Global Encyclopedia of Public Administration, Public Policy, and Governance, 2021
This article argues that despite the technical-functional nature of cybersecurity, twin imperati... more This article argues that despite the technical-functional nature of cybersecurity, twin imperatives of market economy and national security have always driven the national and international cyberspace security policy and contributed to the emergence of an international understanding that associates cyberspace security first and foremost with the protection of critical information infrastructures (CII). This article elaborates this argument in three sections. The first section reviews the manifold conceptualizations of cyberspace and cyberspace security underlining the broadening of the concept of cybersecurity from security of computer systems to the ability of an actor to protect itself from a variety of risks to and through cyberspace. The second section shows how economic imperatives have driven the protection of CII as a cooperative objective for the functioning of the global market economy, and the final section focuses on how national and transnational security imperatives have driven the emergence of a norm on preventing cyber-attacks on CII.
Global Encyclopedia of Public Administration, Public Policy, and Governance, 2020
The military coup d’états have accounted for nearly 200 regime changes in the developing world, m... more The military coup d’états have accounted for nearly 200 regime changes in the developing world, making it the most common method of regime change in the post-World War II era (David 1991, pp. 238–239). Between 1945 and 1976, Nordlinger (1977, p. xi) estimated more than two thirds of the countries of Latin America, Asia, Africa, and the Middle East had experienced varying levels of military intervention. According to Ruth Leger Sivard’s study (1986, p. 24), a majority of third world countries were character- ized by military controlled governments in 1985, nearly half of them in Africa which recently freed from West’s colonial rule. During the 1950s and 1960s, a coup or attempted coup occurred every 4 months in Latin America, every 7 months in Asia, every 3 months in the Middle East, and every 55 days in Africa (Bertsch et al. 1978, p. 431). Between the 1946 and 1970 period, 59 states experienced a total of 274 coup d’états (Thompson 1973, p. 6). Looking at the period between 1945 and 1985, David (1987) noted that more than 350 attempted military coups took place between and of these attempts, 183 coups (or 51%) were successful (pp. 1–2). By the end of the 1970s, an enormous body of literature on the causes and outcomes of military coups was, therefore, generated. Broadly speaking, students of civil-military relations have advanced two general explanations regarding the causes of military coups: one organizational and the other structural.
The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Global Security Studies, 2019
The question of “civilian control” or “how to guard the guardians” has been a central issue withi... more The question of “civilian control” or “how to guard the guardians” has been a central issue within the subfield of civil-military relations (CMR), since Plato’s Republic written more than 2500 years ago. The states need strong armies to defend their borders, but armed forces strong enough to protect the state also pose a threat to the civilian leadership. Enjoying important political advantages vis-à-vis the executive power such as “a highly emotionalized symbolic status,” “a marked superiority in organization,” and most importantly “a monopoly of arms,” why the armed forces ever obey civilian masters (Finer 1962, p. 6)? How can civilian leaders reliably getthemilitary toobey whencivilianand military preferences diverge?” How could the civilian democratic control can be established, enhanced, and assessed? This entry differentiates between the concepts of civilian and democratic control, classifies the research on the basis of the method that they use to measure the extent of civilian control, and discusses the civilian control strategies. Cite this entry as: Eldem T. (2019) Civilian Control of Armed Forces. In: Romaniuk S., Thapa M., Marton P. (eds) The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Global Security Studies. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham
Berlin Duvarı’nın yıkılması, Orta ve Doğu Avrupa’da ve eski Sovyetler Birliği’nde komünizmin çökm... more Berlin Duvarı’nın yıkılması, Orta ve Doğu Avrupa’da ve eski Sovyetler Birliği’nde komünizmin çökmesi gibi önemli sistematik değişikliklerden etkilenmeyen Laos; Vietnam, Kuzey Kore, Çin ve Küba ile birlikte komünist tek parti rejimini muhafaza etmeyi başaran beş devletten biridir. Ekonomi alanında izlenen dinamik kurumsal reformlar, elitin ve kitlelerin komünist rejime bağlılıklarını sağlayan yeni mekanizmalar ve siyasi kriz durumlarında üstlenilen başarılı liderlik tercihleri otokratik komünist rejimin değişen koşullara adaptasyonunu sağlayarak ayakta kalmasını mümkün kılmıştır. Çin ve Vietnam gibi tek parti rejimi altında planlı ekonomiden piyasa ekonomisine kademeli geçişin bir başka başarılı örneğini sergileyen Laos, 1986 yılından bu yana “Yeni Ekonomik Mekanizma” (YEM) adıyla anılan bir ekonomik reform politikası uygulamaya başlamış ve bu sayede 2000’lerde yılda %7’nin üzerinde ekonomik büyüme sağlayarak bölgenin en yüksek büyüme oranlarını yakalamayı başarmıştır. 2011 yılında benimsediği yeni ve beş-yıllık sosyo-ekonomik kalkınma planı çerçevesinde, dış yardım, dış yatırım ve doğal kaynaklarından maksimum faydalanarak 2020 yılında kadar ülkeyi “En Az Gelişmiş Ülkeler” kategorisinden çıkarmayı hedeflemektedir. Ekonomik ve dış ilişkilerde izlenen liberalleşme politikası, siyasi alanda henüz karşılık bulmamıştır. Yakın gelecekte Laos’un çok-partili sisteme geçişi öngörülmemektedir.
Authoritarian and Populist Influences in the New Media, 2018
This chapter focuses on the importance of freedom of media for democracy in general, and, in more... more This chapter focuses on the importance of freedom of media for democracy in general, and, in more detail, on structural characteristics of the media landscape and the status of media freedom in Turkey since the AKP’s rise to power in November 2002. The chapter starts by elucidating the potential role of the media as a democratizing agent. It is followed by the discussion of the development and structure of media sector in Turkey. This section shows how the re-distribution of state-seized media assets and political and financial pressure changed the media ownership structure in favor of incumbents over the last decade and selective allocation of public ads and discriminatory policies of regulatory agencies worked to further change the equilibrium in favor of pro-government media. The third section discusses the rise of press-party parallelism and the failure of the Turkish media to function as an effective public forum during the election campaigns. The following section outlines how prosecutions and criminal investigations, dismissal of critical journalists, selective accreditation, gag orders and cyber-censorship weakened the freedom of media in Turkey and further curtailed the Turkish media’s ability to sustain crucial functions in line with the understanding of a representative democracy.
Reforming Civil-Military Relations in New Democracies, 2017
This chapter shows that external factors as well as strong civilian leadership have affected the ... more This chapter shows that external factors as well as strong civilian leadership have affected the trajectory of defense and military policy in Turkey since the earlier years of the republic. Empowered by the EU, sustained electoral support and successful, albeit informal, counter-coup coalitions, the AKP government succeeded in establishing civilian control over security policy and limiting the military’ s political and judicial autonomy. Existing civilian control over military and defense policy is, however, not firmly institutionalized, but based on the popularity of a strong leadership at a time of low military esteem. Coup-proofing initiatives, i.e. coup conspiracy operations and trials and other measures, such as sensationalist coverage of military leaks, wiretaps, and mistakes, have forced the military out of politics, but have also called into question the TAF’ s military effectiveness.
In the post-Cold War era, the rise of international military interventions for humanitarian ends ... more In the post-Cold War era, the rise of international military interventions for humanitarian ends has raised several important questions about the rights and responsibilities of sovereign states towards their citizens as well as towards international society as a whole. The doctrine of Responsibility to Protect (R2P) was developed as a response to these questions by the ICISS (International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty) in 2001 and was later unanimously adopted at the UN General Assembly meeting of 2005 and ratified by the UN Security Council in 2006. The doctrine was implemented operationally for the first time in Libya following UN Security Council Resolution 1973 (2011). The failure of international society to follow a similar policy in Syria, however, has given rise to criticism over the viability of the doctrine. Taking the increasing controversy over the norm’s implementation into consideration, this article, considering R2P as an emerging international moral norm, argues that despite the loss of credibility of R2P due to the widespread perception of its abuse by the coalition forces in Libya, the norm sustains its viability within international society at large.
Adopting a strategic relational approach, this chapter shows how—despite Turkey’s unfavorable ini... more Adopting a strategic relational approach, this chapter shows how—despite Turkey’s unfavorable initial conditions—external pressures differentially empowering civilians provided resources these civilians needed to break the stabilizing mechanisms of path-dependence in civil-military relations. The ability of civilians to overcome path-dependence were enhanced by over a decade of rule by a stable majority government with a strong will to erode the political clout of the military. Having successfully defanged the Turkish military and consolidated its hold on power, the civilian leadership’s interest in defense and military reform has, however, faded in the last few years. In addition to second-generation problems of constructing effective civilian-led defense policy-making with broader civil society input, as well as strengthening legislative oversight, Turkey today also faces the twin challenges of restoring the morale and corporate esteem of the officers and rebuilding a working relationship between military and civilian leaders based on mutual trust.
International Journal of Public Administration, Nov 7, 2019
ABSTRACT This article explores Turkey’s multifaceted cyberspace governance policy and argues that... more ABSTRACT This article explores Turkey’s multifaceted cyberspace governance policy and argues that positioned between two opposites of cyberspace governance that has close military and security ties to the West, and domestic Internet policies more similar of Russia-China axis, Turkey should be considered as a swing state in global cyberspace governance debates. The article shows that despite her official discourse on multi-stakeholderism and its compliance with the emerging norms in the Euro-Atlantic alliance concerning cyber-security, cyber-crime, and cyber-defense; Turkey’s domestic Internet policy converges towards the Russia-China axis characterized by the rise of information controls and increasing efforts to establish “digital sovereignty” to national cyber space.
Global Encyclopedia of Public Administration, Public Policy, and Governance, 2021
This article argues that despite the technical-functional nature of cybersecurity, twin imperati... more This article argues that despite the technical-functional nature of cybersecurity, twin imperatives of market economy and national security have always driven the national and international cyberspace security policy and contributed to the emergence of an international understanding that associates cyberspace security first and foremost with the protection of critical information infrastructures (CII). This article elaborates this argument in three sections. The first section reviews the manifold conceptualizations of cyberspace and cyberspace security underlining the broadening of the concept of cybersecurity from security of computer systems to the ability of an actor to protect itself from a variety of risks to and through cyberspace. The second section shows how economic imperatives have driven the protection of CII as a cooperative objective for the functioning of the global market economy, and the final section focuses on how national and transnational security imperatives have driven the emergence of a norm on preventing cyber-attacks on CII.
Global Encyclopedia of Public Administration, Public Policy, and Governance, 2020
The military coup d’états have accounted for nearly 200 regime changes in the developing world, m... more The military coup d’états have accounted for nearly 200 regime changes in the developing world, making it the most common method of regime change in the post-World War II era (David 1991, pp. 238–239). Between 1945 and 1976, Nordlinger (1977, p. xi) estimated more than two thirds of the countries of Latin America, Asia, Africa, and the Middle East had experienced varying levels of military intervention. According to Ruth Leger Sivard’s study (1986, p. 24), a majority of third world countries were character- ized by military controlled governments in 1985, nearly half of them in Africa which recently freed from West’s colonial rule. During the 1950s and 1960s, a coup or attempted coup occurred every 4 months in Latin America, every 7 months in Asia, every 3 months in the Middle East, and every 55 days in Africa (Bertsch et al. 1978, p. 431). Between the 1946 and 1970 period, 59 states experienced a total of 274 coup d’états (Thompson 1973, p. 6). Looking at the period between 1945 and 1985, David (1987) noted that more than 350 attempted military coups took place between and of these attempts, 183 coups (or 51%) were successful (pp. 1–2). By the end of the 1970s, an enormous body of literature on the causes and outcomes of military coups was, therefore, generated. Broadly speaking, students of civil-military relations have advanced two general explanations regarding the causes of military coups: one organizational and the other structural.
The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Global Security Studies, 2019
The question of “civilian control” or “how to guard the guardians” has been a central issue withi... more The question of “civilian control” or “how to guard the guardians” has been a central issue within the subfield of civil-military relations (CMR), since Plato’s Republic written more than 2500 years ago. The states need strong armies to defend their borders, but armed forces strong enough to protect the state also pose a threat to the civilian leadership. Enjoying important political advantages vis-à-vis the executive power such as “a highly emotionalized symbolic status,” “a marked superiority in organization,” and most importantly “a monopoly of arms,” why the armed forces ever obey civilian masters (Finer 1962, p. 6)? How can civilian leaders reliably getthemilitary toobey whencivilianand military preferences diverge?” How could the civilian democratic control can be established, enhanced, and assessed? This entry differentiates between the concepts of civilian and democratic control, classifies the research on the basis of the method that they use to measure the extent of civilian control, and discusses the civilian control strategies. Cite this entry as: Eldem T. (2019) Civilian Control of Armed Forces. In: Romaniuk S., Thapa M., Marton P. (eds) The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Global Security Studies. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham
Berlin Duvarı’nın yıkılması, Orta ve Doğu Avrupa’da ve eski Sovyetler Birliği’nde komünizmin çökm... more Berlin Duvarı’nın yıkılması, Orta ve Doğu Avrupa’da ve eski Sovyetler Birliği’nde komünizmin çökmesi gibi önemli sistematik değişikliklerden etkilenmeyen Laos; Vietnam, Kuzey Kore, Çin ve Küba ile birlikte komünist tek parti rejimini muhafaza etmeyi başaran beş devletten biridir. Ekonomi alanında izlenen dinamik kurumsal reformlar, elitin ve kitlelerin komünist rejime bağlılıklarını sağlayan yeni mekanizmalar ve siyasi kriz durumlarında üstlenilen başarılı liderlik tercihleri otokratik komünist rejimin değişen koşullara adaptasyonunu sağlayarak ayakta kalmasını mümkün kılmıştır. Çin ve Vietnam gibi tek parti rejimi altında planlı ekonomiden piyasa ekonomisine kademeli geçişin bir başka başarılı örneğini sergileyen Laos, 1986 yılından bu yana “Yeni Ekonomik Mekanizma” (YEM) adıyla anılan bir ekonomik reform politikası uygulamaya başlamış ve bu sayede 2000’lerde yılda %7’nin üzerinde ekonomik büyüme sağlayarak bölgenin en yüksek büyüme oranlarını yakalamayı başarmıştır. 2011 yılında benimsediği yeni ve beş-yıllık sosyo-ekonomik kalkınma planı çerçevesinde, dış yardım, dış yatırım ve doğal kaynaklarından maksimum faydalanarak 2020 yılında kadar ülkeyi “En Az Gelişmiş Ülkeler” kategorisinden çıkarmayı hedeflemektedir. Ekonomik ve dış ilişkilerde izlenen liberalleşme politikası, siyasi alanda henüz karşılık bulmamıştır. Yakın gelecekte Laos’un çok-partili sisteme geçişi öngörülmemektedir.
Authoritarian and Populist Influences in the New Media, 2018
This chapter focuses on the importance of freedom of media for democracy in general, and, in more... more This chapter focuses on the importance of freedom of media for democracy in general, and, in more detail, on structural characteristics of the media landscape and the status of media freedom in Turkey since the AKP’s rise to power in November 2002. The chapter starts by elucidating the potential role of the media as a democratizing agent. It is followed by the discussion of the development and structure of media sector in Turkey. This section shows how the re-distribution of state-seized media assets and political and financial pressure changed the media ownership structure in favor of incumbents over the last decade and selective allocation of public ads and discriminatory policies of regulatory agencies worked to further change the equilibrium in favor of pro-government media. The third section discusses the rise of press-party parallelism and the failure of the Turkish media to function as an effective public forum during the election campaigns. The following section outlines how prosecutions and criminal investigations, dismissal of critical journalists, selective accreditation, gag orders and cyber-censorship weakened the freedom of media in Turkey and further curtailed the Turkish media’s ability to sustain crucial functions in line with the understanding of a representative democracy.
Reforming Civil-Military Relations in New Democracies, 2017
This chapter shows that external factors as well as strong civilian leadership have affected the ... more This chapter shows that external factors as well as strong civilian leadership have affected the trajectory of defense and military policy in Turkey since the earlier years of the republic. Empowered by the EU, sustained electoral support and successful, albeit informal, counter-coup coalitions, the AKP government succeeded in establishing civilian control over security policy and limiting the military’ s political and judicial autonomy. Existing civilian control over military and defense policy is, however, not firmly institutionalized, but based on the popularity of a strong leadership at a time of low military esteem. Coup-proofing initiatives, i.e. coup conspiracy operations and trials and other measures, such as sensationalist coverage of military leaks, wiretaps, and mistakes, have forced the military out of politics, but have also called into question the TAF’ s military effectiveness.
In the post-Cold War era, the rise of international military interventions for humanitarian ends ... more In the post-Cold War era, the rise of international military interventions for humanitarian ends has raised several important questions about the rights and responsibilities of sovereign states towards their citizens as well as towards international society as a whole. The doctrine of Responsibility to Protect (R2P) was developed as a response to these questions by the ICISS (International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty) in 2001 and was later unanimously adopted at the UN General Assembly meeting of 2005 and ratified by the UN Security Council in 2006. The doctrine was implemented operationally for the first time in Libya following UN Security Council Resolution 1973 (2011). The failure of international society to follow a similar policy in Syria, however, has given rise to criticism over the viability of the doctrine. Taking the increasing controversy over the norm’s implementation into consideration, this article, considering R2P as an emerging international moral norm, argues that despite the loss of credibility of R2P due to the widespread perception of its abuse by the coalition forces in Libya, the norm sustains its viability within international society at large.
Adopting a strategic relational approach, this chapter shows how—despite Turkey’s unfavorable ini... more Adopting a strategic relational approach, this chapter shows how—despite Turkey’s unfavorable initial conditions—external pressures differentially empowering civilians provided resources these civilians needed to break the stabilizing mechanisms of path-dependence in civil-military relations. The ability of civilians to overcome path-dependence were enhanced by over a decade of rule by a stable majority government with a strong will to erode the political clout of the military. Having successfully defanged the Turkish military and consolidated its hold on power, the civilian leadership’s interest in defense and military reform has, however, faded in the last few years. In addition to second-generation problems of constructing effective civilian-led defense policy-making with broader civil society input, as well as strengthening legislative oversight, Turkey today also faces the twin challenges of restoring the morale and corporate esteem of the officers and rebuilding a working relationship between military and civilian leaders based on mutual trust.
International Journal of Public Administration, Nov 7, 2019
ABSTRACT This article explores Turkey’s multifaceted cyberspace governance policy and argues that... more ABSTRACT This article explores Turkey’s multifaceted cyberspace governance policy and argues that positioned between two opposites of cyberspace governance that has close military and security ties to the West, and domestic Internet policies more similar of Russia-China axis, Turkey should be considered as a swing state in global cyberspace governance debates. The article shows that despite her official discourse on multi-stakeholderism and its compliance with the emerging norms in the Euro-Atlantic alliance concerning cyber-security, cyber-crime, and cyber-defense; Turkey’s domestic Internet policy converges towards the Russia-China axis characterized by the rise of information controls and increasing efforts to establish “digital sovereignty” to national cyber space.
The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Global Security Studies, 2019
The question of “civilian control” or “how to guard the guardians” has been a central issue withi... more The question of “civilian control” or “how to guard the guardians” has been a central issue within the subfield of civil-military relations (CMR), since Plato’s Republic written more than 2500 years ago. The states need strong armies to defend their borders, but armed forces strong enough to protect the state also pose a threat to the civilian leadership. Enjoying important political advantages vis-à-vis the executive power such as “a highly emotionalized symbolic status,” “a marked superiority in organization,” and most importantly “a monopoly of arms,” why the armed forces ever obey civilian masters (Finer 1962, p. 6)? How can civilian leaders reliably getthemilitary toobey whencivilianand military preferences diverge?” How could the civilian democratic control can be established, enhanced, and assessed? This entry differentiates between the concepts of civilian and democratic control, classifies the research on the basis of the method that they use to measure the extent of civilian control, and discusses the civilian control strategies. Cite this entry as: Eldem T. (2019) Civilian Control of Armed Forces. In: Romaniuk S., Thapa M., Marton P. (eds) The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Global Security Studies. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham
From 1999 to 2004, democratization and the military reform agenda in Indonesia had significantly ... more From 1999 to 2004, democratization and the military reform agenda in Indonesia had significantly curbed the military’s long-standing socio-political role and established full civilian control in the political arena. Nevertheless, civilian authority in the national defense sector remains imperfect. The military has been able to isolate the formulation and implementation of defense and military policy from civilian influence by taking advantage of vague regulation and their dominance over the defense bureaucracy. This chapter explains how limited civilian control in the defense sector affects government efforts to develop military effectiveness in Indonesia’s nascent democracy. In order to do so, military effectiveness is treated as a process of military change towards an effective force. The chapter argues that the more restricted civilian authority is in the defense sector, the lower will be the potential for changes in defense and military policy. To test the argument, the chapter ...
In the post-Cold War era, the rise of international military interventions for humanitarian ends ... more In the post-Cold War era, the rise of international military interventions for humanitarian ends has raised several important questions about the rights and responsibilities of sovereign states towards their citizens as well as towards international society as a whole. The doctrine of Responsibility to Protect (R2P) was developed as a response to these questions by the ICISS (International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty) in 2001 and was later unanimously adopted at the UN General Assembly meeting of 2005 and ratified by the UN Security Council in 2006. The doctrine was implemented operationally for the first time in Libya following UN Security Council Resolution 1973 (2011). The failure of international society to follow a similar policy in Syria, however, has given rise to criticism over the viability of the doctrine. Taking the increasing controversy over the norm’s implementation into consideration, this article, considering R2P as an emerging international mora...
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Books by Tuba Eldem
By the end of the 1970s, an enormous body of literature on the causes and outcomes of military coups was, therefore, generated. Broadly speaking, students of civil-military relations have advanced two general explanations regarding the causes of military coups: one organizational and the other structural.
the concepts of civilian and democratic control, classifies the research on the basis of the method that they use to measure the extent of civilian control, and discusses the civilian control strategies.
Cite this entry as: Eldem T. (2019) Civilian Control of Armed Forces. In: Romaniuk S., Thapa M., Marton P. (eds) The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Global Security Studies. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham
Papers by Tuba Eldem
By the end of the 1970s, an enormous body of literature on the causes and outcomes of military coups was, therefore, generated. Broadly speaking, students of civil-military relations have advanced two general explanations regarding the causes of military coups: one organizational and the other structural.
the concepts of civilian and democratic control, classifies the research on the basis of the method that they use to measure the extent of civilian control, and discusses the civilian control strategies.
Cite this entry as: Eldem T. (2019) Civilian Control of Armed Forces. In: Romaniuk S., Thapa M., Marton P. (eds) The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Global Security Studies. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham