Forty-four elementary grade teachers of deaf and hard of hearing students were surveyed about how... more Forty-four elementary grade teachers of deaf and hard of hearing students were surveyed about how they taught writing and their beliefs about writing. Beliefs about writing included their self-efficacy to teach writing, attitude toward writing, and epistemological beliefs about writing. These teachers from fifteen different states in the United States slightly agreed that they were efficacious writing teachers and they were slightly positive about their writing. They slightly agreed that learning to write involves effort and process, moderately disagreed that writing development is innate or fixed, slightly disagreed that knowledge about writing is certain, and were equally split about whether writing knowledge comes from authorities and experts. On average, teachers applied the twenty-two instructional writing practices surveyed at least once a month. They reported their students wrote weekly, and their writing was supported through goal setting, feedback, and prewriting activities...
Writing is perhaps the most powerful and overlooked tool for improving reading proficiency for al... more Writing is perhaps the most powerful and overlooked tool for improving reading proficiency for all students, and reading can enhance students’ writing as well. Moreover, the mechanisms by which writing may improve reading and reading improves writing are of particular importance for deaf and hard-of-hearing learners. This chapter details the theoretical and practical implications of reading–writing reciprocity and discusses the ways in which the development of each is both mutually sustaining and enriching. The chapter begins by presenting the theoretical and empirical evidence supporting reading–writing connections in curricula and instruction. This includes considering the connections reading and writing share with language. Then, the chapter discusses the importance of reading–writing connections given the unique language histories of deaf and hard-of-hearing learners, and the contemporary contexts of deaf education.
This chapter summarizes the major trends that run through the chapters of the Oxford Handbook on ... more This chapter summarizes the major trends that run through the chapters of the Oxford Handbook on Deaf Studies in Literacy and contextualizes suggestions for where researchers and education professionals should turn their attention. Three clear trends emerged in the curating of the chapters. First, we have made notable progress in our understanding of the literacy process, but many aspects of literacy were left behind. This must be rectified. Second, it is time for a renewed focus on stronger, more robust research that takes the field beyond simple correlations to explanations of causation. These should elucidate the remaining pieces needed to understand fully the components of the literacy process. Third, research and practice must cease working in silos. Significant collaboration between the university and the classroom must become the norm. Finally, information for the purpose of information should no longer be the purpose of research. Rather, collaborative researchers must focus on the development of classroom and home interventions that will improve literacy outcomes for deaf and hard-of-hearing learners.
Writing is perhaps the most powerful and overlooked tool for improving reading proficiency for al... more Writing is perhaps the most powerful and overlooked tool for improving reading proficiency for all students, and reading can enhance students’ writing as well. Moreover, the mechanisms by which writing may improve reading and reading improves writing are of particular importance for deaf and hard-of-hearing learners. This chapter details the theoretical and practical implications of reading–writing reciprocity and discusses the ways in which the development of each is both mutually sustaining and enriching. The chapter begins by presenting the theoretical and empirical evidence supporting reading–writing connections in curricula and instruction. This includes considering the connections reading and writing share with language. Then, the chapter discusses the importance of reading–writing connections given the unique language histories of deaf and hard-of-hearing learners, and the contemporary contexts of deaf education.
Strategic and Interactive Writing Instruction (SIWI) involves teaching cognitive writing strategi... more Strategic and Interactive Writing Instruction (SIWI) involves teaching cognitive writing strategies and apprenticing novices within collaborative writing communities. It is responsive to deaf students' diverse language experiences through embedded metalinguistic/linguistic components. A randomized controlled trial of SIWI was conducted with 15 teachers and 79 students in grades 3-5. Recount, information report, and persuasive genres were taught across three 9-week periods. Writing samples analyzed for writing traits, language clarity, and language complexity were collected prior to instruction for the genre, immediately following, and 9 weeks after withdrawal of instruction for the genre. Standardized writing measures and motivation surveys were collected at the beginning and end of the academic year. Genre-specific writing outcomes were statistically significant for recount and information report writing, with substantial effect sizes for treatment and maintenance. Standardized...
Research Anthology on Physical and Intellectual Disabilities in an Inclusive Society
In this chapter, the authors explore the practice of inclusion as it relates to the education of ... more In this chapter, the authors explore the practice of inclusion as it relates to the education of deaf and hard of hearing (d/hh) students. Using the current situation in Jamaica as a microcosm, it is argued that for this specific population of students it may be necessary to reframe and redefine the notion of inclusion more broadly. For example, the authors argue that as a result of the specific cultural, linguistic, and academic needs of d/hh students, a more traditional approach to inclusion may in fact result in isolation and less access to content and skills. Inclusion that considers how deaf education classrooms may include accessible language, the Deaf community, families of d/hh children, and Deaf role models may be more appropriate for this population.
This study examined the print exposure of teacher candidates (N = 195) in relation to their GPAs,... more This study examined the print exposure of teacher candidates (N = 195) in relation to their GPAs, achievement in reading and writing on the SAT, and their self-ratings of their own early (K to Grade 5) reading experiences. Participants came from undergraduate and Masters programs in varied certification areas and from two different universities. Print exposure measures included author recognition tests for both fiction and nonfiction; a questionnaire about participants’ current voluntary reading habits for books, magazines, newspapers, and digital print media; and favorite authors/books questions. Exploratory factor analysis suggested four factors underlying the different print exposure measures: (1) fiction book reading volume; (2) current magazine and newspaper reading; (3) nonfiction book reading volume and (4) current book reading habits for enjoyment. Only fiction and nonfiction book reading volume related positively to participants’ achievement, in writing as well as reading, and to their early reading experience ratings. A subgroup of participants who had taken a specific reading methods course involving structured language content, and who had positive early reading experience self-ratings, had higher performance in the course than did participants with mixed or negative self-ratings, although the two groups did not differ in overall GPA. Findings support the view that different measures of print exposure tap somewhat different aspects of print exposure, with differing relationships to varied indicators of achievement. Results also support concerns about the reading volume and print exposure of some teacher candidates.
Given general trends in extant research on the impact of prekindergarten and that the structure a... more Given general trends in extant research on the impact of prekindergarten and that the structure and implementation of prekindergarten programs vary by state, researchers, educators, and policymakers are raising questions about what works, for whom, under what conditions, and the cost-benefit of such endeavors. Yet not all states have formally examined program impacts and few datasets have been expressly collected to evaluate effects. The current data article represents empirical examinations in the state of Connecticut on the comparability of treatment and control groups, tests of the robustness of impact estimates, and the psychometric properties of outcome measures. Stata code for replication purposes is included.
This study explores the impact of Strategic and Interactive Writing Instruction (SIWI) on six stu... more This study explores the impact of Strategic and Interactive Writing Instruction (SIWI) on six students’ written language skills through the application of a multiple-baseline probe single case design with embedded condition. This was part of a larger Institute of Education Sciences (IES)-funded project focused on the development and feasibility of implementation of SIWI. For the majority of skills analyzed, there were improvements in the mean level of performance with the implementation of SIWI, as well as more consistent responding and positive trends in the data. The study also revealed that teachers are in need of additional tools to aid the systematic identification and tracking of syntax skills in children’s written language development, and to distinguish these from other writing skills such as conventions or handwriting.
ABSTRACT The purpose of this study was to investigate how content area teachers of the deaf integ... more ABSTRACT The purpose of this study was to investigate how content area teachers of the deaf integrate writing instruction, and factors that impact content area writing practices. Integrating writing into the disciplines is currently emphasized in order to support literacy and content learning. Teachers of the deaf (N = 134) responded to a national survey that included the following categories of questions: content area writing practices; classroom environment and resources; diverse learners; and teachers’ beliefs. Even though the majority of teachers believed writing to be important for success in their disciplines and feasible to integrate into their classrooms, they reported that teaching students with delayed expressive and receptive language, diverse reading levels, and limited knowledge of academic language presented challenges. Content area teachers of the deaf could benefit from professional development focused on the integration of guided writing practices that offer greater language and literacy support for deaf and hard of hearing students.
The purpose of this study was to examine the written phrasal constructs and grammar usage of deaf... more The purpose of this study was to examine the written phrasal constructs and grammar usage of deaf and hard of hearing students with varying expressive language skills. Twenty-nine d/hh middle school students attending a residential school for the deaf were divided into three language groups: students using spoken English, ASL/English bilinguals, and language delayed learners. Personal narrative writing samples were collected at the beginning, middle, and end of the academic year. The samples were divided into T-units and coded for language variables, including word efficiency ratio (WER) scores according to the Structural Analysis of Written Language (SAWL) and phrasal errors. The repeated measures ANOVA for WER III showed a statistically significant main effect with no between-subjects factor, demonstrating that students from all three language groups made positive gains in their written outcomes over one academic year. There was a reduction in phrasal errors over the course of the...
Interactive Writing (IW) is a powerful support for language and literacy development; however, it... more Interactive Writing (IW) is a powerful support for language and literacy development; however, its emphasis on using oral language to construct written language can present challenges for deaf/Deaf and hard of hearing (d/Dhh) students due to their unique and diverse language experiences. Teachers (n = 14) using Strategic and Interactive Writing Instruction (SIWI) with grade 3–5 d/Dhh students in a variety of settings were observed using a space referred to as ‘the language zone’ to address the unique language and literacy needs of d/Dhh students. The language zone is the designated space in a classroom where the creation, translation and revision of ideas is made visible. Researchers developed a flowchart with three tiers to document the three purposes for which the teachers use the space. Accompanying scenarios provide concrete examples of three distinct ways in which the language zone can be used. Teachers can use this language zone flow chart as a tool to recognize, analyze and select instructional moves that have the potential to positively impact the language and literacy proficiencies of d/Dhh students.
This article explores the available research literature on language development and language inte... more This article explores the available research literature on language development and language interventions among deaf and hard of hearing (d/hh) children. This literature is divided into two broad categories: Research on natural languages (specifically American Sign Language and spoken English) and research on communication systems (specifically iterations of signed English and cued speech). These bodies of literature are summarized, with special attention paid to intervention research and research exploring the impacts of language skills on literacy development. Findings indicate that there is generally a stronger research base on natural languages as compared to communication systems, though more studies in both categories are necessary. Additionally, there are very few intervention studies and even fewer that aim to intervene upon language with the explicit goal of impacting literacy; therefore, there is little known about whether and how interventions that aim to support languag...
Forty-four elementary grade teachers of deaf and hard of hearing students were surveyed about how... more Forty-four elementary grade teachers of deaf and hard of hearing students were surveyed about how they taught writing and their beliefs about writing. Beliefs about writing included their self-efficacy to teach writing, attitude toward writing, and epistemological beliefs about writing. These teachers from fifteen different states in the United States slightly agreed that they were efficacious writing teachers and they were slightly positive about their writing. They slightly agreed that learning to write involves effort and process, moderately disagreed that writing development is innate or fixed, slightly disagreed that knowledge about writing is certain, and were equally split about whether writing knowledge comes from authorities and experts. On average, teachers applied the twenty-two instructional writing practices surveyed at least once a month. They reported their students wrote weekly, and their writing was supported through goal setting, feedback, and prewriting activities...
Writing is perhaps the most powerful and overlooked tool for improving reading proficiency for al... more Writing is perhaps the most powerful and overlooked tool for improving reading proficiency for all students, and reading can enhance students’ writing as well. Moreover, the mechanisms by which writing may improve reading and reading improves writing are of particular importance for deaf and hard-of-hearing learners. This chapter details the theoretical and practical implications of reading–writing reciprocity and discusses the ways in which the development of each is both mutually sustaining and enriching. The chapter begins by presenting the theoretical and empirical evidence supporting reading–writing connections in curricula and instruction. This includes considering the connections reading and writing share with language. Then, the chapter discusses the importance of reading–writing connections given the unique language histories of deaf and hard-of-hearing learners, and the contemporary contexts of deaf education.
This chapter summarizes the major trends that run through the chapters of the Oxford Handbook on ... more This chapter summarizes the major trends that run through the chapters of the Oxford Handbook on Deaf Studies in Literacy and contextualizes suggestions for where researchers and education professionals should turn their attention. Three clear trends emerged in the curating of the chapters. First, we have made notable progress in our understanding of the literacy process, but many aspects of literacy were left behind. This must be rectified. Second, it is time for a renewed focus on stronger, more robust research that takes the field beyond simple correlations to explanations of causation. These should elucidate the remaining pieces needed to understand fully the components of the literacy process. Third, research and practice must cease working in silos. Significant collaboration between the university and the classroom must become the norm. Finally, information for the purpose of information should no longer be the purpose of research. Rather, collaborative researchers must focus on the development of classroom and home interventions that will improve literacy outcomes for deaf and hard-of-hearing learners.
Writing is perhaps the most powerful and overlooked tool for improving reading proficiency for al... more Writing is perhaps the most powerful and overlooked tool for improving reading proficiency for all students, and reading can enhance students’ writing as well. Moreover, the mechanisms by which writing may improve reading and reading improves writing are of particular importance for deaf and hard-of-hearing learners. This chapter details the theoretical and practical implications of reading–writing reciprocity and discusses the ways in which the development of each is both mutually sustaining and enriching. The chapter begins by presenting the theoretical and empirical evidence supporting reading–writing connections in curricula and instruction. This includes considering the connections reading and writing share with language. Then, the chapter discusses the importance of reading–writing connections given the unique language histories of deaf and hard-of-hearing learners, and the contemporary contexts of deaf education.
Strategic and Interactive Writing Instruction (SIWI) involves teaching cognitive writing strategi... more Strategic and Interactive Writing Instruction (SIWI) involves teaching cognitive writing strategies and apprenticing novices within collaborative writing communities. It is responsive to deaf students' diverse language experiences through embedded metalinguistic/linguistic components. A randomized controlled trial of SIWI was conducted with 15 teachers and 79 students in grades 3-5. Recount, information report, and persuasive genres were taught across three 9-week periods. Writing samples analyzed for writing traits, language clarity, and language complexity were collected prior to instruction for the genre, immediately following, and 9 weeks after withdrawal of instruction for the genre. Standardized writing measures and motivation surveys were collected at the beginning and end of the academic year. Genre-specific writing outcomes were statistically significant for recount and information report writing, with substantial effect sizes for treatment and maintenance. Standardized...
Research Anthology on Physical and Intellectual Disabilities in an Inclusive Society
In this chapter, the authors explore the practice of inclusion as it relates to the education of ... more In this chapter, the authors explore the practice of inclusion as it relates to the education of deaf and hard of hearing (d/hh) students. Using the current situation in Jamaica as a microcosm, it is argued that for this specific population of students it may be necessary to reframe and redefine the notion of inclusion more broadly. For example, the authors argue that as a result of the specific cultural, linguistic, and academic needs of d/hh students, a more traditional approach to inclusion may in fact result in isolation and less access to content and skills. Inclusion that considers how deaf education classrooms may include accessible language, the Deaf community, families of d/hh children, and Deaf role models may be more appropriate for this population.
This study examined the print exposure of teacher candidates (N = 195) in relation to their GPAs,... more This study examined the print exposure of teacher candidates (N = 195) in relation to their GPAs, achievement in reading and writing on the SAT, and their self-ratings of their own early (K to Grade 5) reading experiences. Participants came from undergraduate and Masters programs in varied certification areas and from two different universities. Print exposure measures included author recognition tests for both fiction and nonfiction; a questionnaire about participants’ current voluntary reading habits for books, magazines, newspapers, and digital print media; and favorite authors/books questions. Exploratory factor analysis suggested four factors underlying the different print exposure measures: (1) fiction book reading volume; (2) current magazine and newspaper reading; (3) nonfiction book reading volume and (4) current book reading habits for enjoyment. Only fiction and nonfiction book reading volume related positively to participants’ achievement, in writing as well as reading, and to their early reading experience ratings. A subgroup of participants who had taken a specific reading methods course involving structured language content, and who had positive early reading experience self-ratings, had higher performance in the course than did participants with mixed or negative self-ratings, although the two groups did not differ in overall GPA. Findings support the view that different measures of print exposure tap somewhat different aspects of print exposure, with differing relationships to varied indicators of achievement. Results also support concerns about the reading volume and print exposure of some teacher candidates.
Given general trends in extant research on the impact of prekindergarten and that the structure a... more Given general trends in extant research on the impact of prekindergarten and that the structure and implementation of prekindergarten programs vary by state, researchers, educators, and policymakers are raising questions about what works, for whom, under what conditions, and the cost-benefit of such endeavors. Yet not all states have formally examined program impacts and few datasets have been expressly collected to evaluate effects. The current data article represents empirical examinations in the state of Connecticut on the comparability of treatment and control groups, tests of the robustness of impact estimates, and the psychometric properties of outcome measures. Stata code for replication purposes is included.
This study explores the impact of Strategic and Interactive Writing Instruction (SIWI) on six stu... more This study explores the impact of Strategic and Interactive Writing Instruction (SIWI) on six students’ written language skills through the application of a multiple-baseline probe single case design with embedded condition. This was part of a larger Institute of Education Sciences (IES)-funded project focused on the development and feasibility of implementation of SIWI. For the majority of skills analyzed, there were improvements in the mean level of performance with the implementation of SIWI, as well as more consistent responding and positive trends in the data. The study also revealed that teachers are in need of additional tools to aid the systematic identification and tracking of syntax skills in children’s written language development, and to distinguish these from other writing skills such as conventions or handwriting.
ABSTRACT The purpose of this study was to investigate how content area teachers of the deaf integ... more ABSTRACT The purpose of this study was to investigate how content area teachers of the deaf integrate writing instruction, and factors that impact content area writing practices. Integrating writing into the disciplines is currently emphasized in order to support literacy and content learning. Teachers of the deaf (N = 134) responded to a national survey that included the following categories of questions: content area writing practices; classroom environment and resources; diverse learners; and teachers’ beliefs. Even though the majority of teachers believed writing to be important for success in their disciplines and feasible to integrate into their classrooms, they reported that teaching students with delayed expressive and receptive language, diverse reading levels, and limited knowledge of academic language presented challenges. Content area teachers of the deaf could benefit from professional development focused on the integration of guided writing practices that offer greater language and literacy support for deaf and hard of hearing students.
The purpose of this study was to examine the written phrasal constructs and grammar usage of deaf... more The purpose of this study was to examine the written phrasal constructs and grammar usage of deaf and hard of hearing students with varying expressive language skills. Twenty-nine d/hh middle school students attending a residential school for the deaf were divided into three language groups: students using spoken English, ASL/English bilinguals, and language delayed learners. Personal narrative writing samples were collected at the beginning, middle, and end of the academic year. The samples were divided into T-units and coded for language variables, including word efficiency ratio (WER) scores according to the Structural Analysis of Written Language (SAWL) and phrasal errors. The repeated measures ANOVA for WER III showed a statistically significant main effect with no between-subjects factor, demonstrating that students from all three language groups made positive gains in their written outcomes over one academic year. There was a reduction in phrasal errors over the course of the...
Interactive Writing (IW) is a powerful support for language and literacy development; however, it... more Interactive Writing (IW) is a powerful support for language and literacy development; however, its emphasis on using oral language to construct written language can present challenges for deaf/Deaf and hard of hearing (d/Dhh) students due to their unique and diverse language experiences. Teachers (n = 14) using Strategic and Interactive Writing Instruction (SIWI) with grade 3–5 d/Dhh students in a variety of settings were observed using a space referred to as ‘the language zone’ to address the unique language and literacy needs of d/Dhh students. The language zone is the designated space in a classroom where the creation, translation and revision of ideas is made visible. Researchers developed a flowchart with three tiers to document the three purposes for which the teachers use the space. Accompanying scenarios provide concrete examples of three distinct ways in which the language zone can be used. Teachers can use this language zone flow chart as a tool to recognize, analyze and select instructional moves that have the potential to positively impact the language and literacy proficiencies of d/Dhh students.
This article explores the available research literature on language development and language inte... more This article explores the available research literature on language development and language interventions among deaf and hard of hearing (d/hh) children. This literature is divided into two broad categories: Research on natural languages (specifically American Sign Language and spoken English) and research on communication systems (specifically iterations of signed English and cued speech). These bodies of literature are summarized, with special attention paid to intervention research and research exploring the impacts of language skills on literacy development. Findings indicate that there is generally a stronger research base on natural languages as compared to communication systems, though more studies in both categories are necessary. Additionally, there are very few intervention studies and even fewer that aim to intervene upon language with the explicit goal of impacting literacy; therefore, there is little known about whether and how interventions that aim to support languag...
Purpose: Deaf students have demonstrated little literacy progress over the years. It is common ... more Purpose: Deaf students have demonstrated little literacy progress over the years. It is common for students to graduate school reading and writing at an elementary level. Specialized instruction that considers the unique language needs of the deaf such as SIWI can spur linguistic growth. The purpose of this project is to adapt SIWI—which has been effective in grades 6-8—for use with deaf students, grades 3-5. The intervention will address age-level literacy objectives and be responsive to students with diverse language needs and additional disabilities. By the conclusion of the project, SIWI curriculum, materials, and resources will be fully developed for use in the later elementary."
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