This is a book review of William C. Chittick's "Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul: The P... more This is a book review of William C. Chittick's "Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul: The Pertinence of Islamic Cosmology in the Modern World".
As we live in a world lacking in spiritual masters, the wandering soul experiences the thirst for... more As we live in a world lacking in spiritual masters, the wandering soul experiences the thirst for Unity with God more severely than ever before. Written with the aim of documenting the spiritually rich environment present during the 13 th century in the Muslim lands, the Ruh al-quds (1203-4) of Ibn Arabi moves the reader from within. Page after page, Ibn Arabi illuminates the lives led by those divinely guided people with whom he became acquainted and received spiritual guidance from during his lifetime. Recorded in the form of anecdotes, each entry presents the reader with an embodiment of the ideal Muslim. Translated by R. W. J. Austin and published under the title Sufis of Andalusia, the book that this abstract is concerned with includes not only the translation of the entirety of the Ruh al-quds but also sections from the al-Durrat al-fakhirah. Since both works were concerned with similar subjects, Austin includes only those parts from the al-Durrat al-fakhirah which do not appear in the Ruh al-quds. Between the two works, seventy one Sufi masters are taken into consideration, four of whom are women. The accounts offer insight into the everyday lives of the Sufi masters, thus detailing the practices employed by each on the Way of God. Parallel to this, Ibn Arabi reflects on the difficulties and obstacles faced by those on the spiritual path. A Sufi of high spiritual attainment himself, Ibn Arabi had gained knowledge of a mystical nature from an early age. He was well-read in the metaphysical doctrines of Sufism, cosmology, and the science of letters and numbers. Gifted with knowledge of the Real, he was also informed on the stages of the Way (tariq, tariqah). His life chronicles a profusion of divinely guided experiences, including visions, foresight, spiritual communication with the living and dead, and powers of healing. Nevertheless, regardless of his innate spiritual authority, throughout his travels Ibn Arabi sought masters.
Many people share the philosophical intuition that subjectivity underpins all conscious experienc... more Many people share the philosophical intuition that subjectivity underpins all conscious experiences. Based on this, people think their phenomenally conscious mental states have a distinctive subjective character, reflective of their respective points of view. In recent years, this intuition has found a stronghold in what Billon and Kriegel (2015) call subjectivity theories of consciousness. What all such theories share in common is their commitment to the Subjectivity Principle (SP), according to which a mental state M exhibits phenomenal consciousness only if M exhibits subjectivity (Billon & Kriegel, 2015). It follows, there is a necessary and constitutive connection between phenomenal consciousness and subjectivity. Moreover, SP takes self-awareness to be essential to having conscious experiences, whereby it is not only the case that the phenomenally conscious mental state belongs to the subject, but, more importantly, the mental state is experienced as belonging to the subject (Letheby, 2020). As such, SP provides the conceptual framework that underpins subjectivity theories of consciousness. If SP is taken to be true, then, it follows, it should be impossible to have a phenomenally conscious mental state that lacks subjectivity (Metzinger & Milliére, 2020). Nevertheless, over the past years, a number of empirical cases have surfaced, which seemingly point to the occurrence of phenomenal consciousness without subjectivity. These include cases of patients suffering from schizophrenic thought insertion, depersonalization, and somatoparaphrenia as well as people in psychedelic states, dreamless sleep, and meditation. Such events seem to pose a threat to subjectivity theories, for people that are in such alien and altered states deny that certain actions, mental states, or body parts belong to themselves (Gennaro, 2015). In other words, although the patients seem to have phenomenally conscious mental states, these states lack a subjective character, or mineness. My intention is to take a closer look at such cases in the hopes of uncovering whether they pose a real threat to subjectivity theory. Accordingly, I intend to develop a response to the question, "Is it possible for there to be phenomenal consciousness without subjectivity?" Personally, I don't think it is possible for a person to have a phenomenally conscious mental state that lacks a subjective character, for I think subjectivity is an integral and, therefore, a necessary feature of phenomenal consciousness. A number of philosophers and scientists have led a similar inquiry. In an effort to ground my position, I will refer to a range of responses that have been developed by some of these philosophers and scientists, including Billon, Kriegel, and Sebastián-all of whom make a serious effort to accommodate these cases while still defending a form of SP. As such, my aim is to show how and why these cases do not pose a real threat to subjectivity theories.
Observability and Scientific Realism The intent of a theory is to capture reality. In the case th... more Observability and Scientific Realism The intent of a theory is to capture reality. In the case that there is new phenomena, a scientist will often postulate the existence of a "theoretical entity" to explain the new phenomena. The entity is called "theoretical" because its existence cannot be directly verified through sense experience. It follows, even in the case that the entity is not observable, can its reality be sustained? Those who think the intent of a scientific theory is to offer a literally true account of reality and who, in accepting the theory, take the entity the theory postulates to be real, are realists. Conversely, those who think a scientific theory can have explanatory power without offering a literally true account and who, in accepting the theory, do not commit to the reality of the entity the theory postulates, are antirealists. The realism-antirealism debate remains to be one of the most lively and persistent in the philosophy of science tradition, with the observable-theoretical distinction being widely regarded as one of the topics most discussed. Dating back to the logical empiricist movement, the observable-theoretical distinction problematizes the relationship between observability and existence. Scientists and philosophers remain divided. Two such philosophers of science are Grover Maxwell and Bas van Fraassen. Maxwell, a staunch realist, denies the possibility of such a distinction and, thus, regards it as something insignificant. By contrast, van Fraassen defends the putative existence of such a distinction, putting great emphasis on the epistemological significance of it. Some of the questions they tackle include, "Can we classify entities into observable and unobservable entities?", "If such a line can be drawn between observables and unobservables, does it have any bearing on the existence of the entity?", and "In what ways does this proposed distinction have significance as regards the status of a theory?" During the course of this paper, I will discuss the general attitudes Grover Maxwell and Bas van Fraassen adopt with reference to the observable-theoretical distinction, highlighting the responses they develop to the above mentioned questions and how these responses inform their respective positions in the realism-antirealism debate. Finally, I will discuss my own position, for although I think such a distinction does exist, I do not think reality is limited to the observable.
Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit (published in 1807) traces the different stages of consciousness ... more Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit (published in 1807) traces the different stages of consciousness up to absolute knowing. Here, absolute knowing does not refer to knowledge of everything, but, rather, to knowledge of the world as it is (i.e. reality). Interestingly, during the course of the Phenomenology, Hegel does not draw a distinction between absolute knowing and self-knowledge. Instead, he states that one can know reality only by knowing oneself. This has significant epistemological implications, for it allows for the gap between the knower and the known to be overcome. On this point, Hegel further states that one must be conscious of oneself to know oneself. Hence, Hegel identifies self-consciousness as a prerequisite for self-knowledge. Chapter IV of the Phenomenology, which is devoted to the stage of self-consciousness, offers valuable insight into the conditions of its successful realization. Additionally, it is in this chapter that Hegel introduces the famous concept of 'recognition'. Here, he identifies recognition by another self as the condition for self-certainty. This points to the sociality of self. In an effort to highlight the sense of mutual dependency, Hegel gives the example of the Lord and the Bondsman. Although the example has allowed later thinkers to delve into the social and political implications of the concept of 'recognition', it has taken away from the original purpose of this concept: the achievement of self-consciousness. Not many thinkers have written on the unity of self with itself, as realized in self-consciousness. Thus, the purpose of this paper is to further clarify the above developed chain of relations; from recognition, self-consciousness, self-knowledge, to absolute knowing. In doing so, it intends to highlight the centrality of the self, both in relation to the concept of 'recognition' and in relation to the attainment of knowledge.
In their article titled, "Remodelling Structural Realism: Quantum Physics and the Metaphysics of ... more In their article titled, "Remodelling Structural Realism: Quantum Physics and the Metaphysics of Structure", French and Ladyman develop and defend a version of ontic structural realism (OSR), namely radical structural realism. Their motive is to respond to a central concern raised by anti-realists as regards the ontological discontinuity that is observed between scientific theories. In defending radical structural realism, French and Ladyman give ontological precedence to structures over objects. It is for this reason that French and Ladyman are linked to the phrase "there are only relations [structures] and no relata [objects]". Although I think they are successful in their attempt to provide a continuous ontology, I think it is debatable how successful they are in responding to the question, "How can there be relations without relata?" As such, the present study is devoted, first, to considering French and Ladyman's position within the context of the realism-antirealism debate and, second, to assessing whether they are successful in responding to the above stated question. Although I think they provide a partial answer, I think, for one who is not committed to a conception of objects as structural, the question remains unanswered.
The present study is on the Stoic notion of happiness as a mental attitude. The objective of the ... more The present study is on the Stoic notion of happiness as a mental attitude. The objective of the paper is threefold. First, it is to offer a more in-depth discussion on the two most common definitions of happiness: as a feeling and as a state/condition. Here, an affect theory of happiness will also be considered, as a theory that offers a possible reconciliation between these two definitions. In this regard, the following question will be posed: “What if one’s expectations as regards the affective value of an object are not met?” Second, it is to consider the Stoic notion of happiness, as emotional detachment, as a possible response to the problems that arise from the above question. Here, I will provide a study of the three main principles that I think best capture the Stoic approach to a happy life, those being (1) accepting events as the will of nature, (2) disntinguishing between those things within our control and those things outside of our control, and (3) seeing that even if what happens is not within our control, how we respond is within our control. I will make reference to the Enchiridion of Epictetus and the Meditations of Marcus Aurelius to support these three principles. Third, it is to apply these three principles to the movie The Shawshank Redemption in order to inquire into the relevance and success of the Stoic approach to a happy life. The movie chronicles Andy Dufresne’s road to happiness and freedom. Although he has been wrongly convicted for the murder of his wife and her lover, instead of leading a hopeless and miserable life, Andy chooses to accept his present situation and take action on those aspects of his life that he can impact. Ultimately, through his sheer determination and will power, he carves his way out of the prison. It is through this example that I will argue for the feasibility and usefulness of Stoic philosophy.
The present study is on the consistency of Machiavelli’s thinking in The Prince and the Discourse... more The present study is on the consistency of Machiavelli’s thinking in The Prince and the Discourses on Livy. The general opinion has been that they hold contradictory positions, with The Prince favoring a principality and the Discourses favoring a republic. This has further resulted in many casting doubt on the coherence of Machiavelli (1469-1527 CE), as a political theoretician. The purpose of this paper is to bring greater clarity to the contents of these two works, thereby showing their compatibility. Consequently, the paper aims to defend the coherence of Machiavelli’s thinking. The paper intends to achieve these ends by first, offering a review of the political situation of the period as regards the development of princely rule and republicanism, then, placed within this historical context, considering the different interpretations that can be brought to better understand the relationship between the two works, and, finally, taking a closer look at the theories developed in both works.
Kadın ve Trajik Suç Giriş: Trajedi milattan önce altıncı yüzyılda Grekler tarafından icat edildi.... more Kadın ve Trajik Suç Giriş: Trajedi milattan önce altıncı yüzyılda Grekler tarafından icat edildi. Önceleri dini bir eylem olan şiir söyleme sanatı artık demokratik bir eylem haline gelmişti. Dinsel törenlerde okunan bu şiir türünün Grek toplumunun beraberce seyrettiği tiyatro sahnelerine taşınmış olması dönemin dinsel dönüşümüne işaret eder. Aristoteles Poetika eserinde bu yeni sanatın temel ögelerini tanımlar. Bu bağlamda, trajediyi trajedi yapan üç temel öge: baht dönüşü [peripetia], tanıma [anagronisis] ve arınmadır [catharsis]. Bu ödevde, ilk trajedinin temel ögelerini daha yakından inceleyeceğim. Sonrasında, bu kuramları gözeterek, bir klasik trajedi oyunu (Medea) ve iki modern trajedi oyunu (Hedda Gabler ve Matmazel Julie) değerlendireceğim. Oyunların trajedinin ögelerini ne derece uyarladıklarını sorup, uyarlamadıkları durumda bundan ne sonuca varmam gerektiğini soracağım. Bu uyarlamalarının başarı ya da başarısızlıklarını özellikle trajik kahramanlarının kadın olmasına ilişkin değerlendireceğim. Bu bağlamda, oyunlar arasındaki benzerlik ve farklılıklara da değineceğim. I. Bölüm: Aristoteles'in Poetika Eseri Trajedi, şiir türü olarak, taklittir [mimesis] ve her trajedi bir öyküye [mythos] dayanır. Taklitte kullanılan araçlar ve taklidin tarzı yanı sıra, taklit edilen nesnelerden söz edilebilir. Bu bağlamda, trajedi eylem halindeki insanların taklididir. Bir eylemin taklidi söz konusu olunca, eylemi yapan insanı ve böylelikle o kişinin karakter ve düşünce yapılarını değerlendirmek gerekir. Çünkü, eylemin niteliğini karakter ve düşünce belirler. Buna ilişkin, trajedi erdemli insanları taklit eder ve eylemin taklidi öyküdür. Trajedinin altı ögesinden biri olan öykü yapılan eylemlerin düzenlenişine işaret eder. Aristoteles'e göre, olayların örgüsü (yani, öykü) trajedinin en önemli ögesidir, adeta ruhudur. "Çünkü tragedya insanların değil, eylemlerin ve bir yaşamın taklididir." (Aristoteles, 2018, s. 16) Bundan ötürüdür ki eylemsiz bir trajedi olamaz ama karaktersiz bir trajedi olabilir (Aristoteles, 2018). Aynı şekilde, öykü bütünlüğünü bir kişi değil, bir eylemin taklidi üzerinden sağlar. Böylelikle, kişi ancak eylemi aracılığıyla taklit edilir.
INTERDISCIPLINARY: UNDERGRADUATE JOURNAL OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES, 2018
The present study is on an early metaphysical treatise written by Thomas Aquinas, called De Ente ... more The present study is on an early metaphysical treatise written by Thomas Aquinas, called De Ente et Essentia. The objective of the paper is threefold. First, it is to provide an explication of the three major terms used in the treatise, namely essence (essentia), being (ens), and existence (esse). Second, based on the distinction made between essence (essentia) and existence (esse) especially, it is to elaborate on the argument for a proof of
INTERDISCIPLINARY: UNDERGRADUATE JOURNAL OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES, 2018
The present study aims to inquire into the subsequent struggle between faith and reason by taking... more The present study aims to inquire into the subsequent struggle between faith and reason by taking a closer look at the dynamics that were present during the era. It hopes to bring clarity to the different positions taken in response to the advent of reason and exemplify these by making reference to the scholars of the period. Meanwhile, it aims to better define medieval philosophy, as regards its contribution to the subsequent development of modern science. In summary, by expounding upon the philosophical discourses and disputes that ensued during the Middle Ages, the study intends to shed light on the significance of this period, as regards the eventual triumph of reason. As Etienne Gilson states in the Preface to his book The Spirit of Medieval Philosophy (1940), "The spirit of medieval philosophy is the spirit of Christianity penetrating the Greek tradition, working within it, [and] drawing out of it a certain view of the world specifically Christian." (p. viii) One can have a much greater understanding of this unique Christian spirit that Gilson is referring to once it is actually placed within a historical context. With the triumph of Christianity in the late fourth century, wisdom which had previously been linked to pagan learning found its new roots in Sacred Scripture, the Bible. The emergence of such a new worldview embedded in the Christian faith symbolizes a paradigm shift; a move from a system based upon the truths presented in pagan thought to one based upon the absolute truths presented by revelation. Though the Christian faith replaced the pagan tradition, Greek sources remained an inheritance from the Roman Empire. After all, Christianity had emerged and developed within a pagan culture that was centuries old when the Roman Empire was established. Thus, in due time, two major and conflicting Christian attitudes toward that empire developed. At one end of the spectrum were those churchmen who, in pursuit of protecting the newly founded religion, sought to divorce it from the intellectual traditions of the pagan society. As such, they regarded Scripture as self-sufficient. In the words of Tertullian (c. 160-220), "With
Question: Discuss the tragedy of the American Dream in light of Gatsby's tragedy as rendered in "... more Question: Discuss the tragedy of the American Dream in light of Gatsby's tragedy as rendered in "The Great Gatsby".
This is a book review of William C. Chittick's "Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul: The P... more This is a book review of William C. Chittick's "Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul: The Pertinence of Islamic Cosmology in the Modern World".
As we live in a world lacking in spiritual masters, the wandering soul experiences the thirst for... more As we live in a world lacking in spiritual masters, the wandering soul experiences the thirst for Unity with God more severely than ever before. Written with the aim of documenting the spiritually rich environment present during the 13 th century in the Muslim lands, the Ruh al-quds (1203-4) of Ibn Arabi moves the reader from within. Page after page, Ibn Arabi illuminates the lives led by those divinely guided people with whom he became acquainted and received spiritual guidance from during his lifetime. Recorded in the form of anecdotes, each entry presents the reader with an embodiment of the ideal Muslim. Translated by R. W. J. Austin and published under the title Sufis of Andalusia, the book that this abstract is concerned with includes not only the translation of the entirety of the Ruh al-quds but also sections from the al-Durrat al-fakhirah. Since both works were concerned with similar subjects, Austin includes only those parts from the al-Durrat al-fakhirah which do not appear in the Ruh al-quds. Between the two works, seventy one Sufi masters are taken into consideration, four of whom are women. The accounts offer insight into the everyday lives of the Sufi masters, thus detailing the practices employed by each on the Way of God. Parallel to this, Ibn Arabi reflects on the difficulties and obstacles faced by those on the spiritual path. A Sufi of high spiritual attainment himself, Ibn Arabi had gained knowledge of a mystical nature from an early age. He was well-read in the metaphysical doctrines of Sufism, cosmology, and the science of letters and numbers. Gifted with knowledge of the Real, he was also informed on the stages of the Way (tariq, tariqah). His life chronicles a profusion of divinely guided experiences, including visions, foresight, spiritual communication with the living and dead, and powers of healing. Nevertheless, regardless of his innate spiritual authority, throughout his travels Ibn Arabi sought masters.
Many people share the philosophical intuition that subjectivity underpins all conscious experienc... more Many people share the philosophical intuition that subjectivity underpins all conscious experiences. Based on this, people think their phenomenally conscious mental states have a distinctive subjective character, reflective of their respective points of view. In recent years, this intuition has found a stronghold in what Billon and Kriegel (2015) call subjectivity theories of consciousness. What all such theories share in common is their commitment to the Subjectivity Principle (SP), according to which a mental state M exhibits phenomenal consciousness only if M exhibits subjectivity (Billon & Kriegel, 2015). It follows, there is a necessary and constitutive connection between phenomenal consciousness and subjectivity. Moreover, SP takes self-awareness to be essential to having conscious experiences, whereby it is not only the case that the phenomenally conscious mental state belongs to the subject, but, more importantly, the mental state is experienced as belonging to the subject (Letheby, 2020). As such, SP provides the conceptual framework that underpins subjectivity theories of consciousness. If SP is taken to be true, then, it follows, it should be impossible to have a phenomenally conscious mental state that lacks subjectivity (Metzinger & Milliére, 2020). Nevertheless, over the past years, a number of empirical cases have surfaced, which seemingly point to the occurrence of phenomenal consciousness without subjectivity. These include cases of patients suffering from schizophrenic thought insertion, depersonalization, and somatoparaphrenia as well as people in psychedelic states, dreamless sleep, and meditation. Such events seem to pose a threat to subjectivity theories, for people that are in such alien and altered states deny that certain actions, mental states, or body parts belong to themselves (Gennaro, 2015). In other words, although the patients seem to have phenomenally conscious mental states, these states lack a subjective character, or mineness. My intention is to take a closer look at such cases in the hopes of uncovering whether they pose a real threat to subjectivity theory. Accordingly, I intend to develop a response to the question, "Is it possible for there to be phenomenal consciousness without subjectivity?" Personally, I don't think it is possible for a person to have a phenomenally conscious mental state that lacks a subjective character, for I think subjectivity is an integral and, therefore, a necessary feature of phenomenal consciousness. A number of philosophers and scientists have led a similar inquiry. In an effort to ground my position, I will refer to a range of responses that have been developed by some of these philosophers and scientists, including Billon, Kriegel, and Sebastián-all of whom make a serious effort to accommodate these cases while still defending a form of SP. As such, my aim is to show how and why these cases do not pose a real threat to subjectivity theories.
Observability and Scientific Realism The intent of a theory is to capture reality. In the case th... more Observability and Scientific Realism The intent of a theory is to capture reality. In the case that there is new phenomena, a scientist will often postulate the existence of a "theoretical entity" to explain the new phenomena. The entity is called "theoretical" because its existence cannot be directly verified through sense experience. It follows, even in the case that the entity is not observable, can its reality be sustained? Those who think the intent of a scientific theory is to offer a literally true account of reality and who, in accepting the theory, take the entity the theory postulates to be real, are realists. Conversely, those who think a scientific theory can have explanatory power without offering a literally true account and who, in accepting the theory, do not commit to the reality of the entity the theory postulates, are antirealists. The realism-antirealism debate remains to be one of the most lively and persistent in the philosophy of science tradition, with the observable-theoretical distinction being widely regarded as one of the topics most discussed. Dating back to the logical empiricist movement, the observable-theoretical distinction problematizes the relationship between observability and existence. Scientists and philosophers remain divided. Two such philosophers of science are Grover Maxwell and Bas van Fraassen. Maxwell, a staunch realist, denies the possibility of such a distinction and, thus, regards it as something insignificant. By contrast, van Fraassen defends the putative existence of such a distinction, putting great emphasis on the epistemological significance of it. Some of the questions they tackle include, "Can we classify entities into observable and unobservable entities?", "If such a line can be drawn between observables and unobservables, does it have any bearing on the existence of the entity?", and "In what ways does this proposed distinction have significance as regards the status of a theory?" During the course of this paper, I will discuss the general attitudes Grover Maxwell and Bas van Fraassen adopt with reference to the observable-theoretical distinction, highlighting the responses they develop to the above mentioned questions and how these responses inform their respective positions in the realism-antirealism debate. Finally, I will discuss my own position, for although I think such a distinction does exist, I do not think reality is limited to the observable.
Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit (published in 1807) traces the different stages of consciousness ... more Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit (published in 1807) traces the different stages of consciousness up to absolute knowing. Here, absolute knowing does not refer to knowledge of everything, but, rather, to knowledge of the world as it is (i.e. reality). Interestingly, during the course of the Phenomenology, Hegel does not draw a distinction between absolute knowing and self-knowledge. Instead, he states that one can know reality only by knowing oneself. This has significant epistemological implications, for it allows for the gap between the knower and the known to be overcome. On this point, Hegel further states that one must be conscious of oneself to know oneself. Hence, Hegel identifies self-consciousness as a prerequisite for self-knowledge. Chapter IV of the Phenomenology, which is devoted to the stage of self-consciousness, offers valuable insight into the conditions of its successful realization. Additionally, it is in this chapter that Hegel introduces the famous concept of 'recognition'. Here, he identifies recognition by another self as the condition for self-certainty. This points to the sociality of self. In an effort to highlight the sense of mutual dependency, Hegel gives the example of the Lord and the Bondsman. Although the example has allowed later thinkers to delve into the social and political implications of the concept of 'recognition', it has taken away from the original purpose of this concept: the achievement of self-consciousness. Not many thinkers have written on the unity of self with itself, as realized in self-consciousness. Thus, the purpose of this paper is to further clarify the above developed chain of relations; from recognition, self-consciousness, self-knowledge, to absolute knowing. In doing so, it intends to highlight the centrality of the self, both in relation to the concept of 'recognition' and in relation to the attainment of knowledge.
In their article titled, "Remodelling Structural Realism: Quantum Physics and the Metaphysics of ... more In their article titled, "Remodelling Structural Realism: Quantum Physics and the Metaphysics of Structure", French and Ladyman develop and defend a version of ontic structural realism (OSR), namely radical structural realism. Their motive is to respond to a central concern raised by anti-realists as regards the ontological discontinuity that is observed between scientific theories. In defending radical structural realism, French and Ladyman give ontological precedence to structures over objects. It is for this reason that French and Ladyman are linked to the phrase "there are only relations [structures] and no relata [objects]". Although I think they are successful in their attempt to provide a continuous ontology, I think it is debatable how successful they are in responding to the question, "How can there be relations without relata?" As such, the present study is devoted, first, to considering French and Ladyman's position within the context of the realism-antirealism debate and, second, to assessing whether they are successful in responding to the above stated question. Although I think they provide a partial answer, I think, for one who is not committed to a conception of objects as structural, the question remains unanswered.
The present study is on the Stoic notion of happiness as a mental attitude. The objective of the ... more The present study is on the Stoic notion of happiness as a mental attitude. The objective of the paper is threefold. First, it is to offer a more in-depth discussion on the two most common definitions of happiness: as a feeling and as a state/condition. Here, an affect theory of happiness will also be considered, as a theory that offers a possible reconciliation between these two definitions. In this regard, the following question will be posed: “What if one’s expectations as regards the affective value of an object are not met?” Second, it is to consider the Stoic notion of happiness, as emotional detachment, as a possible response to the problems that arise from the above question. Here, I will provide a study of the three main principles that I think best capture the Stoic approach to a happy life, those being (1) accepting events as the will of nature, (2) disntinguishing between those things within our control and those things outside of our control, and (3) seeing that even if what happens is not within our control, how we respond is within our control. I will make reference to the Enchiridion of Epictetus and the Meditations of Marcus Aurelius to support these three principles. Third, it is to apply these three principles to the movie The Shawshank Redemption in order to inquire into the relevance and success of the Stoic approach to a happy life. The movie chronicles Andy Dufresne’s road to happiness and freedom. Although he has been wrongly convicted for the murder of his wife and her lover, instead of leading a hopeless and miserable life, Andy chooses to accept his present situation and take action on those aspects of his life that he can impact. Ultimately, through his sheer determination and will power, he carves his way out of the prison. It is through this example that I will argue for the feasibility and usefulness of Stoic philosophy.
The present study is on the consistency of Machiavelli’s thinking in The Prince and the Discourse... more The present study is on the consistency of Machiavelli’s thinking in The Prince and the Discourses on Livy. The general opinion has been that they hold contradictory positions, with The Prince favoring a principality and the Discourses favoring a republic. This has further resulted in many casting doubt on the coherence of Machiavelli (1469-1527 CE), as a political theoretician. The purpose of this paper is to bring greater clarity to the contents of these two works, thereby showing their compatibility. Consequently, the paper aims to defend the coherence of Machiavelli’s thinking. The paper intends to achieve these ends by first, offering a review of the political situation of the period as regards the development of princely rule and republicanism, then, placed within this historical context, considering the different interpretations that can be brought to better understand the relationship between the two works, and, finally, taking a closer look at the theories developed in both works.
Kadın ve Trajik Suç Giriş: Trajedi milattan önce altıncı yüzyılda Grekler tarafından icat edildi.... more Kadın ve Trajik Suç Giriş: Trajedi milattan önce altıncı yüzyılda Grekler tarafından icat edildi. Önceleri dini bir eylem olan şiir söyleme sanatı artık demokratik bir eylem haline gelmişti. Dinsel törenlerde okunan bu şiir türünün Grek toplumunun beraberce seyrettiği tiyatro sahnelerine taşınmış olması dönemin dinsel dönüşümüne işaret eder. Aristoteles Poetika eserinde bu yeni sanatın temel ögelerini tanımlar. Bu bağlamda, trajediyi trajedi yapan üç temel öge: baht dönüşü [peripetia], tanıma [anagronisis] ve arınmadır [catharsis]. Bu ödevde, ilk trajedinin temel ögelerini daha yakından inceleyeceğim. Sonrasında, bu kuramları gözeterek, bir klasik trajedi oyunu (Medea) ve iki modern trajedi oyunu (Hedda Gabler ve Matmazel Julie) değerlendireceğim. Oyunların trajedinin ögelerini ne derece uyarladıklarını sorup, uyarlamadıkları durumda bundan ne sonuca varmam gerektiğini soracağım. Bu uyarlamalarının başarı ya da başarısızlıklarını özellikle trajik kahramanlarının kadın olmasına ilişkin değerlendireceğim. Bu bağlamda, oyunlar arasındaki benzerlik ve farklılıklara da değineceğim. I. Bölüm: Aristoteles'in Poetika Eseri Trajedi, şiir türü olarak, taklittir [mimesis] ve her trajedi bir öyküye [mythos] dayanır. Taklitte kullanılan araçlar ve taklidin tarzı yanı sıra, taklit edilen nesnelerden söz edilebilir. Bu bağlamda, trajedi eylem halindeki insanların taklididir. Bir eylemin taklidi söz konusu olunca, eylemi yapan insanı ve böylelikle o kişinin karakter ve düşünce yapılarını değerlendirmek gerekir. Çünkü, eylemin niteliğini karakter ve düşünce belirler. Buna ilişkin, trajedi erdemli insanları taklit eder ve eylemin taklidi öyküdür. Trajedinin altı ögesinden biri olan öykü yapılan eylemlerin düzenlenişine işaret eder. Aristoteles'e göre, olayların örgüsü (yani, öykü) trajedinin en önemli ögesidir, adeta ruhudur. "Çünkü tragedya insanların değil, eylemlerin ve bir yaşamın taklididir." (Aristoteles, 2018, s. 16) Bundan ötürüdür ki eylemsiz bir trajedi olamaz ama karaktersiz bir trajedi olabilir (Aristoteles, 2018). Aynı şekilde, öykü bütünlüğünü bir kişi değil, bir eylemin taklidi üzerinden sağlar. Böylelikle, kişi ancak eylemi aracılığıyla taklit edilir.
INTERDISCIPLINARY: UNDERGRADUATE JOURNAL OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES, 2018
The present study is on an early metaphysical treatise written by Thomas Aquinas, called De Ente ... more The present study is on an early metaphysical treatise written by Thomas Aquinas, called De Ente et Essentia. The objective of the paper is threefold. First, it is to provide an explication of the three major terms used in the treatise, namely essence (essentia), being (ens), and existence (esse). Second, based on the distinction made between essence (essentia) and existence (esse) especially, it is to elaborate on the argument for a proof of
INTERDISCIPLINARY: UNDERGRADUATE JOURNAL OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES, 2018
The present study aims to inquire into the subsequent struggle between faith and reason by taking... more The present study aims to inquire into the subsequent struggle between faith and reason by taking a closer look at the dynamics that were present during the era. It hopes to bring clarity to the different positions taken in response to the advent of reason and exemplify these by making reference to the scholars of the period. Meanwhile, it aims to better define medieval philosophy, as regards its contribution to the subsequent development of modern science. In summary, by expounding upon the philosophical discourses and disputes that ensued during the Middle Ages, the study intends to shed light on the significance of this period, as regards the eventual triumph of reason. As Etienne Gilson states in the Preface to his book The Spirit of Medieval Philosophy (1940), "The spirit of medieval philosophy is the spirit of Christianity penetrating the Greek tradition, working within it, [and] drawing out of it a certain view of the world specifically Christian." (p. viii) One can have a much greater understanding of this unique Christian spirit that Gilson is referring to once it is actually placed within a historical context. With the triumph of Christianity in the late fourth century, wisdom which had previously been linked to pagan learning found its new roots in Sacred Scripture, the Bible. The emergence of such a new worldview embedded in the Christian faith symbolizes a paradigm shift; a move from a system based upon the truths presented in pagan thought to one based upon the absolute truths presented by revelation. Though the Christian faith replaced the pagan tradition, Greek sources remained an inheritance from the Roman Empire. After all, Christianity had emerged and developed within a pagan culture that was centuries old when the Roman Empire was established. Thus, in due time, two major and conflicting Christian attitudes toward that empire developed. At one end of the spectrum were those churchmen who, in pursuit of protecting the newly founded religion, sought to divorce it from the intellectual traditions of the pagan society. As such, they regarded Scripture as self-sufficient. In the words of Tertullian (c. 160-220), "With
Question: Discuss the tragedy of the American Dream in light of Gatsby's tragedy as rendered in "... more Question: Discuss the tragedy of the American Dream in light of Gatsby's tragedy as rendered in "The Great Gatsby".
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Keywords: happiness, mental state, affect theory, Stoicism, mental attitude
The paper intends to achieve these ends by first, offering a review of the political situation of the period as regards the development of princely rule and republicanism, then, placed within this historical context, considering the different interpretations that can be brought to better understand the relationship between the two works, and, finally, taking a closer look at the theories developed in both works.
Keywords: happiness, mental state, affect theory, Stoicism, mental attitude
The paper intends to achieve these ends by first, offering a review of the political situation of the period as regards the development of princely rule and republicanism, then, placed within this historical context, considering the different interpretations that can be brought to better understand the relationship between the two works, and, finally, taking a closer look at the theories developed in both works.