Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Asian History, Oct 29, 2021
Perennial interest of the nomads in exchange and trade is known, but the transition from exchange... more Perennial interest of the nomads in exchange and trade is known, but the transition from exchange to trade is not so well known. Exchange is a kind of barter, while trade entails traders and profits. Though both continued in war and peace, records are scarce for peacetime. Wartime activities are well documented and make it clear that once the transition from exchange to trade was accomplished, war and conquest facilitated the expansion of networks. Expansion, opening up new routes, and maintenance of the old were accomplished by conquest along these routes. The roads needed to be connected to provide safety, eliminate anxiety, and establish an environment of trust for commercial transactions. Muslim merchants were the active participants of these new commercial ventures, which had the protection of Chinggis Khan’s army of conquest. However, in building the empire, Chinggis Khan would first resort to a conciliatory attitude before taking any military measures. Trade and trade routes were the main arteries of the Mongol Empire. These networks were the agreement points among all contenders of power, merchants, warriors, and the commanding members of the ruling dynasty. It was this agreement on the importance of trade that secured the endurance of the empire.
Metin tespitinde olaylarin genel gidisatini degisik kaynaklardan ve bu konuda yapilan arastirmala... more Metin tespitinde olaylarin genel gidisatini degisik kaynaklardan ve bu konuda yapilan arastirmalardan yararlanarak ele almak ve ayni zamanda Cin'deki tarihcilik geleneginin yontemlerini de goz onunde bulundurmak gerekmektedir.
... Hence not their 'short' duration, which was considered axiomatic, but their... more ... Hence not their 'short' duration, which was considered axiomatic, but their emergence has been of interest for scholars. ... solidarity based on tribal kinship or urban networks was crucial here. ... (3) Areas Adjacent to Trade Routes These areas include those colonised by tribal ...
The term “tribute” had a strong presence in Western literature on China, as a result of Sino-Euro... more The term “tribute” had a strong presence in Western literature on China, as a result of Sino-European encounters in the eighteenth to nineteenth centuries. In these studies tribute was examined from the China angle. When views of the neighboring peoples are taken into consideration, it becomes evident that the smaller states in Inner Asia had not adopted the notion of China. A comparison with the practices of the Ottoman empire reveals that they also were using a strategy similar China. The paper suggests examining the practices of the smaller states in their own terms rather than in the shadow of the larger states.
In general Chinggis Khan is evaluated in terms of the campaigns and conquests he carried out on t... more In general Chinggis Khan is evaluated in terms of the campaigns and conquests he carried out on the cities and states of Central Asia and China. Here in this study the focus is on his impact on nomadic societies. While the pre-Chinggisid period is characterized by nomadic clans, tribes and principalities, the new order (jasagh) entailed membership in the army of conquest. It was not only changes in the composition of the society that these changes are visible, but also in patterns of succession. In their effort to legitimize the new order, historians of the period used old-time emotional verses in their records implying a continuity. Retrospectively it can be said that all of these developments changed Inner Asia from a society where intra-tribal strife, migrations, invasions and conquests had been the rule, to more or less homogenous “tribes” who became involved in social and religious literature, historiography thus leaving records of their culture for the posterity.
This paper presents the content of this thematic issue of Diogenes on Asian studies in Turkey. It... more This paper presents the content of this thematic issue of Diogenes on Asian studies in Turkey. It explains the origins of this set of papers in light of relevant scholarship, relates it to current academic work in the field, and provides a rationale for issuing a volume on Asian scholarship in Turkey.
The term “tribute” had a strong presence in Western literature on China, as a result of Sino-Euro... more The term “tribute” had a strong presence in Western literature on China, as a result of Sino-European encounters in the eighteenth to nineteenth centuries. In these studies tribute was examined from the China angle. When views of the neighboring peoples are taken into consideration, it becomes evident that the smaller states in Inner Asia had not adopted the notion of China. A comparison with the practices of the Ottoman empire reveals that they also were using a strategy similar China. The paper suggests examining the practices of the smaller states in their own terms rather than in the shadow of the larger states.
Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Asian History, Oct 29, 2021
Perennial interest of the nomads in exchange and trade is known, but the transition from exchange... more Perennial interest of the nomads in exchange and trade is known, but the transition from exchange to trade is not so well known. Exchange is a kind of barter, while trade entails traders and profits. Though both continued in war and peace, records are scarce for peacetime. Wartime activities are well documented and make it clear that once the transition from exchange to trade was accomplished, war and conquest facilitated the expansion of networks. Expansion, opening up new routes, and maintenance of the old were accomplished by conquest along these routes. The roads needed to be connected to provide safety, eliminate anxiety, and establish an environment of trust for commercial transactions. Muslim merchants were the active participants of these new commercial ventures, which had the protection of Chinggis Khan’s army of conquest. However, in building the empire, Chinggis Khan would first resort to a conciliatory attitude before taking any military measures. Trade and trade routes were the main arteries of the Mongol Empire. These networks were the agreement points among all contenders of power, merchants, warriors, and the commanding members of the ruling dynasty. It was this agreement on the importance of trade that secured the endurance of the empire.
Metin tespitinde olaylarin genel gidisatini degisik kaynaklardan ve bu konuda yapilan arastirmala... more Metin tespitinde olaylarin genel gidisatini degisik kaynaklardan ve bu konuda yapilan arastirmalardan yararlanarak ele almak ve ayni zamanda Cin'deki tarihcilik geleneginin yontemlerini de goz onunde bulundurmak gerekmektedir.
... Hence not their 'short' duration, which was considered axiomatic, but their... more ... Hence not their 'short' duration, which was considered axiomatic, but their emergence has been of interest for scholars. ... solidarity based on tribal kinship or urban networks was crucial here. ... (3) Areas Adjacent to Trade Routes These areas include those colonised by tribal ...
The term “tribute” had a strong presence in Western literature on China, as a result of Sino-Euro... more The term “tribute” had a strong presence in Western literature on China, as a result of Sino-European encounters in the eighteenth to nineteenth centuries. In these studies tribute was examined from the China angle. When views of the neighboring peoples are taken into consideration, it becomes evident that the smaller states in Inner Asia had not adopted the notion of China. A comparison with the practices of the Ottoman empire reveals that they also were using a strategy similar China. The paper suggests examining the practices of the smaller states in their own terms rather than in the shadow of the larger states.
In general Chinggis Khan is evaluated in terms of the campaigns and conquests he carried out on t... more In general Chinggis Khan is evaluated in terms of the campaigns and conquests he carried out on the cities and states of Central Asia and China. Here in this study the focus is on his impact on nomadic societies. While the pre-Chinggisid period is characterized by nomadic clans, tribes and principalities, the new order (jasagh) entailed membership in the army of conquest. It was not only changes in the composition of the society that these changes are visible, but also in patterns of succession. In their effort to legitimize the new order, historians of the period used old-time emotional verses in their records implying a continuity. Retrospectively it can be said that all of these developments changed Inner Asia from a society where intra-tribal strife, migrations, invasions and conquests had been the rule, to more or less homogenous “tribes” who became involved in social and religious literature, historiography thus leaving records of their culture for the posterity.
This paper presents the content of this thematic issue of Diogenes on Asian studies in Turkey. It... more This paper presents the content of this thematic issue of Diogenes on Asian studies in Turkey. It explains the origins of this set of papers in light of relevant scholarship, relates it to current academic work in the field, and provides a rationale for issuing a volume on Asian scholarship in Turkey.
The term “tribute” had a strong presence in Western literature on China, as a result of Sino-Euro... more The term “tribute” had a strong presence in Western literature on China, as a result of Sino-European encounters in the eighteenth to nineteenth centuries. In these studies tribute was examined from the China angle. When views of the neighboring peoples are taken into consideration, it becomes evident that the smaller states in Inner Asia had not adopted the notion of China. A comparison with the practices of the Ottoman empire reveals that they also were using a strategy similar China. The paper suggests examining the practices of the smaller states in their own terms rather than in the shadow of the larger states.
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