Tourette Syndrome (TS) is a complex neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by vocal and motor ... more Tourette Syndrome (TS) is a complex neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by vocal and motor tics lasting more than a year. It is highly polygenic in nature with both rare and common previously associated variants. Epidemiological studies have shown TS to be correlated with other phenotypes, but large-scale phenome wide analyses in biobank level data have not been performed to date. In this study, we used the summary statistics from the latest meta-analysis of TS to calculate the polygenic risk score (PRS) of individuals in the UK Biobank data and applied a Phenome Wide Association Study (PheWAS) approach to determine the association of disease risk with a wide range of phenotypes. A total of 57 traits were found to be significantly associated with TS polygenic risk, including multiple psychosocial factors and mental health conditions such as anxiety disorder and depression. Additional associations were observed with complex non-psychiatric disorders such as Type 2 diabetes, hea...
Introduction: Patients with Gilles de la Tourette syndrome (GTS) may experience blocking tics (BT... more Introduction: Patients with Gilles de la Tourette syndrome (GTS) may experience blocking tics (BTs) defined as recurrent, brief cessations of motor acts. The aim of this study was to assess the prevalence, age of onset, and clinical correlates of BTs in GTS patients.Materials and Methods: We performed a one-time registration study in a cohort of 195 consecutive GTS patients aged 5–66 years (mean age: 15.0 ± 9.2; 47 females, 24.1%). All patients were personally interviewed and examined.Results: At least one BT occurred at some point in the lifetime of 73 patients (37.4%) with a mean age of onset of 10.4 ± 5.9 years. BTs occurred an average of 4.8 ± 5.3 years after tic onset. The most common BT was cessation of walking (n = 59, 80.8%), followed by speech (n = 19, 26.0%), running (n = 18, 24.7%), and writing (n = 9, 12.3%). Most of the patients (n = 52, 71.2%) reported cessation of only one activity. Clinical associations of BTs included more severe tics, overall greater number of tics...
pattern recognition, k-NN classifier, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, matrix metalloproteinase, ce... more pattern recognition, k-NN classifier, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, matrix metalloproteinase, cerebrospinal fluid ANALYSIS OF MATRIX METALLOPROTEINASES (MMPS) IN CEREBROSPINAL FLUID OF PATIENTS WITH AMYOTROPHIC LATERAL SCLEROSIS (ALS) Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are implicated in the pathogenesis of motor neuron degeneration in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and might be potential markers of diagnosis, prognosis and monitoring treatment effects. The aim of the present study was evaluation of the MMPs significance in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF MMPs) of patients with ALS in relation to severity of the disease. Metalloproteinases MT-MMP-1, MMP-2, MMP-9 and additionally age of subjects and disease duration were analyzed. The results demonstrate that the error of differentiation between healthy subjects and ALS patients (for MMP-2 feature) as well as between mild and severe ALS states (for CSF MMPs set) equalled to 0.033. In conclusion, the pattern recognition approach may be us...
The aim of this study was to evaluate the involvement of a peripheral motor neuron in Parkinson D... more The aim of this study was to evaluate the involvement of a peripheral motor neuron in Parkinson Disease (PD) using the motor unit number estimation (MUNE) method, which reflects motor unit loss in motor neuron diseases. Multipoint incremental MUNE method was calculated in abductor pollicis brevis (APB) and abductor digiti minimi (ADM) in forty one (41) patients with PD and forty five (45) healthy volunteers. From the analysis, the MUNE of APB was lower in PD than in the control group, especially in the sub-group aged 60 years or older. MUNE was negatively correlated with the age of patientsfor APB, but not with the duration of the disease and advancement of PD. The loss of motor units in sporadic Parkinson's disease revealed by multipoint incremental MUNE method is considered a sign of lower motor neuron involvement, however, loss of motor neurons is slight and does not manifest equally in all muscles . Thus, the results from this experiment should be treated with concern, as it could be a landmark for further experiments.
Introduction: While tardive dystonia is rare when neuroleptics are used for the treatment of Gill... more Introduction: While tardive dystonia is rare when neuroleptics are used for the treatment of Gilles de la Tourette syndrome (GTS), still acute dystonic reaction may occur more frequently. Oculogyric crisis (OGC) is characterized by spasmodic deviations of the eyes, most commonly upwards but occasionally downwards or oblique. Objectives: To describe the clinical phenotype of antidopaminergic-induced OGC dyskinesia in patients with GTS. Methods: 290 consecutive patients, aged 6 to 54 years, were analyzed. The duration of illness varied from 1 to 44 years. Results: OGC was characterized by recurrent episodes of upward gaze lasting from 1 to 4 hours per day and was found in three males. OGC was not associated with other dystonic symptoms. All patients were previously exposed to other neuroleptics. Acute OGC (n=1) was induced by the use of tetrabenazine and tardive OGC (n=2) was related to haloperidol and risperidone. The age of OGC onset varied from 16 to 18 years. Acute OGC was develop...
Gilles de la Tourette syndrome (TS) is characterized by the presence of multiple motor and vocal ... more Gilles de la Tourette syndrome (TS) is characterized by the presence of multiple motor and vocal tics, as well as other neuropsychiatric disorders. The aim of the study was to evaluate the frequency of particular clinical symptoms in patients diagnosed with TS. A hundred twenty-six individuals were studied. A brief questionnaire including data from the medical history and neurological examination was used. TS was much more frequent in males (80%; 101/126) than in females. The mean age at onset was 7.6 (2-17) years. The onset of the disease was usually slow. Abrupt onset of the disease, usually after infection, was noted in 11% (12/114) of patients. The mean delay in diagnosis was 3.9 years. In most patients tics were moderate (64%; 81/126). Mild and severe intensity of tics were reported in 15% (19/126) and 21% (26/126) of patients, respectively. 77% (97/126) of individuals with TS had comorbidities. The mean comorbidity score was 2.79 per patient. Anger control problems, sleep diff...
Erythropoietin (EPO) acts as a neuroprotective factor and is upregulated after neuronal injury. I... more Erythropoietin (EPO) acts as a neuroprotective factor and is upregulated after neuronal injury. It has been reported that in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) patients, the EPO concentration is decreased. In this study, EPO levels in serum and CSF of 30 patients with ALS and in 15 controls, using an ELISA technique, were estimated. EPO level in serum was decreased, especially in patients with bulbar onset ALS. A trend toward a progressive EPO decline with the duration of the disease in the mild + moderate ALS cases was observed. In severe cases, a tendency towards a positive correlation of EPO and duration of the disease was present. Serum EPO values were age related only in mild + moderate ALS in patients below 40 years of age. In CSF, the EPO levels were significantly decreased. Lower EPO values in the bulbar onset ALS when compared with the spinal onset ALS were present. The EPO decrease did not correlate with the severity and duration of the disease. Age relation of the EPO level only in the mild + moderate ALS cases more than 40 years was present. Lack of differences in EPO levels between patients with ALS of rapid and slow progression indicates that EPO concentration cannot be used as a prognostic factor. Nevertheless, the decreased serum and CSF EPO concentration and the known EPO neuroprotective action may indicate that EPO administration can be a new promising therapeutic approach in ALS.
Zespol Gilles’a de la Tourette’a (GTS, Gilles de la Tourette syndrome ) jest zaburzeniem neuropsy... more Zespol Gilles’a de la Tourette’a (GTS, Gilles de la Tourette syndrome ) jest zaburzeniem neuropsychiatrycznym o nieustalonej przyczynie, stwierdzanym u dzieci i doroslych, rozpoczynającym sie przed 18. rokiem zycia, ktorego glownym objawem są tiki ruchowe i glosowe utrzymujące sie dluzej niz 12 miesiecy. Tiki wystepują u wszystkich chorych z GTS, u wiekszości wspolistnieją takze inne schorzenia: zespol nadpobudliwości psychoruchowej (ADHD, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ), zaburzenie obsesyjno-kompulsyjne (OCD, obsessive-compulsive symptoms ), depresja, zespoly lekowe, agresja. Leczenie jest objawowe i nie ma dowodow, ze wplywa na naturalny przebieg choroby, rokowanie czy proces dojrzewania mozgu u dzieci i mlodziezy. Wielu chorych nie wymaga leczenia z powodu niewielkiego nasilenia tikow. Podejmuje sie je wylącznie wtedy, gdy tiki wplywają na codzienne funkcjonowanie. Terapia tikow obejmuje interwencje behawioralne (np. terapia z odwracaniem nawyku/kompleksowa behawioraln...
Background and purpose Metabolic disturbances of excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters are ... more Background and purpose Metabolic disturbances of excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters are implicated in pathogenesis of Tourette syndrome (TS). The aim of the study was to measure serum concentrations of glutamic acid, γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and glycine in TS patients and evaluate any correlation between neurotransmitter levels and age at onset, actual age, gender, tic severity, duration of the disease and concomitant psychiatric disorders. Material and methods Sixty-seven TS patients, aged 16–59, and 57 healthy controls, aged 19–37, were enrolled in the study. Information regarding medical history and physical investigation was collected using a short questionnaire. Sixty-seven percent of patients were medication-free at the time of examination and the rest had withheld treatment for 24 hours before. Blood samples were taken after a 12-hour fasting period. HPLC technique was used. Results The TS group had higher glutamic acid and lower GABA levels. Glycine concentrations...
Journal of Medical Informatics and Technologies, 2012
The two kinds of classifier based on the k-NN rule, the standard and the parallel version, wer e ... more The two kinds of classifier based on the k-NN rule, the standard and the parallel version, wer e used for recognition of severity of ALS disease. In case of the second classifier version, feature selection wa s done separately for each pair of classes. The error rate, estimated by the leave one out method, was used as a criterion a s for determination the optimum values of k’ s as well as for feature selection. All features se lected in this manner were used in the standard and in the parallel classifier based on k-NN rule. Furthermore, only for the verification purpose, the linear classifier was applied. For this kind of cl assifier the error rates were calculated by use the training set also as a testing one. The linear classifier was t rained by the error correction algorithm with a modified stop condition . The data set concerned with the healthy subjects an d patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) . The set of several biomarkers such as erythropoietin, matri x metall...
Folia neuropathologica / Association of Polish Neuropathologists and Medical Research Centre, Polish Academy of Sciences, 2006
Aetiology and pathogenesis of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is still a mystery. Among sever... more Aetiology and pathogenesis of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is still a mystery. Among several hypotheses autoimmune mechanisms are also taken into account. We report here our investigations of auto-antibodies against proteins of spinal cord cells in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and serum of ALS patients. The results were correlated with the severity of disease course. The subjects were 57 ALS patients (29 severe, 28 mild) and 10 normal controls. The major finding in CSF was the presence of antibodies against a 70 kD protein in the majority of ALS patients. This protein was identified as neurofilament 68. The second protein of high reactivity and frequency of appearance was a 82 kD protein, which was identified as a-actinin. Less reactive and less frequent were antibodies directed against 55 kD and 40 kD proteins. They were immunologically defined to be related to desmin and actin, resp. The difference between the reactivity of anti-neurofilament and anti-desmin related protei...
Involuntary expression of socially unacceptable words (coprolalia) or gestures (copropraxia) is t... more Involuntary expression of socially unacceptable words (coprolalia) or gestures (copropraxia) is the best-known symptom of Gilles de Tourette syndrome (GTS) that contributes to the social impairment. The aim of the study was to assess the prevalence, age at onset and co-occurring symptoms of coprophenomena. One hundred and sixty-eight consecutive subjects with GTS including 94 adults and 74 children and aged between 4 and 54 years (mean: 18.0±8.3) were studied. Demographic and clinical data were obtained from medical history and neurological examination. Coprolalia or copropraxia appeared in 44 patients. Both coprophenomena were present in 9 patients. Coprolalia occurred in 25.0% (n=42) and copropraxia in 6.5% (n=11) of patients. Mean age at onset was 12.2±5.7 years (range: 4-33) for coprolalia and 12.4±4.9 years (range: 7-24) for copropraxia. Coprolalia started 4.4±3.7 years (range: 0-16) after the onset of disease; copropraxia started 6.1±4.0 years (range: 1-12) after the onset of ...
Tourette Syndrome (TS) is a complex neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by vocal and motor ... more Tourette Syndrome (TS) is a complex neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by vocal and motor tics lasting more than a year. It is highly polygenic in nature with both rare and common previously associated variants. Epidemiological studies have shown TS to be correlated with other phenotypes, but large-scale phenome wide analyses in biobank level data have not been performed to date. In this study, we used the summary statistics from the latest meta-analysis of TS to calculate the polygenic risk score (PRS) of individuals in the UK Biobank data and applied a Phenome Wide Association Study (PheWAS) approach to determine the association of disease risk with a wide range of phenotypes. A total of 57 traits were found to be significantly associated with TS polygenic risk, including multiple psychosocial factors and mental health conditions such as anxiety disorder and depression. Additional associations were observed with complex non-psychiatric disorders such as Type 2 diabetes, hea...
Introduction: Patients with Gilles de la Tourette syndrome (GTS) may experience blocking tics (BT... more Introduction: Patients with Gilles de la Tourette syndrome (GTS) may experience blocking tics (BTs) defined as recurrent, brief cessations of motor acts. The aim of this study was to assess the prevalence, age of onset, and clinical correlates of BTs in GTS patients.Materials and Methods: We performed a one-time registration study in a cohort of 195 consecutive GTS patients aged 5–66 years (mean age: 15.0 ± 9.2; 47 females, 24.1%). All patients were personally interviewed and examined.Results: At least one BT occurred at some point in the lifetime of 73 patients (37.4%) with a mean age of onset of 10.4 ± 5.9 years. BTs occurred an average of 4.8 ± 5.3 years after tic onset. The most common BT was cessation of walking (n = 59, 80.8%), followed by speech (n = 19, 26.0%), running (n = 18, 24.7%), and writing (n = 9, 12.3%). Most of the patients (n = 52, 71.2%) reported cessation of only one activity. Clinical associations of BTs included more severe tics, overall greater number of tics...
pattern recognition, k-NN classifier, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, matrix metalloproteinase, ce... more pattern recognition, k-NN classifier, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, matrix metalloproteinase, cerebrospinal fluid ANALYSIS OF MATRIX METALLOPROTEINASES (MMPS) IN CEREBROSPINAL FLUID OF PATIENTS WITH AMYOTROPHIC LATERAL SCLEROSIS (ALS) Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are implicated in the pathogenesis of motor neuron degeneration in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and might be potential markers of diagnosis, prognosis and monitoring treatment effects. The aim of the present study was evaluation of the MMPs significance in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF MMPs) of patients with ALS in relation to severity of the disease. Metalloproteinases MT-MMP-1, MMP-2, MMP-9 and additionally age of subjects and disease duration were analyzed. The results demonstrate that the error of differentiation between healthy subjects and ALS patients (for MMP-2 feature) as well as between mild and severe ALS states (for CSF MMPs set) equalled to 0.033. In conclusion, the pattern recognition approach may be us...
The aim of this study was to evaluate the involvement of a peripheral motor neuron in Parkinson D... more The aim of this study was to evaluate the involvement of a peripheral motor neuron in Parkinson Disease (PD) using the motor unit number estimation (MUNE) method, which reflects motor unit loss in motor neuron diseases. Multipoint incremental MUNE method was calculated in abductor pollicis brevis (APB) and abductor digiti minimi (ADM) in forty one (41) patients with PD and forty five (45) healthy volunteers. From the analysis, the MUNE of APB was lower in PD than in the control group, especially in the sub-group aged 60 years or older. MUNE was negatively correlated with the age of patientsfor APB, but not with the duration of the disease and advancement of PD. The loss of motor units in sporadic Parkinson's disease revealed by multipoint incremental MUNE method is considered a sign of lower motor neuron involvement, however, loss of motor neurons is slight and does not manifest equally in all muscles . Thus, the results from this experiment should be treated with concern, as it could be a landmark for further experiments.
Introduction: While tardive dystonia is rare when neuroleptics are used for the treatment of Gill... more Introduction: While tardive dystonia is rare when neuroleptics are used for the treatment of Gilles de la Tourette syndrome (GTS), still acute dystonic reaction may occur more frequently. Oculogyric crisis (OGC) is characterized by spasmodic deviations of the eyes, most commonly upwards but occasionally downwards or oblique. Objectives: To describe the clinical phenotype of antidopaminergic-induced OGC dyskinesia in patients with GTS. Methods: 290 consecutive patients, aged 6 to 54 years, were analyzed. The duration of illness varied from 1 to 44 years. Results: OGC was characterized by recurrent episodes of upward gaze lasting from 1 to 4 hours per day and was found in three males. OGC was not associated with other dystonic symptoms. All patients were previously exposed to other neuroleptics. Acute OGC (n=1) was induced by the use of tetrabenazine and tardive OGC (n=2) was related to haloperidol and risperidone. The age of OGC onset varied from 16 to 18 years. Acute OGC was develop...
Gilles de la Tourette syndrome (TS) is characterized by the presence of multiple motor and vocal ... more Gilles de la Tourette syndrome (TS) is characterized by the presence of multiple motor and vocal tics, as well as other neuropsychiatric disorders. The aim of the study was to evaluate the frequency of particular clinical symptoms in patients diagnosed with TS. A hundred twenty-six individuals were studied. A brief questionnaire including data from the medical history and neurological examination was used. TS was much more frequent in males (80%; 101/126) than in females. The mean age at onset was 7.6 (2-17) years. The onset of the disease was usually slow. Abrupt onset of the disease, usually after infection, was noted in 11% (12/114) of patients. The mean delay in diagnosis was 3.9 years. In most patients tics were moderate (64%; 81/126). Mild and severe intensity of tics were reported in 15% (19/126) and 21% (26/126) of patients, respectively. 77% (97/126) of individuals with TS had comorbidities. The mean comorbidity score was 2.79 per patient. Anger control problems, sleep diff...
Erythropoietin (EPO) acts as a neuroprotective factor and is upregulated after neuronal injury. I... more Erythropoietin (EPO) acts as a neuroprotective factor and is upregulated after neuronal injury. It has been reported that in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) patients, the EPO concentration is decreased. In this study, EPO levels in serum and CSF of 30 patients with ALS and in 15 controls, using an ELISA technique, were estimated. EPO level in serum was decreased, especially in patients with bulbar onset ALS. A trend toward a progressive EPO decline with the duration of the disease in the mild + moderate ALS cases was observed. In severe cases, a tendency towards a positive correlation of EPO and duration of the disease was present. Serum EPO values were age related only in mild + moderate ALS in patients below 40 years of age. In CSF, the EPO levels were significantly decreased. Lower EPO values in the bulbar onset ALS when compared with the spinal onset ALS were present. The EPO decrease did not correlate with the severity and duration of the disease. Age relation of the EPO level only in the mild + moderate ALS cases more than 40 years was present. Lack of differences in EPO levels between patients with ALS of rapid and slow progression indicates that EPO concentration cannot be used as a prognostic factor. Nevertheless, the decreased serum and CSF EPO concentration and the known EPO neuroprotective action may indicate that EPO administration can be a new promising therapeutic approach in ALS.
Zespol Gilles’a de la Tourette’a (GTS, Gilles de la Tourette syndrome ) jest zaburzeniem neuropsy... more Zespol Gilles’a de la Tourette’a (GTS, Gilles de la Tourette syndrome ) jest zaburzeniem neuropsychiatrycznym o nieustalonej przyczynie, stwierdzanym u dzieci i doroslych, rozpoczynającym sie przed 18. rokiem zycia, ktorego glownym objawem są tiki ruchowe i glosowe utrzymujące sie dluzej niz 12 miesiecy. Tiki wystepują u wszystkich chorych z GTS, u wiekszości wspolistnieją takze inne schorzenia: zespol nadpobudliwości psychoruchowej (ADHD, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ), zaburzenie obsesyjno-kompulsyjne (OCD, obsessive-compulsive symptoms ), depresja, zespoly lekowe, agresja. Leczenie jest objawowe i nie ma dowodow, ze wplywa na naturalny przebieg choroby, rokowanie czy proces dojrzewania mozgu u dzieci i mlodziezy. Wielu chorych nie wymaga leczenia z powodu niewielkiego nasilenia tikow. Podejmuje sie je wylącznie wtedy, gdy tiki wplywają na codzienne funkcjonowanie. Terapia tikow obejmuje interwencje behawioralne (np. terapia z odwracaniem nawyku/kompleksowa behawioraln...
Background and purpose Metabolic disturbances of excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters are ... more Background and purpose Metabolic disturbances of excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters are implicated in pathogenesis of Tourette syndrome (TS). The aim of the study was to measure serum concentrations of glutamic acid, γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and glycine in TS patients and evaluate any correlation between neurotransmitter levels and age at onset, actual age, gender, tic severity, duration of the disease and concomitant psychiatric disorders. Material and methods Sixty-seven TS patients, aged 16–59, and 57 healthy controls, aged 19–37, were enrolled in the study. Information regarding medical history and physical investigation was collected using a short questionnaire. Sixty-seven percent of patients were medication-free at the time of examination and the rest had withheld treatment for 24 hours before. Blood samples were taken after a 12-hour fasting period. HPLC technique was used. Results The TS group had higher glutamic acid and lower GABA levels. Glycine concentrations...
Journal of Medical Informatics and Technologies, 2012
The two kinds of classifier based on the k-NN rule, the standard and the parallel version, wer e ... more The two kinds of classifier based on the k-NN rule, the standard and the parallel version, wer e used for recognition of severity of ALS disease. In case of the second classifier version, feature selection wa s done separately for each pair of classes. The error rate, estimated by the leave one out method, was used as a criterion a s for determination the optimum values of k’ s as well as for feature selection. All features se lected in this manner were used in the standard and in the parallel classifier based on k-NN rule. Furthermore, only for the verification purpose, the linear classifier was applied. For this kind of cl assifier the error rates were calculated by use the training set also as a testing one. The linear classifier was t rained by the error correction algorithm with a modified stop condition . The data set concerned with the healthy subjects an d patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) . The set of several biomarkers such as erythropoietin, matri x metall...
Folia neuropathologica / Association of Polish Neuropathologists and Medical Research Centre, Polish Academy of Sciences, 2006
Aetiology and pathogenesis of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is still a mystery. Among sever... more Aetiology and pathogenesis of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is still a mystery. Among several hypotheses autoimmune mechanisms are also taken into account. We report here our investigations of auto-antibodies against proteins of spinal cord cells in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and serum of ALS patients. The results were correlated with the severity of disease course. The subjects were 57 ALS patients (29 severe, 28 mild) and 10 normal controls. The major finding in CSF was the presence of antibodies against a 70 kD protein in the majority of ALS patients. This protein was identified as neurofilament 68. The second protein of high reactivity and frequency of appearance was a 82 kD protein, which was identified as a-actinin. Less reactive and less frequent were antibodies directed against 55 kD and 40 kD proteins. They were immunologically defined to be related to desmin and actin, resp. The difference between the reactivity of anti-neurofilament and anti-desmin related protei...
Involuntary expression of socially unacceptable words (coprolalia) or gestures (copropraxia) is t... more Involuntary expression of socially unacceptable words (coprolalia) or gestures (copropraxia) is the best-known symptom of Gilles de Tourette syndrome (GTS) that contributes to the social impairment. The aim of the study was to assess the prevalence, age at onset and co-occurring symptoms of coprophenomena. One hundred and sixty-eight consecutive subjects with GTS including 94 adults and 74 children and aged between 4 and 54 years (mean: 18.0±8.3) were studied. Demographic and clinical data were obtained from medical history and neurological examination. Coprolalia or copropraxia appeared in 44 patients. Both coprophenomena were present in 9 patients. Coprolalia occurred in 25.0% (n=42) and copropraxia in 6.5% (n=11) of patients. Mean age at onset was 12.2±5.7 years (range: 4-33) for coprolalia and 12.4±4.9 years (range: 7-24) for copropraxia. Coprolalia started 4.4±3.7 years (range: 0-16) after the onset of disease; copropraxia started 6.1±4.0 years (range: 1-12) after the onset of ...
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Papers by Piotr Janik