ABSTRACT Natural sausage casings are produced from the intestines of various species and used as ... more ABSTRACT Natural sausage casings are produced from the intestines of various species and used as edible containers for many different types of sausage around the world. Casings must therefore be fit for human consumption and must meet all food safety and hygiene requirements that apply to food of animal origin. As a hazard analysis of sausages would either focus on the final product or on the meat batter inside the casing, it becomes clear that many studies were done on sausages and only a handful on casings. Salt has been in use for centuries as the main preservative agent of casings and a study was done to determine whether this technique can meet the current microbiological criteria. Results indicate that the antimicrobial properties of salt used for the preservation of casings are sufficient to reduce the bacterial contamination (except for Clostridium spores) well below acceptable levels at a water activity level of 0.85 or lower during a 30-day storage period. To prevent the outgrowth of bacterial spores, additional preservation measures should be implemented. In the experiments described the use of the bacteriocin nisin was evaluated to reduce outgrowth of spores in desalinated casings. Additionally, the binding of nisin to casings, using 14C-labeled nisin Z and subsequent bioavailability of nisin were evaluated. Results demonstrate that nisin is bound to casings but if sufficient nisin was present the outgrowth of Clostridium spores in this model was reduced. Neural and lymphoid tissue can be regarded as marker tissues for the potential presence of Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) disease-specific prion protein (PrPPScP). These tissue types can also be present in cleaned beef casings. Based on the results from a quantitative histological analysis it was calculated that a standard 200 g sausage produced in beef casings contains 0.09 g lymphoid and 0.02 g neural tissue originating from the casing. Using these quantitative histological results a BSE infectivity risk - consumer exposure assessment was made, indicating that the potential risk when consuming a sausage produced in beef casings is far less than consuming a T-bone steak from the same animal. Casings are produced and shipped all over the world and this trans-global movement of casings means that restrictive measures, implemented to prevent the spread of contagious animal diseases, are also applicable. Two studies describe the efficacy of FMD and CSF virus inactivation in cleaned casings, either by salt (NaCl) or by using phosphate supplemented salt. After storage at about 20 C for 30 days, no remaining FMDV infectivity was found after either treatment, whereas casings stored at 4 oC still contained infectivity. CSFV infectivity was no longer present after treatment with phosphate supplemented salt and storage for 30 days at either 4 oC or 20 oC. To verify that phosphate supplemented salt was used, a commercially available phosphate assay kit was validated for the qualitative determination of phosphate present in treated casings without interference of naturally occurring phosphate in salt used for brines in which casings are preserved.
Animal intestines are the source of edible sausage casings, which are traded worldwide and may co... more Animal intestines are the source of edible sausage casings, which are traded worldwide and may come from areas where notifiable infectious animal diseases are prevalent. To estimate the risks of virus contamination, knowledge about the quantity of virus and decimal reduction values of the standard preservation method by salting is of great importance. A literature search, based on the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, was performed in search engine CAB Abstracts to determine the viral load of 14 relevant animal viruses in natural casings or intestines. Only a very limited number of scientific publications per virus were found and viral loads in the intestines varied from high for ASFV (five publications), BVDV (3), CSFV (6), PPRV (3), RPV (2) and TGEV (3) to moderate for PEDV (2) and SVDV (3), low for HEV (2) and FMDV (5), very low for VESV (1) and negative for PrV (2) and VSV (1). PRRSV was found in intestines, however, viral ti...
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 2021
(1) Background: People with disabilities may benefit from an assistance dog (AD). Despite regulat... more (1) Background: People with disabilities may benefit from an assistance dog (AD). Despite regulations that prohibit the denial of ADs to public places, this still occurs on a regular basis. The main argument for denial of access is that dogs compromise hygiene with their presence, which could cause a health hazard. Meanwhile, people are allowed to walk into and out of public places freely. (2) Objective: As a pilot study, to investigate the number of Enterobacteriaceae and the presence of Clostridium difficile bacteria on the paws of ADs and pet dogs (PDs) as well as the shoe soles of their users and owners. With the results, an assessment can be made as to whether measures are required to reduce environmental contamination (e.g., in hospitals). (3) Methods: In total, 25 ADs, 25 PDs, and their 50 users/owners participated in the study. Each participant walked their dog for 15–30 min prior to the sampling of the front paws. Each PD owner or AD user filled out a general questionnaire about the care of their dogs, and AD users were asked to fill out an additional questionnaire on their experiences regarding the admittance of their ADs to public places (in particular, hospitals). Dutch hospitals were questioned on their protocols regarding the admittance of ADs and their visitor numbers, including the percentage of AD users, to put these numbers into perspective. (4) Results: Dog paws were more often negative for Enterobacteriaceae compared to shoe soles (72% and 42%, respectively) and also had significantly lower bacterial counts (mean of 3.54log10 and 5.03log10 colony-forming units (CFUs), respectively; p < 0.05). This was most distinct in the comparison between PDs and their owners (3.75log10 and 5.25log10 CFUs; p < 0.05); the numbers were similar between ADs and their users (3.09log10 and 4.58log10 CFUs; p = 0.2). C. difficile was found on one (4%) AD user’s shoe soles. Moreover, 81% of AD users had been denied access with their current AD once or several times, the main reason being hygiene. The results of the visibly and invisibly disabled were significantly different. The number of AD users as opposed to the total number of hospital visitors was 0.03% in one hospital and is estimated to be 0.02% in the Netherlands. (5) Conclusions: The general hygiene of dogs’ paws is far better than that of shoe soles, mostly demonstrated by the better general hygiene of PD paws compared with their owners’ shoe soles; ADs and their users had comparable levels of general hygiene. In addition, the number of AD users amongst the total number of hospital visitors in the Netherlands is very limited. Thus, hygiene measures to reduce any contamination due to dog paws do not seem necessary.
ABSTRACT Natural sausage casings are produced from the intestines of various species and used as ... more ABSTRACT Natural sausage casings are produced from the intestines of various species and used as edible containers for many different types of sausage around the world. Casings must therefore be fit for human consumption and must meet all food safety and hygiene requirements that apply to food of animal origin. As a hazard analysis of sausages would either focus on the final product or on the meat batter inside the casing, it becomes clear that many studies were done on sausages and only a handful on casings. Salt has been in use for centuries as the main preservative agent of casings and a study was done to determine whether this technique can meet the current microbiological criteria. Results indicate that the antimicrobial properties of salt used for the preservation of casings are sufficient to reduce the bacterial contamination (except for Clostridium spores) well below acceptable levels at a water activity level of 0.85 or lower during a 30-day storage period. To prevent the outgrowth of bacterial spores, additional preservation measures should be implemented. In the experiments described the use of the bacteriocin nisin was evaluated to reduce outgrowth of spores in desalinated casings. Additionally, the binding of nisin to casings, using 14C-labeled nisin Z and subsequent bioavailability of nisin were evaluated. Results demonstrate that nisin is bound to casings but if sufficient nisin was present the outgrowth of Clostridium spores in this model was reduced. Neural and lymphoid tissue can be regarded as marker tissues for the potential presence of Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) disease-specific prion protein (PrPPScP). These tissue types can also be present in cleaned beef casings. Based on the results from a quantitative histological analysis it was calculated that a standard 200 g sausage produced in beef casings contains 0.09 g lymphoid and 0.02 g neural tissue originating from the casing. Using these quantitative histological results a BSE infectivity risk - consumer exposure assessment was made, indicating that the potential risk when consuming a sausage produced in beef casings is far less than consuming a T-bone steak from the same animal. Casings are produced and shipped all over the world and this trans-global movement of casings means that restrictive measures, implemented to prevent the spread of contagious animal diseases, are also applicable. Two studies describe the efficacy of FMD and CSF virus inactivation in cleaned casings, either by salt (NaCl) or by using phosphate supplemented salt. After storage at about 20 C for 30 days, no remaining FMDV infectivity was found after either treatment, whereas casings stored at 4 oC still contained infectivity. CSFV infectivity was no longer present after treatment with phosphate supplemented salt and storage for 30 days at either 4 oC or 20 oC. To verify that phosphate supplemented salt was used, a commercially available phosphate assay kit was validated for the qualitative determination of phosphate present in treated casings without interference of naturally occurring phosphate in salt used for brines in which casings are preserved.
Animal intestines are the source of edible sausage casings, which are traded worldwide and may co... more Animal intestines are the source of edible sausage casings, which are traded worldwide and may come from areas where notifiable infectious animal diseases are prevalent. To estimate the risks of virus contamination, knowledge about the quantity of virus and decimal reduction values of the standard preservation method by salting is of great importance. A literature search, based on the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, was performed in search engine CAB Abstracts to determine the viral load of 14 relevant animal viruses in natural casings or intestines. Only a very limited number of scientific publications per virus were found and viral loads in the intestines varied from high for ASFV (five publications), BVDV (3), CSFV (6), PPRV (3), RPV (2) and TGEV (3) to moderate for PEDV (2) and SVDV (3), low for HEV (2) and FMDV (5), very low for VESV (1) and negative for PrV (2) and VSV (1). PRRSV was found in intestines, however, viral ti...
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 2021
(1) Background: People with disabilities may benefit from an assistance dog (AD). Despite regulat... more (1) Background: People with disabilities may benefit from an assistance dog (AD). Despite regulations that prohibit the denial of ADs to public places, this still occurs on a regular basis. The main argument for denial of access is that dogs compromise hygiene with their presence, which could cause a health hazard. Meanwhile, people are allowed to walk into and out of public places freely. (2) Objective: As a pilot study, to investigate the number of Enterobacteriaceae and the presence of Clostridium difficile bacteria on the paws of ADs and pet dogs (PDs) as well as the shoe soles of their users and owners. With the results, an assessment can be made as to whether measures are required to reduce environmental contamination (e.g., in hospitals). (3) Methods: In total, 25 ADs, 25 PDs, and their 50 users/owners participated in the study. Each participant walked their dog for 15–30 min prior to the sampling of the front paws. Each PD owner or AD user filled out a general questionnaire about the care of their dogs, and AD users were asked to fill out an additional questionnaire on their experiences regarding the admittance of their ADs to public places (in particular, hospitals). Dutch hospitals were questioned on their protocols regarding the admittance of ADs and their visitor numbers, including the percentage of AD users, to put these numbers into perspective. (4) Results: Dog paws were more often negative for Enterobacteriaceae compared to shoe soles (72% and 42%, respectively) and also had significantly lower bacterial counts (mean of 3.54log10 and 5.03log10 colony-forming units (CFUs), respectively; p < 0.05). This was most distinct in the comparison between PDs and their owners (3.75log10 and 5.25log10 CFUs; p < 0.05); the numbers were similar between ADs and their users (3.09log10 and 4.58log10 CFUs; p = 0.2). C. difficile was found on one (4%) AD user’s shoe soles. Moreover, 81% of AD users had been denied access with their current AD once or several times, the main reason being hygiene. The results of the visibly and invisibly disabled were significantly different. The number of AD users as opposed to the total number of hospital visitors was 0.03% in one hospital and is estimated to be 0.02% in the Netherlands. (5) Conclusions: The general hygiene of dogs’ paws is far better than that of shoe soles, mostly demonstrated by the better general hygiene of PD paws compared with their owners’ shoe soles; ADs and their users had comparable levels of general hygiene. In addition, the number of AD users amongst the total number of hospital visitors in the Netherlands is very limited. Thus, hygiene measures to reduce any contamination due to dog paws do not seem necessary.
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