Gualtiero A N Valeri
Borned in Padua (Italy) in year 1960, lives and works in Quito (Ecuador). Italian citizen, is going to get even the Ecuadorian citizenship. He is married to Maria Alexandra Quintero Bautista (Ecuadorian citizen, born in Esmeraldas, painter and sculptor accredited to the Single Register of Ecuadorian Artists - RUAC, waiting of Italian citizenship) since 2002, with two children. He studied industrial chemistry and chemical engineering in Italy. He attended various specialization courses
Phone: +593961592146
Address: Montevenda Foundation - 170801 Quito (EC)
Phone: +593961592146
Address: Montevenda Foundation - 170801 Quito (EC)
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Hoy la producción de cacao en el Ecuador es una de las voces más importantes de las exportaciones del País. De acuerdo a los datos del año 2015, la exportación de cacao fino y de aroma de Ecuador estava de 116.000 TM/años. Este tipo de cacao representa el 5% de la producción mundial total.
La productividad de cacao en Ecuador, desde la cuantidad de 300 kg/ha/año de hace unos años, está llegando a 1.000 kg/ha/año, donde ya se han hecho intervenciones de mejoras de los cultivos.
La producción de cacao en el País es antigua, como se encontra da las investigaciónes arqueológicas: esta ya estaba en marcha hace 5.330 años en el Oriente Ecuatoriano (Región Amazonica).
En el siglo XIX, los árboles de cacao de América Latina, donde estos estavan originarios, fueron exportados a los países del Golfo de África, que ahora son fuertes productores de cacao, pero de baja calidad para factores climatico y pedologicós. Todo esto a pesar que, por el fenómeno de la deriva de los continentes, nos encontramos especies botánicas similares en la costa Atlántica de América Latina y la Costa Atlantca de África, donde también encontramos marcadas similitudes geológicas y climáticas: pero las plantas de cacao (Theobroma cacao), continuó por miliones de años siendo una especie característica de América Latina, y el producto resultado de esta aclimatación de la Theobroma cacao en África es muy diferente de lo obtenido da los cultivos de la América del Sur.
Theme: “Significance of Early warning systems and risk management strategies”
Il tema della prevedibilità dei terremoti è oggi oggetto di opinioni contrastanti, per problemi di tipo strettamente scientifico (la difficoltà di correlare strettamente certi precursori al manifestarsi del fenomeno in un certo intervallo di tempo, di spazio e di intensità dello stesso) e sociale (la gestione delle reazioni della popolazione di fronte ad una allerta di cui è difficile predire la durata ed il reale livello di rischio per la stessa).
Tuttavia, l'avanzamento delle conoscenze nel settore geofisico e geochimico, congiuntamente alla disponibilità di strumenti che permettono di rilevare con precisione certi fenomeni, aprono oggi nuove prospettive alla possibilità di conoscere, con una sufficiente precisione, se ci sia o meno la possibilità del verificarsi di un sisma imminente e di quale intensità.
Nel caso specifico del territorio ecuatoriano, interessato sempre da fenomeni sismici e vulcanici, già oggi, per le evenienze di eruzioni vulcaniche e tsunami, è attivo un efficiente sistema di gestione di tali rischi.
Con la recente crisi del vulcano Cotopaxi (iniziata nella primavera 2015 ed a tutt'oggi in corso) si sono attuate, nelle zone nel raggio di una trentina di chilometri da esso, una serie di misure che permettono l'evacuazione o la messa in sicurezza della popolazione direttamente interessata (tra le 100'000 e le 200'000 persone, tra le province del Cotopaxi, del Pichincha, del Napo e del Tungurahua) soprattutto dal rischio della discesa di lahar. Nell'occasione di questa crisi, si sono adeguate anche le infrastrutture sia per renderle idonee ad evacuare masse di 30'000÷40'000 persone in trenta minuti (predisponendo luoghi sicuri in cui ricoverarla), sia per resistere – per quanto possibile – agli effetti di una discesa di lahar dal Cotopaxi. Nella stessa occasione, la popolazione è stata istruita sul da farsi in caso di evacuazione, di pericolo di gas vulcanici, di interruzione della rete stradale, elettrica e telefonica.
Nello stesso modo, le località costiere sono preparate ad organizzare in pochi minuti una evacuazione nel caso del pericolo di tsunami, caso che si è ripetuto alcune volte, negli ultimi tempi, per terremoti che hanno interessato i territori che si affacciano sull'Oceano Pacifico.
La gestione di una allerta sismica è certo più complessa, per la difficoltà di identificare esattamente le zone che potrebbero essere colpite e per i tempi strettissimi di evoluzione del fenomeno ma, sulla scorta delle esperienze maturate, è possibile prendere delle misure che permettano un minore impatto sulle popolazioni di un terremoto. Tra queste, le più attuabili sono - potendo conoscere con un anticipo la possibilità che si manifesti un sisma di una certa intensità – il sospendere le attività che comportino la concentrazione di persone in edifici a rischio e la predisposizione di alloggi temporanei (come già sperimentato in Italia in occasione del terremoto del 2009).
Theme: “Significance of Early warning systems and risk management strategies”
El tema de la provabilidad de un terremoto es ahora objeto de opiniones contradictorias, por problemas estrictamente científicos (dificultad de correlacionar estrechamente ciertos precursores a la ocurrencia del fenómeno en un cierto intervalo de tiempo, de espacio y de la intensidad de lo mismo) y social (manejo de las reacciones de las personas frente a una alerta de que es difícil predecir la duración y el nivel real de riesgo de la misma).
Sin embargo, el avance de los conocimientos en el campo de la geofísica y de la geoquímica, junto con la disponibilidad de instrumentos que permiten detectar con precisión ciertos fenómenos, han abierto nuevas perspectivas a la oportunidad de conocer con suficiente precisión si existe o no la posibilidad que se produzcan terremotos inminentes y de qué intensidad.
En el caso específico del territorio ecuatoriano, siempre afectado por fenómenos sísmicos y volcánicos, ya hoy, para las ocurrencias de erupciones volcánicas y tsunamis, un eficiente sistema de gestión de riesgos está activo.
Con la reciente crisis del volcán Cotopaxi (que comenzó en la primavera de 2015 y que siegue tambièn ahora) se han introducido, en las áreas dentro de un radio de treinta kilómetros de esto, una serie de medidas que permite la evacuación o la seguridad de la población directamente afectada (entre 100.000 y 200.000 personas, entre las provincias de Cotopaxi, Pichincha, Napo y Tungurahua) por el riesgo del descenso del lahar. Con motivo de esta crisis, si son también adecuadas las infraestructuras para adaptarlas para la evacuacción de masas de 30.000÷40.000 personas en treinta minutos (proporcionando lugares seguros para acogerla), como por resistir - siempre que sea posible - a los efectos de un descenso del lahar del Cotopaxi. Al mismo tiempo, la población fue educada sobre qué hacer en caso de evacuación, por el peligro de gas volcánico, por la interrupción de la red de carreteras, de electricidad y teléfono.
Del mismo modo, las ciudades costeras están planeandas por hacer una evacuación en pocos minutos en caso de peligro de tsunami, evento que se ha repetido varias veces, últimamente, por los terremotos que han afectado a los territorios que bordean el Océano Pacífico.
La gestión de una alerta sísmica es más compleja, por la dificultad de identificar con precisión las áreas que podrían ser afectadas, y para el muy corto tiempo de evolución del fenómeno, pero, a la luz de la experiencia adquirida, es posible tomar medidas que permitan un menor impacto para la población de un terremoto. Entre estas, los más factibles son - pudiendo conocer con anticipación la posibilidad del manifiestarse un terremoto de una cierta intensidad - suspender las actividades que conducen a concentración de personas en edificios en situación de riesgo y la provisión de alojamiento temporal (como ya se ha experimentado en Italia en el terremoto del año 2009).
Theme: “Significance of Early warning systems and risk management strategies”
The predictability of earthquakes is now object of contrasting opinions, for strictly scientific problems type (the difficulty to correlate closely certain precursors to the occurrence of the phenomenon in a certain interval of time, space and intensity) and social (the menagement of the reactions of the population in face of an alert which is difficult predict the duration and the real level of risk).
However, new knowledge in the fields of nuclear physics, geophysics and geochemistry, together with the availability of new technologies that make it possible to accurately detect certain phenomena, have opened new perspectives to the opportunity to know, with sufficient precision, if or not will be an imminent earthquake, the epicentral area and its intensity.
In the specific case of the Ecuadorian territory, always affected by seismic and volcanic phenomena, already today, for occurrences of volcanic eruptions and tsunamis, is operating an efficient system of managing these risks.
With the recent crisis of the Cotopaxi volcano (started in spring 2015 and still in progress), have been implemented, in areas within a distance of some thirty kilometers, a range of measures that allow evacuation or safe-keeping of the population directly affected (between 100,000 and 200,000 people, between the provinces of Cotopaxi, Pichincha, Napo and Tungurahua), especially from the risk of lahar descent. In the event of this crisis, infrastructures have also been adapted to allow them to evacuate 30,000 to 40,000 people in thirty minutes (providing safe places to admit it) and to resist - as far as possible – at effects of a lahar descent from Cotopaxi. On the same occasion, the population was instructed to do in case of evacuation, of danger for volcanic gas, of interruption of the road, electrical and telephone network.
Similarly, for the coastal towns are planning in a few minutes an evacuation in case of tsunami danger; this event has been repeated several times, lately, for the earthquakes that have affected the territories bordering the Pacific Ocean.
The management of a seismic alert is certainly more complex, because of the difficulty of identifying precisely the areas that could be affected, and for the very short times of evolution of the phenomenon; but based on the experiences gained, is possible to take measures that allow a minor Impact on populations of an earthquake. Among these, the most viable ones are - by knowing in advance that an earthquake of some intensity may occur - suspending activities that involve the concentration of people in risky buildings and the provision of temporary housing. (As already experienced in Italy during the earthquake of 2009).
(SLIDES)
Theme: “Significance of Early warning systems and risk management strategies”
The predictability of earthquakes is now object of contrasting opinions, for strictly scientific problems type (the difficulty to correlate closely certain precursors to the occurrence of the phenomenon in a certain interval of time, space and intensity) and social (the menagement of the reactions of the population in face of an alert which is difficult predict the duration and the real level of risk).
However, new knowledge in the fields of nuclear physics, geophysics and geochemistry, together with the availability of new technologies that make it possible to accurately detect certain phenomena, have opened new perspectives to the opportunity to know, with sufficient precision, if or not will be an imminent earthquake, the epicentral area and its intensity.
In the specific case of the Ecuadorian territory, always affected by seismic and volcanic phenomena, already today, for occurrences of volcanic eruptions and tsunamis, is operating an efficient system of managing these risks.
With the recent crisis of the Cotopaxi volcano (started in spring 2015 and still in progress), have been implemented, in areas within a distance of some thirty kilometers, a range of measures that allow evacuation or safe-keeping of the population directly affected (between 100,000 and 200,000 people, between the provinces of Cotopaxi, Pichincha, Napo and Tungurahua), especially from the risk of lahar descent. In the event of this crisis, infrastructures have also been adapted to allow them to evacuate 30,000 to 40,000 people in thirty minutes (providing safe places to admit it) and to resist - as far as possible – at effects of a lahar descent from Cotopaxi. On the same occasion, the population was instructed to do in case of evacuation, of danger for volcanic gas, of interruption of the road, electrical and telephone network.
Similarly, for the coastal towns are planning in a few minutes an evacuation in case of tsunami danger; this event has been repeated several times, lately, for the earthquakes that have affected the territories bordering the Pacific Ocean.
The management of a seismic alert is certainly more complex, because of the difficulty of identifying precisely the areas that could be affected, and for the very short times of evolution of the phenomenon; but based on the experiences gained, is possible to take measures that allow a minor Impact on populations of an earthquake. Among these, the most viable ones are - by knowing in advance that an earthquake of some intensity may occur - suspending activities that involve the concentration of people in risky buildings and the provision of temporary housing. (As already experienced in Italy during the earthquake of 2009).
October 24th÷26th, 2016 Valencia, Spain
Theme: “Updating our Understanding: Earth's Climate is Warming”
Nel quadro complessivo delle cause e dei problemi connessi al cambiamento climatico, che procede in parte per cause naturali (es. aumento dell'attività solare), ed in parte per cause antropiche (es. aumento della contaminazione ambientale e dei gas serra nell'atmosfera), un fattore rilevante, come già evidenziato in passato, è connesso alla modificazione dello stato e dell'uso dei suoli di una parte importante della superficie del pianeta.
La presenza/assenza di una copertura vegetale, modifica radicalmente la riflettività dei suoli e la temperatura degli strati d'aria, nonché l'equilibrio igrometrico dell'area.
Inoltre, abbiamo anche il fenomeno di diffusione di cariche elettriche dalle zone con copertura vegetale verso l'atmosfera, esistendo tra il terreno e l'atmosfera stessa una differenza di potenziale elettrico anche rilevante, il che favorisce la condensazione dell'umidità atmosferica in pioggia. É infatti frequente notare, durante la notte, in zone desertiche, la formazione sopra di esse di masse d'aria sovrassature di umidità, che tuttavia non condensa perché la coalescenza tra le microgocce d'aqua è impedita dalla reciproca repulsione elettrostatica, in quanto esse sono, generalmente, dotate di carica elettrica positiva.
Al contrario, è facile osservare la presenza di frequenti ed improvvise precipitazioni, ad esempio, sopra i boschi alpini di conifere, dove, per espansione adiabatica e conseguente raffreddamento dell'aria, pure si formano masse d'aria sovrassature di umidità. Che, peró, per questo effetto, condensa assai facilmente in pioggia.
Circa lo stato odierno dei suoli fertili, si ricorda che la velocità di formazione media naturale del suolo è di circa 1 mm ogni 200÷400 anni (pari a 40 kg/ha/a), ma, in seguito all'azione antropica, i suoli agricoli si stanno perdendo 10÷40 volte più velocemente di quanto si possano formare, quando un profilo di suolo si costituisce in un tempo di 2'000÷10'000 anni. Complessivamente oggi si ha un perdita di suolo fertile pari a 6'000'000 ha/a, su un totale di circa 1'200'000'000 ha di suolo fertile disponibile nel pianeta (ovvero lo 0,5% all'anno).
Un importante contributo alla modulazione del clima, annullando, almeno in parte, i fattori naturali od antropici che ne determinano l'alterazione, sarebbe nel recuperare una adeguata copertura vegetale, sia forestale che agricola, nei suoli oggi divenuti sterili, nel contempo recuperando e tutelando la biodiversità.
October 24th÷26th, 2016 Valencia, Spain
Theme: “Updating our Understanding: Earth's Climate is Warming”
In the overall framework of the causes and problems of climate change, which proceeds in part to natural causes (eg. increase of solar activity), and partly by human action (eg. increase of environmental pollution and greenhouse gases), an important factor, as already shown in the past, is connected to the change of state of soils and to land use in a great part of the planet.
The presence/absence of plant cover, radically changes the reflectivity of the soil and the temperature of the air layers, as well as the hygrometric equilibrium of the area.
Furthermore, we also have the phenomenon of diffusion of electric charges from the areas with vegetation cover to the atmosphere, existing between the soil and the atmosphere itself a difference of electrical potential also relevant, which favors the atmospheric moisture condensing into rain. It is in fact frequently observed, during the night, in desert areas, the formation above them of moisture supersaturated air masses, which, however, does not condense because the coalescence between the water microdroplets is prevented by the mutual electrostatic repulsion, as they are, generally, provided with a positive electric charge.
On the contrary, it is easy to observe the presence of frequent and sudden rainfall, for example, above the alpine coniferous forests, where, for adiabatic expansion and consequent cooling of the air, also are formed of moisture supersaturated air masses. That to, however, to this effect, condenses very easily in rain.
About the present state of fertile soils, remembers that the average natural rate of soil formation is about 1 mm every 200÷400 years (equivalent to 40 kg/ha/y), but, following the anthropic action, the agricultural soils are losing 10 to 40 times faster than they can form, when a soil profile is established in a time of 2,000÷10,000 years. In total, we has a fertile soil loss amounting to 6,000,000 ha/y, on a total of about 1'200'000'000 hectares of fertile soil available in the planet (that is 0.5% per year).
An important contribution to climate modulation, canceling, at least partly, the natural or anthropogenic factors that determine its alteration, would be to recover an adequate vegetation cover, forestry and agricultural, in the soils today have become sterile, while recovering and conserving the biodiversity.
(SLIDES)
October 24th÷26th, 2016 Valencia, Spain
Theme: “Updating our Understanding: Earth's Climate is Warming”
In the overall framework of the causes and problems of climate change, which proceeds in part to natural causes (eg. increase of solar activity), and partly by human action (eg. increase of environmental pollution and greenhouse gases), an important factor, as already shown in the past, is connected to the change of state of soils and to land use in a great part of the planet.
The presence/absence of plant cover, radically changes the reflectivity of the soil and the temperature of the air layers, as well as the hygrometric equilibrium of the area.
Furthermore, we also have the phenomenon of diffusion of electric charges from the areas with vegetation cover to the atmosphere, existing between the soil and the atmosphere itself a difference of electrical potential also relevant, which favors the atmospheric moisture condensing into rain. It is in fact frequently observed, during the night, in desert areas, the formation above them of moisture supersaturated air masses, which, however, does not condense because the coalescence between the water microdroplets is prevented by the mutual electrostatic repulsion, as they are, generally, provided with a positive electric charge.
On the contrary, it is easy to observe the presence of frequent and sudden rainfall, for example, above the alpine coniferous forests, where, for adiabatic expansion and consequent cooling of the air, also are formed of moisture supersaturated air masses. That to, however, to this effect, condenses very easily in rain.
About the present state of fertile soils, remembers that the average natural rate of soil formation is about 1 mm every 200÷400 years (equivalent to 40 kg/ha/y), but, following the anthropic action, the agricultural soils are losing 10 to 40 times faster than they can form, when a soil profile is established in a time of 2,000÷10,000 years. In total, we has a fertile soil loss amounting to 6,000,000 ha/y, on a total of about 1'200'000'000 hectares of fertile soil available in the planet (that is 0.5% per year).
An important contribution to climate modulation, canceling, at least partly, the natural or anthropogenic factors that determine its alteration, would be to recover an adequate vegetation cover, forestry and agricultural, in the soils today have become sterile, while recovering and conserving the biodiversity.
(4ª Conferencia Internacional sobre las Ciencias de la Tierra y el Cambio Climático)
Alicante (Spagna), 16÷18 de Junio de 2015
Durante las últimas tres décadas se ha hablado mucho, en todos los niveles, del problema del cambio climático, y la medida en la que esto se debe a factores naturales y/o antrópico.
Más allá de esto, que, sin embargo, es una cuestión importante y a que se podría responder aun suponiendo un concurso de factores tanto natural como artificial, es tener en cuenta que el clima de nuestro Planeta, incluso en tiempos históricos, ha sufrido muchos significativo y algunas veces repentinos cambios, aún cuando no haya sido posible atribuyen a estos una competencia importante de las actividades humanas.
Sin embargo, un hecho nuevo con respecto a los últimos siglos, y muy importante, es que el cambio en curso podría tener un impacto mucho mayor que antes sobre la Humanidad. Por ejemplo, cuando los océanos aumentarán en el nivel, no van a ser los más afectados por esto unos cuantos millones de personas que viven en ciudades costeras pequeñas o medianas, sino miles de millones, y su migración hacia las zonas más internas de los continentes aparecería como un éxodo sin precedentes en la historia de la Humanidad. Otro ejemplo, es que los cambios en el clima están cambiando no sólo la productividad agrícola en muchas regiones del Planeta, sino también el valor nutricional de algunas especies cultivadas: en los últimos tiempos se ha puesto de relieve una caída significativa del poder nutricional del arroz coltivanto en el Lejano Oriente, lo que podría dar lugar a un déficit nutricional grave para dos mil millones de personas.
Por supuesto, es necesario proporcionar a que la componente antropogénica del cambio climático causado por la introducción de gases de efecto invernadero en la atmósfera se limita al mínimo; pero hay otros factores importantes de origen antropogénico, que deben ser comprobadas. Entre ellas se encuentra la modificación de la situación de la cobertura de los suelos.
En el mundo, especialmente en los últimos siglos, una parte importante de la cobertura forestal ha sido destruida para dar paso a los cultivos. Con el tiempo, este tipo de suelos cultivados - sobre todo en los últimos 50 años como resultado de las técnicas de agricultura intensiva - se han agotado; otros han sido afectados por los fenómenos de contaminación para las actividades industriales u otro.
Una parte de los suelos ha sufrido un proceso de desertificación, aunque muchas zonas desérticas han comenzado a expandirse, presumiblemente por factores naturales, en la antigüedad, como es el caso del desierto del norte de África y el árabe.
En la actualidad, por lo tanto, en el mundo tenemos vastas zonas desertificadas o cuya fertilidad se redujo drásticamente.
Alicante (Spain), June 16÷18, 2015
Over the past three decades there has been much talked about, at all levels, the problem of climate change, and the extent to which it is due to natural and/or anthropogenic factors.
Beyond this, however, it is an important question and that is could answer even assuming a competition to both natural and artificial factors, is to keep in mind that the climate of our Planet, even in historical times, it has undergone many significant and sometimes sudden changes, even when it was not possible to attribute to them an important competition of human activities.
However a new fact with respect to the past centuries, and very important, is that the change currently underway on Humanity could have a much greater impact than in the past. For example, when the oceans will increase in level, will not be the most affected by this few million people living in small or medium-sized coastal towns, but billions, and their migration towards more internal areas of the continents would appear as an exodus unprecedented in history of Humanity. Another example, is that changes in climate are changing not only the agricultural productivity in many regions of the Planet, but also the nutritional value of some cultivated species: in recent times has been highlighted a significant fall in nutritional power of rice cultived in the Far East, which could result in a serious nutritional deficit to two billion people.
It is of course necessary to provide for the anthropogenic component of climate change caused by the introduction of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is limited to a minimum; but there are other important factors of anthropogenic origin, which should be checked. Among these is the modification of the status of land cover.
In the world, especially in the last centuries, a major share of the forest cover has been destroyed to make way for crops. Over time, such soils cultivated - especially in the last 50 years as a result of intensive farming techniques - have been depleted; others have been affected by phenomena of contamination for industrial activities or other.
A part of the land has undergone a process of desertification, although many desert areas have begun to expand, presumably natural factors, in ancient times, as is the case of the North African and Arabic desert.
Currently, therefore, in the world we have vast desertified areas or whose fertility is drastically decreased.
(SLIDES)
Alicante (Spain), June 16÷18, 2015
Over the past three decades there has been much talked about, at all levels, the problem of climate change, and the extent to which it is due to natural and/or anthropogenic factors.
Beyond this, however, it is an important question and that is could answer even assuming a competition to both natural and artificial factors, is to keep in mind that the climate of our Planet, even in historical times, it has undergone many significant and sometimes sudden changes, even when it was not possible to attribute to them an important competition of human activities.
However a new fact with respect to the past centuries, and very important, is that the change currently underway on Humanity could have a much greater impact than in the past. For example, when the oceans will increase in level, will not be the most affected by this few million people living in small or medium-sized coastal towns, but billions, and their migration towards more internal areas of the continents would appear as an exodus unprecedented in history of Humanity. Another example, is that changes in climate are changing not only the agricultural productivity in many regions of the Planet, but also the nutritional value of some cultivated species: in recent times has been highlighted a significant fall in nutritional power of rice cultived in the Far East, which could result in a serious nutritional deficit to two billion people.
It is of course necessary to provide for the anthropogenic component of climate change caused by the introduction of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is limited to a minimum; but there are other important factors of anthropogenic origin, which should be checked. Among these is the modification of the status of land cover.
In the world, especially in the last centuries, a major share of the forest cover has been destroyed to make way for crops. Over time, such soils cultivated - especially in the last 50 years as a result of intensive farming techniques - have been depleted; others have been affected by phenomena of contamination for industrial activities or other.
A part of the land has undergone a process of desertification, although many desert areas have begun to expand, presumably natural factors, in ancient times, as is the case of the North African and Arabic desert.
Currently, therefore, in the world we have vast desertified areas or whose fertility is drastically decreased.
Alicante (Spagna), 16÷18 giugno 2015
Negli ultimi tre decenni si è molto parlato, a tutti i livelli, del problema del cambiamento climatico, e della misura in cui esso sia dovuto a fattori naturali e/o antropici.
Al di là di questo, che comunque è un quesito importante ed a cui si potrebbe rispondere anche ipotizzando una concorrenza di fattori naturali ed artificiali, è da tenere presente che il clima del nostro Pianeta, anche in epoche storiche, ha subito molti notevoli e talvolta repentini cambiamenti, anche quando non era possibile attribuire ad essi un concorso importante delle attività umane.
Tuttavia un fatto nuovo rispetto ai secoli passati, e molto importante, è che il cambiamento attualmente in atto potrebbe avere sull'Umanità un impatto assai maggiore che in precedenza. Ad esempio, quando gli oceani aumenteranno di livello, non saranno piú interessati da questo pochi milioni di persone residenti in piccoli o medi centri costieri, ma miliardi, ed una loro migrazione verso zone piú interne dei continenti si configurerebbe come un esodo senza precedenti nella storia dell'Umanità. Un altro esempio, è che i cambiamenti climatici in atto stanno modificando non solo la produttività agricola di molte regioni del Pianeta, ma anche il potere nutrizionale di alcune specie coltivate: in tempi recenti è stata messa in evidenza una caduta rilevante del potere nutrizionale del riso coltivanto in Estremo Oriente, che potrebbe tradursi in un grave deficit nutrizionale per due miliardi di persone.
É naturalmente necessario provvedere affinchè la componente antropica del cambio climatico derivante dall'immissione di gas serra nell'atmosfera sia contenuta al minimo; ma vi sono altri fattori importanti di origine antropica, che vanno controllati. Tra questi vi è la modificazione dello stato di copertura dei suoli.
Nel mondo, soprattutto negli ultimi secoli, una quota importante della copertura forestale è stata distrutta per fare il posto alle colture. Nel tempo, tali suoli coltivati – soprattutto negli ultimi 50 anni per effetto delle tecniche colturali intensive – si sono esauriti; altri sono stati colpiti da fenomeni di contaminazione per attività industriali od altro.
Un parte dei suoli è andata incontro a processi di desertificazione, anche se molte superfici desertiche hanno cominciato ad espandersi, per fattori presumibilmente naturali, in tempi molto remoti, come è il caso del deserto nordafricano ed arabo.
Attualmente, pertanto, nel mondo abbiamo vaste aree desertificate o la cui fertilità è drasticamente diminuita.
Hoy la producción de cacao en el Ecuador es una de las voces más importantes de las exportaciones del País. De acuerdo a los datos del año 2015, la exportación de cacao fino y de aroma de Ecuador estava de 116.000 TM/años. Este tipo de cacao representa el 5% de la producción mundial total.
La productividad de cacao en Ecuador, desde la cuantidad de 300 kg/ha/año de hace unos años, está llegando a 1.000 kg/ha/año, donde ya se han hecho intervenciones de mejoras de los cultivos.
La producción de cacao en el País es antigua, como se encontra da las investigaciónes arqueológicas: esta ya estaba en marcha hace 5.330 años en el Oriente Ecuatoriano (Región Amazonica).
En el siglo XIX, los árboles de cacao de América Latina, donde estos estavan originarios, fueron exportados a los países del Golfo de África, que ahora son fuertes productores de cacao, pero de baja calidad para factores climatico y pedologicós. Todo esto a pesar que, por el fenómeno de la deriva de los continentes, nos encontramos especies botánicas similares en la costa Atlántica de América Latina y la Costa Atlantca de África, donde también encontramos marcadas similitudes geológicas y climáticas: pero las plantas de cacao (Theobroma cacao), continuó por miliones de años siendo una especie característica de América Latina, y el producto resultado de esta aclimatación de la Theobroma cacao en África es muy diferente de lo obtenido da los cultivos de la América del Sur.
Theme: “Significance of Early warning systems and risk management strategies”
Il tema della prevedibilità dei terremoti è oggi oggetto di opinioni contrastanti, per problemi di tipo strettamente scientifico (la difficoltà di correlare strettamente certi precursori al manifestarsi del fenomeno in un certo intervallo di tempo, di spazio e di intensità dello stesso) e sociale (la gestione delle reazioni della popolazione di fronte ad una allerta di cui è difficile predire la durata ed il reale livello di rischio per la stessa).
Tuttavia, l'avanzamento delle conoscenze nel settore geofisico e geochimico, congiuntamente alla disponibilità di strumenti che permettono di rilevare con precisione certi fenomeni, aprono oggi nuove prospettive alla possibilità di conoscere, con una sufficiente precisione, se ci sia o meno la possibilità del verificarsi di un sisma imminente e di quale intensità.
Nel caso specifico del territorio ecuatoriano, interessato sempre da fenomeni sismici e vulcanici, già oggi, per le evenienze di eruzioni vulcaniche e tsunami, è attivo un efficiente sistema di gestione di tali rischi.
Con la recente crisi del vulcano Cotopaxi (iniziata nella primavera 2015 ed a tutt'oggi in corso) si sono attuate, nelle zone nel raggio di una trentina di chilometri da esso, una serie di misure che permettono l'evacuazione o la messa in sicurezza della popolazione direttamente interessata (tra le 100'000 e le 200'000 persone, tra le province del Cotopaxi, del Pichincha, del Napo e del Tungurahua) soprattutto dal rischio della discesa di lahar. Nell'occasione di questa crisi, si sono adeguate anche le infrastrutture sia per renderle idonee ad evacuare masse di 30'000÷40'000 persone in trenta minuti (predisponendo luoghi sicuri in cui ricoverarla), sia per resistere – per quanto possibile – agli effetti di una discesa di lahar dal Cotopaxi. Nella stessa occasione, la popolazione è stata istruita sul da farsi in caso di evacuazione, di pericolo di gas vulcanici, di interruzione della rete stradale, elettrica e telefonica.
Nello stesso modo, le località costiere sono preparate ad organizzare in pochi minuti una evacuazione nel caso del pericolo di tsunami, caso che si è ripetuto alcune volte, negli ultimi tempi, per terremoti che hanno interessato i territori che si affacciano sull'Oceano Pacifico.
La gestione di una allerta sismica è certo più complessa, per la difficoltà di identificare esattamente le zone che potrebbero essere colpite e per i tempi strettissimi di evoluzione del fenomeno ma, sulla scorta delle esperienze maturate, è possibile prendere delle misure che permettano un minore impatto sulle popolazioni di un terremoto. Tra queste, le più attuabili sono - potendo conoscere con un anticipo la possibilità che si manifesti un sisma di una certa intensità – il sospendere le attività che comportino la concentrazione di persone in edifici a rischio e la predisposizione di alloggi temporanei (come già sperimentato in Italia in occasione del terremoto del 2009).
Theme: “Significance of Early warning systems and risk management strategies”
El tema de la provabilidad de un terremoto es ahora objeto de opiniones contradictorias, por problemas estrictamente científicos (dificultad de correlacionar estrechamente ciertos precursores a la ocurrencia del fenómeno en un cierto intervalo de tiempo, de espacio y de la intensidad de lo mismo) y social (manejo de las reacciones de las personas frente a una alerta de que es difícil predecir la duración y el nivel real de riesgo de la misma).
Sin embargo, el avance de los conocimientos en el campo de la geofísica y de la geoquímica, junto con la disponibilidad de instrumentos que permiten detectar con precisión ciertos fenómenos, han abierto nuevas perspectivas a la oportunidad de conocer con suficiente precisión si existe o no la posibilidad que se produzcan terremotos inminentes y de qué intensidad.
En el caso específico del territorio ecuatoriano, siempre afectado por fenómenos sísmicos y volcánicos, ya hoy, para las ocurrencias de erupciones volcánicas y tsunamis, un eficiente sistema de gestión de riesgos está activo.
Con la reciente crisis del volcán Cotopaxi (que comenzó en la primavera de 2015 y que siegue tambièn ahora) se han introducido, en las áreas dentro de un radio de treinta kilómetros de esto, una serie de medidas que permite la evacuación o la seguridad de la población directamente afectada (entre 100.000 y 200.000 personas, entre las provincias de Cotopaxi, Pichincha, Napo y Tungurahua) por el riesgo del descenso del lahar. Con motivo de esta crisis, si son también adecuadas las infraestructuras para adaptarlas para la evacuacción de masas de 30.000÷40.000 personas en treinta minutos (proporcionando lugares seguros para acogerla), como por resistir - siempre que sea posible - a los efectos de un descenso del lahar del Cotopaxi. Al mismo tiempo, la población fue educada sobre qué hacer en caso de evacuación, por el peligro de gas volcánico, por la interrupción de la red de carreteras, de electricidad y teléfono.
Del mismo modo, las ciudades costeras están planeandas por hacer una evacuación en pocos minutos en caso de peligro de tsunami, evento que se ha repetido varias veces, últimamente, por los terremotos que han afectado a los territorios que bordean el Océano Pacífico.
La gestión de una alerta sísmica es más compleja, por la dificultad de identificar con precisión las áreas que podrían ser afectadas, y para el muy corto tiempo de evolución del fenómeno, pero, a la luz de la experiencia adquirida, es posible tomar medidas que permitan un menor impacto para la población de un terremoto. Entre estas, los más factibles son - pudiendo conocer con anticipación la posibilidad del manifiestarse un terremoto de una cierta intensidad - suspender las actividades que conducen a concentración de personas en edificios en situación de riesgo y la provisión de alojamiento temporal (como ya se ha experimentado en Italia en el terremoto del año 2009).
Theme: “Significance of Early warning systems and risk management strategies”
The predictability of earthquakes is now object of contrasting opinions, for strictly scientific problems type (the difficulty to correlate closely certain precursors to the occurrence of the phenomenon in a certain interval of time, space and intensity) and social (the menagement of the reactions of the population in face of an alert which is difficult predict the duration and the real level of risk).
However, new knowledge in the fields of nuclear physics, geophysics and geochemistry, together with the availability of new technologies that make it possible to accurately detect certain phenomena, have opened new perspectives to the opportunity to know, with sufficient precision, if or not will be an imminent earthquake, the epicentral area and its intensity.
In the specific case of the Ecuadorian territory, always affected by seismic and volcanic phenomena, already today, for occurrences of volcanic eruptions and tsunamis, is operating an efficient system of managing these risks.
With the recent crisis of the Cotopaxi volcano (started in spring 2015 and still in progress), have been implemented, in areas within a distance of some thirty kilometers, a range of measures that allow evacuation or safe-keeping of the population directly affected (between 100,000 and 200,000 people, between the provinces of Cotopaxi, Pichincha, Napo and Tungurahua), especially from the risk of lahar descent. In the event of this crisis, infrastructures have also been adapted to allow them to evacuate 30,000 to 40,000 people in thirty minutes (providing safe places to admit it) and to resist - as far as possible – at effects of a lahar descent from Cotopaxi. On the same occasion, the population was instructed to do in case of evacuation, of danger for volcanic gas, of interruption of the road, electrical and telephone network.
Similarly, for the coastal towns are planning in a few minutes an evacuation in case of tsunami danger; this event has been repeated several times, lately, for the earthquakes that have affected the territories bordering the Pacific Ocean.
The management of a seismic alert is certainly more complex, because of the difficulty of identifying precisely the areas that could be affected, and for the very short times of evolution of the phenomenon; but based on the experiences gained, is possible to take measures that allow a minor Impact on populations of an earthquake. Among these, the most viable ones are - by knowing in advance that an earthquake of some intensity may occur - suspending activities that involve the concentration of people in risky buildings and the provision of temporary housing. (As already experienced in Italy during the earthquake of 2009).
(SLIDES)
Theme: “Significance of Early warning systems and risk management strategies”
The predictability of earthquakes is now object of contrasting opinions, for strictly scientific problems type (the difficulty to correlate closely certain precursors to the occurrence of the phenomenon in a certain interval of time, space and intensity) and social (the menagement of the reactions of the population in face of an alert which is difficult predict the duration and the real level of risk).
However, new knowledge in the fields of nuclear physics, geophysics and geochemistry, together with the availability of new technologies that make it possible to accurately detect certain phenomena, have opened new perspectives to the opportunity to know, with sufficient precision, if or not will be an imminent earthquake, the epicentral area and its intensity.
In the specific case of the Ecuadorian territory, always affected by seismic and volcanic phenomena, already today, for occurrences of volcanic eruptions and tsunamis, is operating an efficient system of managing these risks.
With the recent crisis of the Cotopaxi volcano (started in spring 2015 and still in progress), have been implemented, in areas within a distance of some thirty kilometers, a range of measures that allow evacuation or safe-keeping of the population directly affected (between 100,000 and 200,000 people, between the provinces of Cotopaxi, Pichincha, Napo and Tungurahua), especially from the risk of lahar descent. In the event of this crisis, infrastructures have also been adapted to allow them to evacuate 30,000 to 40,000 people in thirty minutes (providing safe places to admit it) and to resist - as far as possible – at effects of a lahar descent from Cotopaxi. On the same occasion, the population was instructed to do in case of evacuation, of danger for volcanic gas, of interruption of the road, electrical and telephone network.
Similarly, for the coastal towns are planning in a few minutes an evacuation in case of tsunami danger; this event has been repeated several times, lately, for the earthquakes that have affected the territories bordering the Pacific Ocean.
The management of a seismic alert is certainly more complex, because of the difficulty of identifying precisely the areas that could be affected, and for the very short times of evolution of the phenomenon; but based on the experiences gained, is possible to take measures that allow a minor Impact on populations of an earthquake. Among these, the most viable ones are - by knowing in advance that an earthquake of some intensity may occur - suspending activities that involve the concentration of people in risky buildings and the provision of temporary housing. (As already experienced in Italy during the earthquake of 2009).
October 24th÷26th, 2016 Valencia, Spain
Theme: “Updating our Understanding: Earth's Climate is Warming”
Nel quadro complessivo delle cause e dei problemi connessi al cambiamento climatico, che procede in parte per cause naturali (es. aumento dell'attività solare), ed in parte per cause antropiche (es. aumento della contaminazione ambientale e dei gas serra nell'atmosfera), un fattore rilevante, come già evidenziato in passato, è connesso alla modificazione dello stato e dell'uso dei suoli di una parte importante della superficie del pianeta.
La presenza/assenza di una copertura vegetale, modifica radicalmente la riflettività dei suoli e la temperatura degli strati d'aria, nonché l'equilibrio igrometrico dell'area.
Inoltre, abbiamo anche il fenomeno di diffusione di cariche elettriche dalle zone con copertura vegetale verso l'atmosfera, esistendo tra il terreno e l'atmosfera stessa una differenza di potenziale elettrico anche rilevante, il che favorisce la condensazione dell'umidità atmosferica in pioggia. É infatti frequente notare, durante la notte, in zone desertiche, la formazione sopra di esse di masse d'aria sovrassature di umidità, che tuttavia non condensa perché la coalescenza tra le microgocce d'aqua è impedita dalla reciproca repulsione elettrostatica, in quanto esse sono, generalmente, dotate di carica elettrica positiva.
Al contrario, è facile osservare la presenza di frequenti ed improvvise precipitazioni, ad esempio, sopra i boschi alpini di conifere, dove, per espansione adiabatica e conseguente raffreddamento dell'aria, pure si formano masse d'aria sovrassature di umidità. Che, peró, per questo effetto, condensa assai facilmente in pioggia.
Circa lo stato odierno dei suoli fertili, si ricorda che la velocità di formazione media naturale del suolo è di circa 1 mm ogni 200÷400 anni (pari a 40 kg/ha/a), ma, in seguito all'azione antropica, i suoli agricoli si stanno perdendo 10÷40 volte più velocemente di quanto si possano formare, quando un profilo di suolo si costituisce in un tempo di 2'000÷10'000 anni. Complessivamente oggi si ha un perdita di suolo fertile pari a 6'000'000 ha/a, su un totale di circa 1'200'000'000 ha di suolo fertile disponibile nel pianeta (ovvero lo 0,5% all'anno).
Un importante contributo alla modulazione del clima, annullando, almeno in parte, i fattori naturali od antropici che ne determinano l'alterazione, sarebbe nel recuperare una adeguata copertura vegetale, sia forestale che agricola, nei suoli oggi divenuti sterili, nel contempo recuperando e tutelando la biodiversità.
October 24th÷26th, 2016 Valencia, Spain
Theme: “Updating our Understanding: Earth's Climate is Warming”
In the overall framework of the causes and problems of climate change, which proceeds in part to natural causes (eg. increase of solar activity), and partly by human action (eg. increase of environmental pollution and greenhouse gases), an important factor, as already shown in the past, is connected to the change of state of soils and to land use in a great part of the planet.
The presence/absence of plant cover, radically changes the reflectivity of the soil and the temperature of the air layers, as well as the hygrometric equilibrium of the area.
Furthermore, we also have the phenomenon of diffusion of electric charges from the areas with vegetation cover to the atmosphere, existing between the soil and the atmosphere itself a difference of electrical potential also relevant, which favors the atmospheric moisture condensing into rain. It is in fact frequently observed, during the night, in desert areas, the formation above them of moisture supersaturated air masses, which, however, does not condense because the coalescence between the water microdroplets is prevented by the mutual electrostatic repulsion, as they are, generally, provided with a positive electric charge.
On the contrary, it is easy to observe the presence of frequent and sudden rainfall, for example, above the alpine coniferous forests, where, for adiabatic expansion and consequent cooling of the air, also are formed of moisture supersaturated air masses. That to, however, to this effect, condenses very easily in rain.
About the present state of fertile soils, remembers that the average natural rate of soil formation is about 1 mm every 200÷400 years (equivalent to 40 kg/ha/y), but, following the anthropic action, the agricultural soils are losing 10 to 40 times faster than they can form, when a soil profile is established in a time of 2,000÷10,000 years. In total, we has a fertile soil loss amounting to 6,000,000 ha/y, on a total of about 1'200'000'000 hectares of fertile soil available in the planet (that is 0.5% per year).
An important contribution to climate modulation, canceling, at least partly, the natural or anthropogenic factors that determine its alteration, would be to recover an adequate vegetation cover, forestry and agricultural, in the soils today have become sterile, while recovering and conserving the biodiversity.
(SLIDES)
October 24th÷26th, 2016 Valencia, Spain
Theme: “Updating our Understanding: Earth's Climate is Warming”
In the overall framework of the causes and problems of climate change, which proceeds in part to natural causes (eg. increase of solar activity), and partly by human action (eg. increase of environmental pollution and greenhouse gases), an important factor, as already shown in the past, is connected to the change of state of soils and to land use in a great part of the planet.
The presence/absence of plant cover, radically changes the reflectivity of the soil and the temperature of the air layers, as well as the hygrometric equilibrium of the area.
Furthermore, we also have the phenomenon of diffusion of electric charges from the areas with vegetation cover to the atmosphere, existing between the soil and the atmosphere itself a difference of electrical potential also relevant, which favors the atmospheric moisture condensing into rain. It is in fact frequently observed, during the night, in desert areas, the formation above them of moisture supersaturated air masses, which, however, does not condense because the coalescence between the water microdroplets is prevented by the mutual electrostatic repulsion, as they are, generally, provided with a positive electric charge.
On the contrary, it is easy to observe the presence of frequent and sudden rainfall, for example, above the alpine coniferous forests, where, for adiabatic expansion and consequent cooling of the air, also are formed of moisture supersaturated air masses. That to, however, to this effect, condenses very easily in rain.
About the present state of fertile soils, remembers that the average natural rate of soil formation is about 1 mm every 200÷400 years (equivalent to 40 kg/ha/y), but, following the anthropic action, the agricultural soils are losing 10 to 40 times faster than they can form, when a soil profile is established in a time of 2,000÷10,000 years. In total, we has a fertile soil loss amounting to 6,000,000 ha/y, on a total of about 1'200'000'000 hectares of fertile soil available in the planet (that is 0.5% per year).
An important contribution to climate modulation, canceling, at least partly, the natural or anthropogenic factors that determine its alteration, would be to recover an adequate vegetation cover, forestry and agricultural, in the soils today have become sterile, while recovering and conserving the biodiversity.
(4ª Conferencia Internacional sobre las Ciencias de la Tierra y el Cambio Climático)
Alicante (Spagna), 16÷18 de Junio de 2015
Durante las últimas tres décadas se ha hablado mucho, en todos los niveles, del problema del cambio climático, y la medida en la que esto se debe a factores naturales y/o antrópico.
Más allá de esto, que, sin embargo, es una cuestión importante y a que se podría responder aun suponiendo un concurso de factores tanto natural como artificial, es tener en cuenta que el clima de nuestro Planeta, incluso en tiempos históricos, ha sufrido muchos significativo y algunas veces repentinos cambios, aún cuando no haya sido posible atribuyen a estos una competencia importante de las actividades humanas.
Sin embargo, un hecho nuevo con respecto a los últimos siglos, y muy importante, es que el cambio en curso podría tener un impacto mucho mayor que antes sobre la Humanidad. Por ejemplo, cuando los océanos aumentarán en el nivel, no van a ser los más afectados por esto unos cuantos millones de personas que viven en ciudades costeras pequeñas o medianas, sino miles de millones, y su migración hacia las zonas más internas de los continentes aparecería como un éxodo sin precedentes en la historia de la Humanidad. Otro ejemplo, es que los cambios en el clima están cambiando no sólo la productividad agrícola en muchas regiones del Planeta, sino también el valor nutricional de algunas especies cultivadas: en los últimos tiempos se ha puesto de relieve una caída significativa del poder nutricional del arroz coltivanto en el Lejano Oriente, lo que podría dar lugar a un déficit nutricional grave para dos mil millones de personas.
Por supuesto, es necesario proporcionar a que la componente antropogénica del cambio climático causado por la introducción de gases de efecto invernadero en la atmósfera se limita al mínimo; pero hay otros factores importantes de origen antropogénico, que deben ser comprobadas. Entre ellas se encuentra la modificación de la situación de la cobertura de los suelos.
En el mundo, especialmente en los últimos siglos, una parte importante de la cobertura forestal ha sido destruida para dar paso a los cultivos. Con el tiempo, este tipo de suelos cultivados - sobre todo en los últimos 50 años como resultado de las técnicas de agricultura intensiva - se han agotado; otros han sido afectados por los fenómenos de contaminación para las actividades industriales u otro.
Una parte de los suelos ha sufrido un proceso de desertificación, aunque muchas zonas desérticas han comenzado a expandirse, presumiblemente por factores naturales, en la antigüedad, como es el caso del desierto del norte de África y el árabe.
En la actualidad, por lo tanto, en el mundo tenemos vastas zonas desertificadas o cuya fertilidad se redujo drásticamente.
Alicante (Spain), June 16÷18, 2015
Over the past three decades there has been much talked about, at all levels, the problem of climate change, and the extent to which it is due to natural and/or anthropogenic factors.
Beyond this, however, it is an important question and that is could answer even assuming a competition to both natural and artificial factors, is to keep in mind that the climate of our Planet, even in historical times, it has undergone many significant and sometimes sudden changes, even when it was not possible to attribute to them an important competition of human activities.
However a new fact with respect to the past centuries, and very important, is that the change currently underway on Humanity could have a much greater impact than in the past. For example, when the oceans will increase in level, will not be the most affected by this few million people living in small or medium-sized coastal towns, but billions, and their migration towards more internal areas of the continents would appear as an exodus unprecedented in history of Humanity. Another example, is that changes in climate are changing not only the agricultural productivity in many regions of the Planet, but also the nutritional value of some cultivated species: in recent times has been highlighted a significant fall in nutritional power of rice cultived in the Far East, which could result in a serious nutritional deficit to two billion people.
It is of course necessary to provide for the anthropogenic component of climate change caused by the introduction of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is limited to a minimum; but there are other important factors of anthropogenic origin, which should be checked. Among these is the modification of the status of land cover.
In the world, especially in the last centuries, a major share of the forest cover has been destroyed to make way for crops. Over time, such soils cultivated - especially in the last 50 years as a result of intensive farming techniques - have been depleted; others have been affected by phenomena of contamination for industrial activities or other.
A part of the land has undergone a process of desertification, although many desert areas have begun to expand, presumably natural factors, in ancient times, as is the case of the North African and Arabic desert.
Currently, therefore, in the world we have vast desertified areas or whose fertility is drastically decreased.
(SLIDES)
Alicante (Spain), June 16÷18, 2015
Over the past three decades there has been much talked about, at all levels, the problem of climate change, and the extent to which it is due to natural and/or anthropogenic factors.
Beyond this, however, it is an important question and that is could answer even assuming a competition to both natural and artificial factors, is to keep in mind that the climate of our Planet, even in historical times, it has undergone many significant and sometimes sudden changes, even when it was not possible to attribute to them an important competition of human activities.
However a new fact with respect to the past centuries, and very important, is that the change currently underway on Humanity could have a much greater impact than in the past. For example, when the oceans will increase in level, will not be the most affected by this few million people living in small or medium-sized coastal towns, but billions, and their migration towards more internal areas of the continents would appear as an exodus unprecedented in history of Humanity. Another example, is that changes in climate are changing not only the agricultural productivity in many regions of the Planet, but also the nutritional value of some cultivated species: in recent times has been highlighted a significant fall in nutritional power of rice cultived in the Far East, which could result in a serious nutritional deficit to two billion people.
It is of course necessary to provide for the anthropogenic component of climate change caused by the introduction of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is limited to a minimum; but there are other important factors of anthropogenic origin, which should be checked. Among these is the modification of the status of land cover.
In the world, especially in the last centuries, a major share of the forest cover has been destroyed to make way for crops. Over time, such soils cultivated - especially in the last 50 years as a result of intensive farming techniques - have been depleted; others have been affected by phenomena of contamination for industrial activities or other.
A part of the land has undergone a process of desertification, although many desert areas have begun to expand, presumably natural factors, in ancient times, as is the case of the North African and Arabic desert.
Currently, therefore, in the world we have vast desertified areas or whose fertility is drastically decreased.
Alicante (Spagna), 16÷18 giugno 2015
Negli ultimi tre decenni si è molto parlato, a tutti i livelli, del problema del cambiamento climatico, e della misura in cui esso sia dovuto a fattori naturali e/o antropici.
Al di là di questo, che comunque è un quesito importante ed a cui si potrebbe rispondere anche ipotizzando una concorrenza di fattori naturali ed artificiali, è da tenere presente che il clima del nostro Pianeta, anche in epoche storiche, ha subito molti notevoli e talvolta repentini cambiamenti, anche quando non era possibile attribuire ad essi un concorso importante delle attività umane.
Tuttavia un fatto nuovo rispetto ai secoli passati, e molto importante, è che il cambiamento attualmente in atto potrebbe avere sull'Umanità un impatto assai maggiore che in precedenza. Ad esempio, quando gli oceani aumenteranno di livello, non saranno piú interessati da questo pochi milioni di persone residenti in piccoli o medi centri costieri, ma miliardi, ed una loro migrazione verso zone piú interne dei continenti si configurerebbe come un esodo senza precedenti nella storia dell'Umanità. Un altro esempio, è che i cambiamenti climatici in atto stanno modificando non solo la produttività agricola di molte regioni del Pianeta, ma anche il potere nutrizionale di alcune specie coltivate: in tempi recenti è stata messa in evidenza una caduta rilevante del potere nutrizionale del riso coltivanto in Estremo Oriente, che potrebbe tradursi in un grave deficit nutrizionale per due miliardi di persone.
É naturalmente necessario provvedere affinchè la componente antropica del cambio climatico derivante dall'immissione di gas serra nell'atmosfera sia contenuta al minimo; ma vi sono altri fattori importanti di origine antropica, che vanno controllati. Tra questi vi è la modificazione dello stato di copertura dei suoli.
Nel mondo, soprattutto negli ultimi secoli, una quota importante della copertura forestale è stata distrutta per fare il posto alle colture. Nel tempo, tali suoli coltivati – soprattutto negli ultimi 50 anni per effetto delle tecniche colturali intensive – si sono esauriti; altri sono stati colpiti da fenomeni di contaminazione per attività industriali od altro.
Un parte dei suoli è andata incontro a processi di desertificazione, anche se molte superfici desertiche hanno cominciato ad espandersi, per fattori presumibilmente naturali, in tempi molto remoti, come è il caso del deserto nordafricano ed arabo.
Attualmente, pertanto, nel mondo abbiamo vaste aree desertificate o la cui fertilità è drasticamente diminuita.