A survey to determine the trans fatty acid content of a range of processed foods was carried out ... more A survey to determine the trans fatty acid content of a range of processed foods was carried out in response to recent reformulation work by the food industry to lower the artificial trans fatty acid content of processed products. Sixty two composite samples, made up of between 5 and 12 sub-samples, were collected in 2010 and were analysed for fatty acids, and a range of nutrients. The foods analysed included pizza, garlic bread, breakfast cereals, quiche, fat spreads, a range of fish and meat products, chips, savoury snacks, confectionery and ice cream. Levels of trans fatty acids were reduced considerably compared with previous UK analyses of similar foods where comparisons are possible. Concentrations of trans elaidic acid (t9-C18:1) from hydrogenated oils in all samples were <0.2 g/100 g food. These results confirm information provided by the food industry in 2007 on the levels of trans fats in key processed food sectors.
European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, Oct 26, 2005
In the past decade, the understanding of folate bioavailability, metabolism and related health is... more In the past decade, the understanding of folate bioavailability, metabolism and related health issues has increased, but several problems remain, including the difficulty of delivering the available knowledge to the populations at risk. Owing to the low compliance of taking folic acid supplements, for example, among women of child-bearing age who could lower the risk of having a baby with a neural tube defect, food-based strategies aimed at increasing the intake of folate and other B-group vitamins should be a priority for future research. These should include the development of a combined strategy of supplemental folate (possibly with vitamin B 12 ), biofortification using engineered plant-derived foods and micro-organisms and food fortification for increasing folate intakes in the general population. Currently, the most effective population-based strategy to reduce NTDs remains folic acid fortification. However, the possible adverse effect of high intakes of folic acid on neurologic functioning among elderly persons with vitamin B 12 deficiency needs urgent investigation. The results of ongoing randomized controlled studies aimed at reducing the prevalence of hyperhomocysteinemia and related morbidity must be available before food-based total population approaches for treatment of hyperhomocysteinemia can be recommended. Further research is required on quantitative assessment of folate intake and bioavailability, along with a more thorough understanding of physiological, biochemical and genetic processes involved in folate absorption and metabolism.
Background: Successful food and health research infrastructure is necessary to conduct high quali... more Background: Successful food and health research infrastructure is necessary to conduct high quality research and design effective public health strategies to improve population health through lifestyle, food and nutrition. Objectives: EuroDISH will provide recommendations to stakeholders such as the European Strategy Forum on Research Infrastructures (ESFRI), the Joint Programming Initiative-Healthy Diet Healthy Life (JPI-HDHL) and future European funding programmes (e.g. Horizon 2020) on the needs and best-practice for food and health research infrastructures. Methods/results: Research has been organised using the "DISH" model which represents four areas of food and health research: Determinants of dietary behaviour; Intake of foods and nutrients; Status and functional markers of nutritional health; Health and disease risks of foods and nutrients. The project consists of three phases: -Phase one (completed July 2013): Desk research, interviews (N=30) and stakeholder workshop conducted to map existing research infrastructure and identify gaps and needs. Initial findings suggested that research infrastructure was developed to different degrees across the four "DISH" research areas. -Phase two: Synthesis of research infrastructures and or different areas of research and explore the governance of research infrastructure. -Phase three: Feasible designs and roadmaps for the future development of research infrastructure. The EuroDISH vision is to encourage the development of infrastructures that bring together resources and knowledge from different scientific fields. This will enable state-of-the-art, pioneering and innovative research to be conducted across Europe serving to provide a competitive advantage at a global level and tackle today's food related social, economic and health challenges.
The aim of the European Framework project BACCHUS was to develop tools and resources to study the... more The aim of the European Framework project BACCHUS was to develop tools and resources to study the relationships between intakes of bioactive food compounds and cardiovascular health in humans. This...
The UK national food composition dataset, maintained at the Quadram Institute Bioscience, is a va... more The UK national food composition dataset, maintained at the Quadram Institute Bioscience, is a valuable national resource for a variety of users. The UK has a long history of compiling and utilising food composition data, which started for the specific purpose of understanding war-time nutrition, and is now fundamental to multiple areas of research, policy, food manufacturing and consumer behaviour. The rise of mHealth technologies has brought food and nutrition data direct to the consumer and presents new challenges for food data compilers relating to coverage of foods and nutrients, and accessibility and transparency of data. In addition, emerging efforts in sustainable food production, changing diets and the ever-increasing burden of non-communicable diseases requires an integrated approach that will span the agri-food, nutrition and health space. In order to achieve this, there needs to be continued efforts in food data standardisation, international collaboration and stronger emphasis in making food and nutrition data FAIR (findable, accessible, interoperable and reusable). The UK national food composition data and the emerging initiatives in food and nutrition it supports are playing an important role in the future development of healthy and sustainable UK diets.
The European Food Information Resource (EUROFIR) is a network of national Food Composition Databa... more The European Food Information Resource (EUROFIR) is a network of national Food Composition Databank (nFCDB) compilers that aims to develop, manage and publish food composition data and promote international cooperation and harmonization through improved data quality, database search ability and standards. The aim of this work is to study the role of metrology in harmonization of nFCDB. The criteria for use of nFCDBs to assist measurement processes in dietary assessment, epidemiology, food processing and food technology are described in relation to the EuroFIR quality management framework. The use of SI units of Modes of expressions and Reference Materials are the most important metrological tools to improve the quality of data in nFCDBs.
The harmonization and compatibility with other relevant international organizations involved in q... more The harmonization and compatibility with other relevant international organizations involved in quality metrology and data management is a key part of the overall quality framework that is undertaken in Workpackage 1. Task 1.5 will carry out promotion and traceability of basic units among compiler organizations as well as data management and exchange as key tools for the reliability of the values incorporated in national food composition databanks. This report describes the efforts carried out by partners to promote the cooperation among the most relevant international organizations in the fields of metrology (IMEKO) and global standards (GS1) to guarantee the traceability of products. The report also describes the efforts carried out by EuroFIR in the field of European legislation (DGSANCO) in order to ensure a wider international harmonization and use of CEN FOOD Data Standard. The aim of MoU, signed between EuroFIR and the relevant organizations, is to strengthen the linkage between compilers and these organizations.FP
A EuroFIR quality management framework was developed to assure data quality of food composition d... more A EuroFIR quality management framework was developed to assure data quality of food composition data, incorporating several recommendations developed or improved during the EuroFIR projects. A flow chart of the compilation process with standard operating procedures to assure critical steps was the starting point. Recommendations for food description, component identification, value documentation, recipe calculation, quality evaluation of values, guidelines to assess analytical methods, document and data repositories and training opportunities were harmonized as elements of the quality framework. European food composition database organizations reached consensus on the EuroFIR quality framework and started implementation. Peer reviews of the European compiler organizations were organized to evaluate the quality framework, focusing on what was achieved and on improvements needed. The reviews demonstrated that European food database compilers have made good use of standards and guidelines produced by EuroFIR, as well as a common understanding that a quality framework is essential to assure food composition data quality.
The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Community’s Seventh ... more The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Community’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) under grant agreement n.º 227118
Comunicação oral a convite.Introduction Recommendations for a healthy life-style require the cons... more Comunicação oral a convite.Introduction Recommendations for a healthy life-style require the consumption of well-balanced foods preferably rich in biologically-active compounds and fibre. The range of claimed healthy foods and functional products is enormous; but their role in health and wellbeing is still largely unclear and incompletely specified. One possible way to substantially improve human health through diet is for active dietary ingredients to modulate normal gut microbiota. Methods The influence of methanol extracts of plants (dill, kale, persimmon, sideritis, pomegranate, and nettle) on intestinal microbial coenoses has been evaluated by detection of quantitative changes of key gut microbes. BALB/c mice were fed orally with diluted extracts in concentrations of 50 mg/mouse daily. Major groups of intestinal microbiota were analysed dynamically on days 1, 3, 7, 14 and 24 by using of classical isolation and identification methods. Results In order to be included in the EuroFIR composition data base, national (Bulgarian, Georgian, Romanian, Russian, Turkish and Ukrainian) traditional foods were prioritised in the first stage of the BaSeFood project and indexed according to the LanguaL system. The nutritional content of their macro- and microelements, vitamins and folate were determined [1-4]. The presence in these prioritised dishes and beverages and their major plant components of beneficial and potentially-pathogenic microbes, and foodborne pathogens were investigated [5]. In parallel a study was conducted to determine whether plants ingredients from national traditional foods are able to stimulate the commensal microbes in vivo and to inhibit potentially pathogenic strains [6-7]. Using the mouse model it could be shown that extract of dill inhibits both Enterococcus strains – E. faecalis and E. faecium, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Lactobacillus spp. and stimulates Bifidobacterium bifidum. A similar effect on bifidobacteria was observed after oral administration of kale but in this case an effect on all the other tested representatives of gut microbiota was not detected or was statistically insignificant. On day 3 nettle extract caused an unspecific stimulation of all the tested gut microbiota representatives, but on days 14 and 24 all the indices were approximately equal to their initial levels (for E. coli and K. pneumoniae), but lactobacilli and bifidobacteria were each dramatically reduced. Persimmon was the only extract able to specifically stimulate lactobacilli, and extract of pomegranate acts similarly for bifidobacteria. Extract of sideritis effectively inhibited K. pneumoniae but also commensal E. coli, leading in parallel to a statistically significant increase of bifidobacteria and a not substantially increase of lactobacilli. Discussion Plant components of traditional foods and fermented products are rich sources of beneficial bacteria [8]; these bacteria are present in plant ingredients or fermented products and can be used as potential sources of new probiotic strains. Plants are able to specifically modulate gut microbiota in a manner that is similar to prebiotics – even according to their definition they should not be digested by mammalian host. Conclusion It has been demonstrated that major plant components of traditional Black Sea regional foods can modulate the gut microbiome.This work is funded under the EU FP7 Theme 2: “Food, Agriculture, Fisheries, and Biotechnology”, Grant Agreement no.22711
This paper describes the methodology applied for compiling an ''international end-user'' folate d... more This paper describes the methodology applied for compiling an ''international end-user'' folate database. This work benefits from the unique dataset offered by the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) (N = 520,000 subjects in 23 centres). Compilation was done in four steps: (1) identify folate-free foods then find folate values for (2) folate-rich foods common across EPIC countries, (3) the remaining ''common'' foods, and (4) ''country-specific'' foods. Compiled folate values were concurrently standardised in terms of unit, mode of expression and chemical analysis, using information in national food composition tables (FCT). 43-70% total folate values were documented as measured by microbiological assay. Foods reported in EPIC were either matched directly to FCT foods, treated as recipes or weighted averages. This work has produced the first standardised folate dataset in Europe, which was used to calculate folate intakes in EPIC; a prerequisite to study the relation between folate intake and diseases.
British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, Mar 23, 2015
Aims: The object of this review was to collect available data on 1) adverse effects observed in h... more Aims: The object of this review was to collect available data on 1) adverse effects observed in humans from the intake of plant food supplements (PFS) or botanical preparations; 2) the misidentification of poisonous plants; 3) interactions between PFS/botanicals and conventional drugs or nutrients. Methods: PubMed/MEDLINE and Embase were searched from database inception to June 2014, using the terms "adverse effect/s", "poisoning/s", "plant food supplement/s", "misidentification/s", and "interaction/s" in combination with the relevant plant name. All papers were critically evaluated according to the WHO Guidelines for causality assessment. Results: Data were obtained for 66 plants that are common ingredients of PFS; of the 488 papers selected, 398 (81.6%) dealt with adverse effects directly associated with the botanical and 89 (18.2%) concerned interactions with conventional drugs. Only 1 case was associated with misidentification. Adverse effects were reported for 39 out of the 66 botanical substances searched. Of the total references, 86.5% were associated with 14 plants, including Glycine max/soybean (19.3%), Glycyrrhiza glabra/liquorice (12.5%), Ginkgo biloba/ginkgo and Camellia sinensis/green tea (both 8.6%). Conclusions: Considering the length of time examined and the number of plants included in the review, it is remarkable that: 1) the adverse effects due to botanical ingredients were relatively infrequent, if assessed for causality; 2) the number of severe clinical reactions was very limited, but some fatal cases have been described. Data presented in this review were assessed for quality in order to make the results maximally useful for clinicians in identifying or excluding deleterious effects of botanicals.
A survey to determine the trans fatty acid content of a range of processed foods was carried out ... more A survey to determine the trans fatty acid content of a range of processed foods was carried out in response to recent reformulation work by the food industry to lower the artificial trans fatty acid content of processed products. Sixty two composite samples, made up of between 5 and 12 sub-samples, were collected in 2010 and were analysed for fatty acids, and a range of nutrients. The foods analysed included pizza, garlic bread, breakfast cereals, quiche, fat spreads, a range of fish and meat products, chips, savoury snacks, confectionery and ice cream. Levels of trans fatty acids were reduced considerably compared with previous UK analyses of similar foods where comparisons are possible. Concentrations of trans elaidic acid (t9-C18:1) from hydrogenated oils in all samples were <0.2 g/100 g food. These results confirm information provided by the food industry in 2007 on the levels of trans fats in key processed food sectors.
European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, Oct 26, 2005
In the past decade, the understanding of folate bioavailability, metabolism and related health is... more In the past decade, the understanding of folate bioavailability, metabolism and related health issues has increased, but several problems remain, including the difficulty of delivering the available knowledge to the populations at risk. Owing to the low compliance of taking folic acid supplements, for example, among women of child-bearing age who could lower the risk of having a baby with a neural tube defect, food-based strategies aimed at increasing the intake of folate and other B-group vitamins should be a priority for future research. These should include the development of a combined strategy of supplemental folate (possibly with vitamin B 12 ), biofortification using engineered plant-derived foods and micro-organisms and food fortification for increasing folate intakes in the general population. Currently, the most effective population-based strategy to reduce NTDs remains folic acid fortification. However, the possible adverse effect of high intakes of folic acid on neurologic functioning among elderly persons with vitamin B 12 deficiency needs urgent investigation. The results of ongoing randomized controlled studies aimed at reducing the prevalence of hyperhomocysteinemia and related morbidity must be available before food-based total population approaches for treatment of hyperhomocysteinemia can be recommended. Further research is required on quantitative assessment of folate intake and bioavailability, along with a more thorough understanding of physiological, biochemical and genetic processes involved in folate absorption and metabolism.
Background: Successful food and health research infrastructure is necessary to conduct high quali... more Background: Successful food and health research infrastructure is necessary to conduct high quality research and design effective public health strategies to improve population health through lifestyle, food and nutrition. Objectives: EuroDISH will provide recommendations to stakeholders such as the European Strategy Forum on Research Infrastructures (ESFRI), the Joint Programming Initiative-Healthy Diet Healthy Life (JPI-HDHL) and future European funding programmes (e.g. Horizon 2020) on the needs and best-practice for food and health research infrastructures. Methods/results: Research has been organised using the "DISH" model which represents four areas of food and health research: Determinants of dietary behaviour; Intake of foods and nutrients; Status and functional markers of nutritional health; Health and disease risks of foods and nutrients. The project consists of three phases: -Phase one (completed July 2013): Desk research, interviews (N=30) and stakeholder workshop conducted to map existing research infrastructure and identify gaps and needs. Initial findings suggested that research infrastructure was developed to different degrees across the four "DISH" research areas. -Phase two: Synthesis of research infrastructures and or different areas of research and explore the governance of research infrastructure. -Phase three: Feasible designs and roadmaps for the future development of research infrastructure. The EuroDISH vision is to encourage the development of infrastructures that bring together resources and knowledge from different scientific fields. This will enable state-of-the-art, pioneering and innovative research to be conducted across Europe serving to provide a competitive advantage at a global level and tackle today's food related social, economic and health challenges.
The aim of the European Framework project BACCHUS was to develop tools and resources to study the... more The aim of the European Framework project BACCHUS was to develop tools and resources to study the relationships between intakes of bioactive food compounds and cardiovascular health in humans. This...
The UK national food composition dataset, maintained at the Quadram Institute Bioscience, is a va... more The UK national food composition dataset, maintained at the Quadram Institute Bioscience, is a valuable national resource for a variety of users. The UK has a long history of compiling and utilising food composition data, which started for the specific purpose of understanding war-time nutrition, and is now fundamental to multiple areas of research, policy, food manufacturing and consumer behaviour. The rise of mHealth technologies has brought food and nutrition data direct to the consumer and presents new challenges for food data compilers relating to coverage of foods and nutrients, and accessibility and transparency of data. In addition, emerging efforts in sustainable food production, changing diets and the ever-increasing burden of non-communicable diseases requires an integrated approach that will span the agri-food, nutrition and health space. In order to achieve this, there needs to be continued efforts in food data standardisation, international collaboration and stronger emphasis in making food and nutrition data FAIR (findable, accessible, interoperable and reusable). The UK national food composition data and the emerging initiatives in food and nutrition it supports are playing an important role in the future development of healthy and sustainable UK diets.
The European Food Information Resource (EUROFIR) is a network of national Food Composition Databa... more The European Food Information Resource (EUROFIR) is a network of national Food Composition Databank (nFCDB) compilers that aims to develop, manage and publish food composition data and promote international cooperation and harmonization through improved data quality, database search ability and standards. The aim of this work is to study the role of metrology in harmonization of nFCDB. The criteria for use of nFCDBs to assist measurement processes in dietary assessment, epidemiology, food processing and food technology are described in relation to the EuroFIR quality management framework. The use of SI units of Modes of expressions and Reference Materials are the most important metrological tools to improve the quality of data in nFCDBs.
The harmonization and compatibility with other relevant international organizations involved in q... more The harmonization and compatibility with other relevant international organizations involved in quality metrology and data management is a key part of the overall quality framework that is undertaken in Workpackage 1. Task 1.5 will carry out promotion and traceability of basic units among compiler organizations as well as data management and exchange as key tools for the reliability of the values incorporated in national food composition databanks. This report describes the efforts carried out by partners to promote the cooperation among the most relevant international organizations in the fields of metrology (IMEKO) and global standards (GS1) to guarantee the traceability of products. The report also describes the efforts carried out by EuroFIR in the field of European legislation (DGSANCO) in order to ensure a wider international harmonization and use of CEN FOOD Data Standard. The aim of MoU, signed between EuroFIR and the relevant organizations, is to strengthen the linkage between compilers and these organizations.FP
A EuroFIR quality management framework was developed to assure data quality of food composition d... more A EuroFIR quality management framework was developed to assure data quality of food composition data, incorporating several recommendations developed or improved during the EuroFIR projects. A flow chart of the compilation process with standard operating procedures to assure critical steps was the starting point. Recommendations for food description, component identification, value documentation, recipe calculation, quality evaluation of values, guidelines to assess analytical methods, document and data repositories and training opportunities were harmonized as elements of the quality framework. European food composition database organizations reached consensus on the EuroFIR quality framework and started implementation. Peer reviews of the European compiler organizations were organized to evaluate the quality framework, focusing on what was achieved and on improvements needed. The reviews demonstrated that European food database compilers have made good use of standards and guidelines produced by EuroFIR, as well as a common understanding that a quality framework is essential to assure food composition data quality.
The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Community’s Seventh ... more The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Community’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) under grant agreement n.º 227118
Comunicação oral a convite.Introduction Recommendations for a healthy life-style require the cons... more Comunicação oral a convite.Introduction Recommendations for a healthy life-style require the consumption of well-balanced foods preferably rich in biologically-active compounds and fibre. The range of claimed healthy foods and functional products is enormous; but their role in health and wellbeing is still largely unclear and incompletely specified. One possible way to substantially improve human health through diet is for active dietary ingredients to modulate normal gut microbiota. Methods The influence of methanol extracts of plants (dill, kale, persimmon, sideritis, pomegranate, and nettle) on intestinal microbial coenoses has been evaluated by detection of quantitative changes of key gut microbes. BALB/c mice were fed orally with diluted extracts in concentrations of 50 mg/mouse daily. Major groups of intestinal microbiota were analysed dynamically on days 1, 3, 7, 14 and 24 by using of classical isolation and identification methods. Results In order to be included in the EuroFIR composition data base, national (Bulgarian, Georgian, Romanian, Russian, Turkish and Ukrainian) traditional foods were prioritised in the first stage of the BaSeFood project and indexed according to the LanguaL system. The nutritional content of their macro- and microelements, vitamins and folate were determined [1-4]. The presence in these prioritised dishes and beverages and their major plant components of beneficial and potentially-pathogenic microbes, and foodborne pathogens were investigated [5]. In parallel a study was conducted to determine whether plants ingredients from national traditional foods are able to stimulate the commensal microbes in vivo and to inhibit potentially pathogenic strains [6-7]. Using the mouse model it could be shown that extract of dill inhibits both Enterococcus strains – E. faecalis and E. faecium, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Lactobacillus spp. and stimulates Bifidobacterium bifidum. A similar effect on bifidobacteria was observed after oral administration of kale but in this case an effect on all the other tested representatives of gut microbiota was not detected or was statistically insignificant. On day 3 nettle extract caused an unspecific stimulation of all the tested gut microbiota representatives, but on days 14 and 24 all the indices were approximately equal to their initial levels (for E. coli and K. pneumoniae), but lactobacilli and bifidobacteria were each dramatically reduced. Persimmon was the only extract able to specifically stimulate lactobacilli, and extract of pomegranate acts similarly for bifidobacteria. Extract of sideritis effectively inhibited K. pneumoniae but also commensal E. coli, leading in parallel to a statistically significant increase of bifidobacteria and a not substantially increase of lactobacilli. Discussion Plant components of traditional foods and fermented products are rich sources of beneficial bacteria [8]; these bacteria are present in plant ingredients or fermented products and can be used as potential sources of new probiotic strains. Plants are able to specifically modulate gut microbiota in a manner that is similar to prebiotics – even according to their definition they should not be digested by mammalian host. Conclusion It has been demonstrated that major plant components of traditional Black Sea regional foods can modulate the gut microbiome.This work is funded under the EU FP7 Theme 2: “Food, Agriculture, Fisheries, and Biotechnology”, Grant Agreement no.22711
This paper describes the methodology applied for compiling an ''international end-user'' folate d... more This paper describes the methodology applied for compiling an ''international end-user'' folate database. This work benefits from the unique dataset offered by the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) (N = 520,000 subjects in 23 centres). Compilation was done in four steps: (1) identify folate-free foods then find folate values for (2) folate-rich foods common across EPIC countries, (3) the remaining ''common'' foods, and (4) ''country-specific'' foods. Compiled folate values were concurrently standardised in terms of unit, mode of expression and chemical analysis, using information in national food composition tables (FCT). 43-70% total folate values were documented as measured by microbiological assay. Foods reported in EPIC were either matched directly to FCT foods, treated as recipes or weighted averages. This work has produced the first standardised folate dataset in Europe, which was used to calculate folate intakes in EPIC; a prerequisite to study the relation between folate intake and diseases.
British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, Mar 23, 2015
Aims: The object of this review was to collect available data on 1) adverse effects observed in h... more Aims: The object of this review was to collect available data on 1) adverse effects observed in humans from the intake of plant food supplements (PFS) or botanical preparations; 2) the misidentification of poisonous plants; 3) interactions between PFS/botanicals and conventional drugs or nutrients. Methods: PubMed/MEDLINE and Embase were searched from database inception to June 2014, using the terms "adverse effect/s", "poisoning/s", "plant food supplement/s", "misidentification/s", and "interaction/s" in combination with the relevant plant name. All papers were critically evaluated according to the WHO Guidelines for causality assessment. Results: Data were obtained for 66 plants that are common ingredients of PFS; of the 488 papers selected, 398 (81.6%) dealt with adverse effects directly associated with the botanical and 89 (18.2%) concerned interactions with conventional drugs. Only 1 case was associated with misidentification. Adverse effects were reported for 39 out of the 66 botanical substances searched. Of the total references, 86.5% were associated with 14 plants, including Glycine max/soybean (19.3%), Glycyrrhiza glabra/liquorice (12.5%), Ginkgo biloba/ginkgo and Camellia sinensis/green tea (both 8.6%). Conclusions: Considering the length of time examined and the number of plants included in the review, it is remarkable that: 1) the adverse effects due to botanical ingredients were relatively infrequent, if assessed for causality; 2) the number of severe clinical reactions was very limited, but some fatal cases have been described. Data presented in this review were assessed for quality in order to make the results maximally useful for clinicians in identifying or excluding deleterious effects of botanicals.
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Papers by Paul Finglas