5 1 87.5 7 100 2 0 0 100 2 11.1 33.3 0 15.8 0 28.6 25 40 0 62.5 50 eschweizerbart_xxx 6 94.7 18 BFO 1 % n 4.5 1 0 0 7.7 1 0 0 16 4 0 0 16.7 2 28.6 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5.3 1 9.1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 16.7 4 20 1 16.7 2 14.3 1 10 2 0 0 0 0 50 2 2 % 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5.3 0 0 50 0 0 0 0 6.7 0 0 33.3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 n 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5.3 1 0 0 0 16.7 0 15.8 12.5 28.6 0 6.7 0 12.5 0 0 1 0 3 1 2 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 338 E. A. Peralta, L. H. Luna, A. F. Gil Table 5. continued. Enthesis 0 % Biceps 81.8 F 100 M 76.9 IN 75 Brachialis 100 F 100 M 100 IN 100 Extensor 100 F 100 M 100 IN 100 Flexor 100 F 100 M 100 IN 100 Infraspinatus 92.3 F 83.3 M 100 IN 100 Subscapularis 73.3 F 66.7 M 83.3 IN 66.7 Supraspinatus 100 F 100 M 100 IN 100 Teres minor 100 F 100 M 100 IN 100 Triceps 100 F 100 M 100 IN 100 Iliopsoas 100 F 100 M 100 IN 100 Gluteus minimus F M IN Gluteus medius F M IN Plantaris F M IN n 18 5 10 3 25 6 12 7 20 12 7 1 19 11 6 2 12 5 6 1 11 4 5 2 11 5 5 1 12 6 5 1 24 5 12 7 20 9 7 4 94.7 18 ERO 1 % n 18.2 4 0 0 23.1 3 25 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7.7 1 16.7 1 0 0 0 0 20 3 33.3 2 16.7 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 % 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6.7 0 0 33.3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 n 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 % 90.9 60 100 100 100 100 100 100 95 100 100 0 100 100 100 100 84.6 83.3 83.3 100 86.7 100 83.3 66.7 90.9 80 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 n 20 3 13 4 25 6 12 7 19 12 7 0 19 11 6 2 19 8 7 4 18 9 5 4 20 9 7 4 11 5 5 1 13 6 5 2 10 4 5 1 FPO 1 % n 9.1 2 40 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 1 0 0 0 0 100 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 15.4 2 16.7 1 16.7 1 0 0 13.3 2 0 0 16.7 1 33.3 1 9.1 1 20 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 % 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 n 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 % 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100. 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 81.8 80 80 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 n 22 5 13 4 25 6 12 7 20 12 7 1 19 11 6 2 13 6 6 1 15 6 6 3 9 4 4 1 12 6 5 1 24 5 12 7 20 9 7 4 2 0 MPO 1 % n 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9.1 1 20 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 CAV 2 0 1 % 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9.1 0 20 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 n 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 % 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 n 22 5 13 4 25 6 12 7 20 12 7 1 19 11 6 2 13 6 6 1 15 6 6 3 11 5 5 1 12 6 5 1 24 5 12 7 20 9 7 4 % 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 n 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5.3 1 0 0 94.7 12 5.3 1 0 0 100 19 0 0 0 0 94.7 18 5.3 1 88.9 8 11.1 100 6 0 100 4 0 84.2 16 15.8 75 6 25 85.7 6 14.3 100 4 0 86.7 13 6.7 100 5 0 87.5 7 0 50 1 50 1 0 0 3 2 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6.7 0 12.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 100 6 0 83.3 5 16.7 100 1 0 100 24 0 100 5 0 100 12 0 100 7 0 86.7 13 6.7 100 5 0 87.5 7 0 50 1 50 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6.7 0 12.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 100 9 100 6 100 4 100 19 100 8 100 7 100 4 100 15 100 5 100 8 100 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 9 0 100 6 0 75 3 25 89.5 17 10.5 100 8 0 71.4 5 28.6 100 4 0 100 15 0 100 5 0 100 8 0 100 2 0 0 0 1 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 eschweizerbart_xxx Inferences on mobility and subsistence patterns from degenerative joint disease and ankle joints (81.8%), and on the surface in the elbow (13.3%) and knee (12.5%). Sex differences were not statistically significant. 339 Analysis (PCA) showed that BF1 was the variable with the highest loading at PC1 followed by TC (Figs 2 and 3). Males had higher frequencies of entheseal changes in the lower limbs than females, and females showed higher frequencies of EC in some upper limb entheses in comparison with males (Table 5). The Mann-Whitney test showed statistically significant differences between males and females only for the lower limbs considering BF1 (p = 0.01). Humeral and femoral entheseal changes in terms of robusticity did not significantly correlate with body size (composite variable for humerus and femur) or sex: Humeral Entheseal Changes/ Humeral Size = 0.015; Humeral Entheseal Changes/Sex = 0.046; Femoral Entheseal Changes/Femoral Size = 0.094; Femoral Entheseal Changes/Sex = 0.042. Entheseal changes Regarding fibrous entheses in the upper limbs, the pectoralis major and the supinator showed the highest percentages in terms of robusticity (35.7% and 30.4%, respectively) (Table 3). The pronator quadratus (20%), deltoid (15.4%), and brachioradialis (5.9%) had lower frequencies of changes associated with robusticity. The lower limb entheses showed percentages ranging from 30 to 40% for score 1 and from 6 to 18% for scores 2 and 3. The most affected entheses were the gluteal tuberosity (57.9%) and the linea aspera (45.5%). Ossifications were observed only in the lower limbs in the soleal line of the tibia (10%) and linea aspera of the femur (13.6%). Males and females showed similar percentages of robusticity in the lower limbs at the linea aspera and gluteal tuberosity entheses. Nevertheless, females were more affected at the pectoralis major and deltoid insertions in comparison with males, while males were more affected in the remaining entheses. Considering the total scores for each enthesis (Table 4), females exhibit remarkably higher means in the upper extremities, while males display higher means in the lower extremities. Statistically significant differences between males and females were corroborated at the quadriceps. Regarding fibrocartilaginous entheses, the large number of features hinders variability analysis. Principal Components CS-1 and regional contexts Comparing DJD mean scores for the upper limb joints, the prevalence of females from CS-1 is higher than in Pampa in the shoulder and elbow, while males have a higher prevalence in Pampa than in CS-1 in all joints (Table 6). The differences are not statistically significant between the upper extremities of CS-1 and Pampa. Comparing lower limb joints of CS-1 and Pampa samples, the prevalence of DJD in the Pampa group is higher than in CS-1. The differences are statistically significant between the lower extremities of males for both samples. Comparing EC for fibrous entheses, the Pampa sample shows a higher prevalence of robusticity/ stress lesions in both upper and lower extremities than the CS-1 sample, and the difference is significant for both males and females (Table 6). Table 6. Entheseal changes and degenerative joint disease mean scores and rank ordering for CS-1 and hunter-gatherer group of Pampa comparing lower limbs. p-values of the Mann-Whitney test are shown (values ≤ 0.05 are indicated in italic). n = number of elements, x = mean score. CS-1 Joint Pampa Females n Males x n Females x n Males p (CS-1 vs. Pampa) x n x Shoulder 8 0.5 6 0 9 0.11 9 0.33 Elbow 19 0.47 30 0.66 8 0.12 8 1.12 Wrist 10 0.2 16 0.43 8 0.75 9 0.55 Hip 13 0 8 0 8 0.38 6 0.83 Knee 16 0.56 16 0.38 8 0 9 1.11 Ankle-foot 8 0.38 11 0.82 9 0.78 10 1.6 Pectoralis major 7 0.85 3 0.33 6 0.66 4 1.25 Deltoides 6 0.16 2 0 6 1.33 7 2 0 4 0.25 6 0.83 8 2 Linea aspera 8 0.63 8 0.75 14 1 19 2.57 Quadriceps 8 0.125 7 0.86 14 1.25 19 2 Soleal line 10 0.5 9 0.67 14 0.6 19 2.14 0.16 (Females) 0.55 (Males) 0.46 (Females) 0.00 (Males) Enthesis Brachioradialis eschweizerbart_xxx 0.00 (Females) 0.00 (Males) 0.03 (Females) 0.00 (Males) 340 E. A. Peralta, L. H. Luna, A. F. Gil Table 7. Comparisons of prevalence of degenerative joint disease between CS-1 and Córdoba samples. p-values of the MannWhitney test are shown (values ≤ 0.05 are indicated in italic). Joints Margin Surface n % shoulder_cba 6 10.2 shoulder_cs1 6 31.6 elbow_cba 10 10.6 elbow_cs1 33 50 wrist_cba 3 3.6 wrist_cba1 11 30.6 0.00 hip_cba 0 0 hip_cs1 0 0 1 knee_cba 4 5.5 knee_cs1 18 45 ankle_cba 4 4 ankle_cs1 13 56.5 p 0.001 0.00 0.00 0.00 n % 5 5 4 21.1 17 10.4 10 15.2 6 4.8 1 2.8 8 8.2 1 3.4 5 3.9 3 7.5 2 1.2 0 0 p 0.01 0.21 0.64 0.44 0.32 0.60 in CS-1 than in the Córdoba sample. An explanation would be that the CS-1 sample is composed of a greater percentage of middle-aged adults than the Córdoba sample, which mostly includes young adults (Salega 2016; Peralta 2019), and it is known that DJD is strongly correlated with age (Jurmain 1977; Masoro & Austad 2006; Seibel et al. 2006). Interestingly, the upper extremities showed a higher prevalence of DJD and EC in CS-1 with statistically significant differences, indicating a distinctive spectrum of manual tasks between both samples. The lower extremities did not show any statistically significant differences concerning EC, suggesting that the pattern of mobility in CS-1 would be similar to that of low-level producers from Córdoba. CS-1 males were significantly more affected than females at the fibrocartilaginous entheses of the lower limb, which could be interpreted as an indicator of a division of labor in which males would have been mainly involved in hunting trips, while females would have stayed at the basecamp doing a broad range of manual tasks. In this sense, although statistical differences are not significant, females were remarkably more affected than males in some joints and fibrous entheses of the upper extremities, which would be related to the incorporation of new technologies (such as ceramics and grinding tools) and demands inherent to a wide spectrum of resource exploitation (Neme 2007; Gil et al. 2018). These sexual differences could be a consequence of body size, as noted by Weiss (2003; 2004; 2007). In this regard, the correlation tests did not show high concordance between body size and entheseal changes in terms of robusticity, supporting that the difference in entheseal changes could be explained by the distinctive patterns of body use by males and females. Occupational stress markers help understand past human subsistence strategies; however, their use requires some cau- In CS-1, DJD frequencies are higher than those for lowlevel producers, and periarticular differences are statistically significant for the shoulder, elbow, wrist, knee, and ankle (Table 7). Concerning fibrocartilaginous entheses, ECs are more frequent in the CS-1 sample than in the Córdoba sample. Subscapularis, extensor, flexor, triceps, gluteus medius, and plantaris insertions show a higher prevalence of BF1, BF, and ERO in the Córdoba sample, but differences are not statistically significant. Statistically significant differences were observed at the insertions of the infraspinatus, in TC and FPO; subscapularis, in TC and FPO; biceps in ERO1, TC and ERO, and triceps, in TC (Table 8). Discussion and conclusions The goal of this paper was to discuss patterns of mobility and potential manual activities in an area where hunter-gatherers and low-level food producers interacted. Concerning the expectations raised at the beginning of this study, lower frequencies of DJD and EC at fibrous entheses in lower extremities and higher frequencies in upper extremities were expected in CS-1 compared to hunter-gatherer populations; at the same time, similar frequencies of DJD and EC at fibrocartilaginous entheses in both extremities were expected in CS-1 compared to groups with low-level food production. As regards terrestrial hunter-gatherer organization, CS-1 trends can be explained as a result of the lower physical demand associated with low mobility and a reduced workload (Scabuzzo 2012). With regard to low-level food producers from Córdoba, physical activities in CS-1 would be quite different and more intense. Notably, both upper and lower extremities were significantly more affected by DJD eschweizerbart_xxx 341 Inferences on mobility and subsistence patterns from degenerative joint disease Table 8. Comparisons of prevalence of EC between CS-1 and Córdoba samples (considering only fibrocartilaginous entheses). p-values of the Mann-Whitney test are present (values ≤ 0.05 are indicated in italic). Entheses BF1 n % supraspinatus_cba 0 0 supraspinatus_cs1 1 9.1 infraspinatus_cba 0 0 infraspinatus_cs1 0 0 subscapularis_cba 6 16.7 subscapularis_cs1 4 26.7 extensor_cba 12 32.4 extensor_cs1 3 15 flexor_cba 3 8.6 flexor_cs1 3 15.8 biceps_cba 6 14.3 biceps_cs1 6 27.3 triceps_cba 4 11.4 triceps_cs1 1 4.2 gluteus medius_cba 5 22.7 gluteus medius_cs1 3 15.8 plantaris_cba 14 58.3 plantaris_cs1 8 53.3 ERO1 p 0.09 1 0.43 0.16 0.04 0.21 0.34 0.07 0.77 n % 1 2.9 1 9.1 0 0 2 15.4 1 2.8 4 26.7 0 0 1 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 45.5 2 5.7 4 16.7 0 0 10 52.6 1 4.2 1 6.7 TC p 0.41 1 0.54 1 1 0.004 0.25 1 0.46 n % 0 0 1 9.1 0 0 2 15.4 0 0 4 26.7 0 0 1 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 45.5 0 0 4 16.7 1 4.3 10 52.6 0 0 1 6.7 BF p 0.07 0.02 0.00 n % 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 11 29.7 0.17 1 0.00 0.01 0.18 0.52 1 6.7 0 0 0 0 2 5.4 2 5.3 1 2.4 1 4.5 5 14.3 4 16.7 2 8.7 3 15.8 0 0 1 6.7 ERO p 1 1 0.08 1 0.50 0.67 0.81 0.43 0.21 n % 2 5.4 0 0 1 2.9 1 7.7 3 8.1 4 26.7 0 0 0 0 1 2.7 0 0 0 0 4 18.2 3 8.6 0 0 2 8.7 3 15.8 1 4 2 13.3 FPO p 0.46 0.48 0.08 1 0.50 0.00 0.15 0.15 0.30 n % 0 0 1 9.1 0 0 2 15.4 0 0 2 13.3 0 0 1 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 9.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 13.3 MPO p 0.07 0.02 0.03 0.17 1 0.05 1 1 0.07 n % 1 2.7 2 18.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 CAV p 0.07 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 n % 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 10.5 0 0 0 0 p 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 References tion. Considering the absence of studies on occupational stress markers in the area under study, this first approach provides new information to discuss regional topics on past human populations. The absence of a complete age control for this site limits our interpretations and emphasizes the need for more samples with better age-at-death estimations to compare. Specific activities cannot be suggested, but general trends can be outlined and discussed regarding potential subsistence differences. Contextual evidence to support these differences needs to be considered. Stable isotope data, for example, suggest the presence of maize in the diet. Nevertheless, domesticated resources did not involve the abandonment of hunter-gathering practices, and daily activities would be more complex and variable than among farmers. The variability observed in markers once again demonstrates that stereotypes cannot explain the complexity of human decisions. 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Peralta, E., Luna, L. y Gil, A. 2021. Inferences on mobility and subsistence patterns from degenerative joint disease and entheseal changes. Trends in the farmer/forager border (Central-Western Argentina). Homo. Journal of Comparative Human Biology 72(4): 327-346.

Peralta, E., Luna, L. y Gil, A. 2021. Inferences on mobility and subsistence patterns from degenerative joint disease and entheseal changes. Trends in the farmer/forager border (Central-Western Argentina). Homo. Journal of Comparative Human Biology 72(4): 327-346.

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