Operationalization of written explanations in the claim, evidence, and reasoning (CER) format at ... more Operationalization of written explanations in the claim, evidence, and reasoning (CER) format at a fine-grained level is necessary for pinpointing and scaffolding the difficult structural components of C, E, and R. Recently, automated scoring for CER scientific explanations has been developed based on the subcomponents of C, E, and R statements. In the present study, we sought to investigate the generalizability of an automated scoring method, developed for Density, when applied to a new scientific topic, Lunar Phases. Results of the study indicated high performance for the automated method. This study provides data on the specific difficulties students face when generating explanations, as well as how these difficulties generalize across domains.
Abstract. In recent years, there has been increased interest and research on identifying the vari... more Abstract. In recent years, there has been increased interest and research on identifying the various ways that students can deviate from expected or desired patterns while using educational software. This includes research on gaming the system, player transformation, haphazard inquiry, and failure to use key features of the learning system. Detection of these sorts of behaviors has helped researchers to better understand these behaviors, thus allowing software designers to develop interventions that can remediate them and/or reduce their negative impacts on user outcomes. In this paper, we present a first detector of what we term WTF (“Without Thinking Fastidiously”) behavior, based on data from the Phase Change microworld in the Science ASSISTments environment. In WTF behavior, the student is interacting with the software, but their actions appear to have no relationship to the intended learning task. We discuss the detector development process, validate the detectors with human la...
The Next Generation Science Standards [1] expect students to master disciplinary core ideas, cros... more The Next Generation Science Standards [1] expect students to master disciplinary core ideas, crosscutting concepts, and scientific practice. In prior work, we showed that students benefited from real time scaffolding of science practices such that students’ inquiry competencies both improved over time and transferred to new science topics. The present study examines the robustness of adaptive scaffolding by evaluating students’ inquiry performances at a very fine-grained level in order to investigate what aspects of inquiry are robust over time once scaffolding was removed. 108 middle school students in grade 6 used Inq-ITS and received adaptive scaffolding for three lab activities in the first inquiry topic they completed (i.e. Animal Cell); they then completed 10 activities without scaffolding across three new topics. Results showed that after removing scaffolding, student’s inquiry performance generally improved with slight variations in performance across driving questions and over time. Overall, these findings suggest that adaptive scaffolding may support students’ inquiry learning and transfer of inquiry practices over time and across topics.
In the present study, we examined the use of academic language in students’ scientific explanatio... more In the present study, we examined the use of academic language in students’ scientific explanations in the form of written claim, written evidence, and written reasoning (CER) statements during science inquiry within an intelligent tutoring system. Results showed that students tended to use more academic language when constructing their evidence and reasoning statements. Further analyses showed that both the number of words and pronouns used by students were significant predictors for the quality of students’ written CER statements. The quality of claim statements was significantly reduced by the lexical density (type-token ratio), but the quality of reasoning significantly increased with lexical density. The quality of evidence statements increased significantly with the inclusion of causal and temporal relationships, verb overlap, and descriptive writing. These findings indicate that students used language differently when constructing their CER statements. Implications are discussed in terms of how to increase students’ knowledge of and use of academic language.
Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 2018
The Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) for K-12 science education has outlined new standard... more The Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) for K-12 science education has outlined new standards that integrate science inquiry practices with scientific concepts and ideas. The challenge with implementing this framework has been determining how to provide students with authentic scientific experiences and real-time individualized scaffolding during inquiry, as well as reliably and validly assess students’ inquiry competencies. This article reviews current computer-based educational technologies, namely, educational data mining and natural language processing, and describes how these technologies have been used to automatically assess science inquiry practices aligned with NGSS practices. The second section describes the implementation of real-time adaptive, individualized scaffolds and instruction, based on automated inquiry assessment techniques. Finally, we aim to direct the attention of policy makers toward the use of technology to promote significant progress of nationwide in...
Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 2018
The Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) for K-12 science education has outlined new standard... more The Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) for K-12 science education has outlined new standards that integrate science inquiry practices with scientific concepts and ideas. The challenge with implementing this framework has been determining how to provide students with authentic scientific experiences and real-time individualized scaffolding during inquiry, as well as reliably and validly assess students’ inquiry competencies. This article reviews current computer-based educational technologies, namely, educational data mining and natural language processing, and describes how these technologies have been used to automatically assess science inquiry practices aligned with NGSS practices. The second section describes the implementation of real-time adaptive, individualized scaffolds and instruction, based on automated inquiry assessment techniques. Finally, we aim to direct the attention of policy makers toward the use of technology to promote significant progress of nationwide in...
Computer-assisted assessment environments, such as intelligent tutoring systems, simulations, and... more Computer-assisted assessment environments, such as intelligent tutoring systems, simulations, and virtual environments are now being designed to measure students’ science inquiry practices. Some assessment environments not only evaluate students’ inquiry practice competencies, but also provide real-time scaffolding in order to help students learn. The present study aims to examine the impact of real-time scaffolding from an animated, pedagogical agent on students’ inquiry performance across a number of practices. Participants were randomly assigned to one of two conditions: receiving scaffolding or no scaffolding. All participants completed three virtual labs: Flower (a general pretest), Phase Change, and Density. Results showed that students who received immediate feedback during assessment performed better on subsequent inquiry tasks. These findings have implications for designers and researchers regarding the benefits of including real-time scaffolding within intelligent assessment systems.
Cyber-Physical Laboratories in Engineering and Science Education, 2018
This chapter addresses students’ data interpretation, a key NGSS inquiry practice, with which stu... more This chapter addresses students’ data interpretation, a key NGSS inquiry practice, with which students have several different types of difficulties. In this work, we unpack the difficulties associated with data interpretation from those associated with warranting claims. We do this within the context of Inq-ITS (Inquiry Intelligent Tutoring System), a lightweight LMS, providing computer-based assessment and tutoring for science inquiry practices/skills. We conducted a systematic analysis of a subset of our data to address whether our scaffolding is supporting students in the acquisition and transfer of these inquiry skills. We also describe an additional study, which used Bayesian Knowledge Tracing (Corbett and Anderson. User Model User-Adapt Interact 4(4):253–278, 1995), a computational approach allowing for the analysis of the fine-grained sub-skills underlying our practices of data interpretation and warranting claims.
THE MID-ATLANTIC EDUCATION REVIEW is a peer-reviewed, online journal that provides a forum for st... more THE MID-ATLANTIC EDUCATION REVIEW is a peer-reviewed, online journal that provides a forum for studies pertaining to educational issues of interest to educators and researchers in the Mid-Atlantic region. The Review publishes articles that contribute to the knowledge base of researchers, policy-makers, teachers, and administrators. To appeal to a broad educational audience, articles cover a spectrum in their level of analysis, subject focus, and methodological approach. The journal is available at This Special Issue provides a collection of scholarly essays written in the span between the election and subsequent inauguration of Donald Trump. The editorial board felt the need to take action, and as educators and scholars we did this in the way we know how: we asked our colleagues to join in a reflection on where we are and where we might be going. There was a sense of danger, and with it, a great need to talk to each other and to understand experiences with which we are not familiar....
In this study, an extension of Klahr and Nigam (2004), we tested 177 middle school students' ... more In this study, an extension of Klahr and Nigam (2004), we tested 177 middle school students' on their acquisition of the control of variables strategy (CVS) using an interactive virtual ramp environment. We compared the effectiveness of three pedagogical approaches, namely, direct instruction with reification, direct instruction without reification, and discovery learning, all of which were authored using the ASSISTment system. MANCOVAs showed that all conditions performed equally on a CVS multiple-choice post test, but that the two direct learning conditions (with and without reification) significantly outperformed the discovery learning condition for constructing unconfounded experiments starting from an initially multiply confounded experimental setup.
Cultivating science inquiry skills is increasingly seen as important to students’ science literac... more Cultivating science inquiry skills is increasingly seen as important to students’ science literacy and effective scaffolding can support productive and successful inquiry practices. In this paper, we examine the evaluations of data interpretation practices of students who conducted inquiry within Inq-ITS, an intelligent tutoring system for science. We trace students’ progress on data interpretation tasks to a new science topic after having received scaffolds that assist with the procedural aspects of data interpretation. Results show that, overall, after receiving data interpretation scaffolds within the system, students were more skilled at interpreting data in the new topic. However, there were still certain aspects of data interpretation with which students experienced difficulty after receiving the scaffolding.
Models and modeling are frequently used as instructional tools in science education to convey imp... more Models and modeling are frequently used as instructional tools in science education to convey important information concerning both the explanatory and structural features of topic areas in science. The efficacy of models as such rests almost entirely upon students' ability to conceptualize them as abstracted "representations" of scientific phenomena. This investigation considers the relationship between students' epistemology of scientific models and their success at learning about a complex system, namely plate tectonics. Ninth-grade students were asked to draw diagrams at three specific points in a short text: (1) a static model; (2) a causal/dynamic model of the movement in the layers; and (3) an outcome in the world, i.e., volcanic eruption due to two plates moving away from one another. Students received a posttest to assess different types of knowledge, namely spatial knowledge, causal/dynamic knowledge, and knowledge through inference. Students were also ad...
has developed a rigorous, technology-based learning environment that assists and assesses (hence,... more has developed a rigorous, technology-based learning environment that assists and assesses (hence, " assistments ") middle school students in Earth, Life, and Physical Science so that teachers can assess their students' skills rigorously, frequently, and in the context in which they are developing, namely, during instruction (Mislevy et al, 2002). Our program of work represents a significant advance over other programs that utilize pencil and paper assessments because ours makes use of a state-of-the art logging infrastructure to do web-based tutoring and assessment (Razzaq et al, 2005). Our learning environment Science Assistments (www.scienceassistments.org;) scaffolds middle school students' scientific inquiry skills, namely, hypothesizing, designing and conducting experiments, interpreting data, warranting claims with evidence, and communicating findings.
This symposium addresses how different classes of research methods, all based upon the use of log... more This symposium addresses how different classes of research methods, all based upon the use of log data from educational software, can facilitate the analysis of students’ learning strategies and behaviors. To this end, four multi-method programs of research are discussed, including the use of qualitative, quantitative-statistical, quantitative-modeling, and educational data mining methods. The symposium presents evidence regarding the applicability of each type of method to research questions of different grain sizes, and provides several examples of how these methods can be used in concert to facilitate our understanding of learning processes, learning strategies, and behaviors related to motivation, meta-cognition, and engagement.
Proceedings of the Sixth (2019) ACM Conference on Learning @ Scale, 2019
Prior studies on scaffolding for investigative inquiry practices (i.e. forming a question/hypothe... more Prior studies on scaffolding for investigative inquiry practices (i.e. forming a question/hypothesis, collecting data, and analyzing and interpreting data [21]) revealed that students who received scaffolding were better able to both learn practices and transfer these competencies to new topics than were students who did not receive scaffolding. Prior studies have also shown that after removing scaffolding, students continued to demonstrate improved inquiry performance on a variety of practices across new driving questions over time. However, studies have not examined the relationship between the amount of scaffolding received and transfer of inquiry performance; this is the focus of the present study. 107 middle school students completed four virtual lab activities (i.e. driving questions) in Inq-ITS. Students received scaffolding when needed from an animated pedagogical computer agent for the first three driving questions for the Animal Cell virtual lab. Then they completed the fourth driving question without access to scaffolding in a different topic, Plant Cell. Results showed that students' performances increased even with fewer scaffolds for the inquiry practices of hypothesizing, collecting data, interpreting data, and warranting claims; furthermore, these results were robust as evidenced by the finding that students required less scaffolding as they completed subsequent inquiry activities. These data provide evidence of near and far transfer as a result of adaptive scaffolding of science inquiry practices.
Scientific explanations, which include a claim, evidence, and reasoning (CER), are frequently use... more Scientific explanations, which include a claim, evidence, and reasoning (CER), are frequently used to measure students’ deep conceptual understandings of science. In this study, we developed an automated scoring approach for the CER that students constructed as a part of virtual inquiry (e.g., formulating questions, analyzing data, and warranting claims) in an intelligent tutoring system (ITS), called Inq-ITS. Results showed that the automated scoring of CER was strongly correlated with human scores when validated using independent sets of data from both the same inquiry task/question, as well as when using data from a different inquiry task/question. These findings imply that automated CER is a very promising approach to reliably and efficiently score scientific explanations in open response format for both smalland largescale assessments. It also provides Inq-ITS with the capability to assess the full complement of inquiry practices described by NGSS.
Operationalization of written explanations in the claim, evidence, and reasoning (CER) format at ... more Operationalization of written explanations in the claim, evidence, and reasoning (CER) format at a fine-grained level is necessary for pinpointing and scaffolding the difficult structural components of C, E, and R. Recently, automated scoring for CER scientific explanations has been developed based on the subcomponents of C, E, and R statements. In the present study, we sought to investigate the generalizability of an automated scoring method, developed for Density, when applied to a new scientific topic, Lunar Phases. Results of the study indicated high performance for the automated method. This study provides data on the specific difficulties students face when generating explanations, as well as how these difficulties generalize across domains.
Abstract. In recent years, there has been increased interest and research on identifying the vari... more Abstract. In recent years, there has been increased interest and research on identifying the various ways that students can deviate from expected or desired patterns while using educational software. This includes research on gaming the system, player transformation, haphazard inquiry, and failure to use key features of the learning system. Detection of these sorts of behaviors has helped researchers to better understand these behaviors, thus allowing software designers to develop interventions that can remediate them and/or reduce their negative impacts on user outcomes. In this paper, we present a first detector of what we term WTF (“Without Thinking Fastidiously”) behavior, based on data from the Phase Change microworld in the Science ASSISTments environment. In WTF behavior, the student is interacting with the software, but their actions appear to have no relationship to the intended learning task. We discuss the detector development process, validate the detectors with human la...
The Next Generation Science Standards [1] expect students to master disciplinary core ideas, cros... more The Next Generation Science Standards [1] expect students to master disciplinary core ideas, crosscutting concepts, and scientific practice. In prior work, we showed that students benefited from real time scaffolding of science practices such that students’ inquiry competencies both improved over time and transferred to new science topics. The present study examines the robustness of adaptive scaffolding by evaluating students’ inquiry performances at a very fine-grained level in order to investigate what aspects of inquiry are robust over time once scaffolding was removed. 108 middle school students in grade 6 used Inq-ITS and received adaptive scaffolding for three lab activities in the first inquiry topic they completed (i.e. Animal Cell); they then completed 10 activities without scaffolding across three new topics. Results showed that after removing scaffolding, student’s inquiry performance generally improved with slight variations in performance across driving questions and over time. Overall, these findings suggest that adaptive scaffolding may support students’ inquiry learning and transfer of inquiry practices over time and across topics.
In the present study, we examined the use of academic language in students’ scientific explanatio... more In the present study, we examined the use of academic language in students’ scientific explanations in the form of written claim, written evidence, and written reasoning (CER) statements during science inquiry within an intelligent tutoring system. Results showed that students tended to use more academic language when constructing their evidence and reasoning statements. Further analyses showed that both the number of words and pronouns used by students were significant predictors for the quality of students’ written CER statements. The quality of claim statements was significantly reduced by the lexical density (type-token ratio), but the quality of reasoning significantly increased with lexical density. The quality of evidence statements increased significantly with the inclusion of causal and temporal relationships, verb overlap, and descriptive writing. These findings indicate that students used language differently when constructing their CER statements. Implications are discussed in terms of how to increase students’ knowledge of and use of academic language.
Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 2018
The Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) for K-12 science education has outlined new standard... more The Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) for K-12 science education has outlined new standards that integrate science inquiry practices with scientific concepts and ideas. The challenge with implementing this framework has been determining how to provide students with authentic scientific experiences and real-time individualized scaffolding during inquiry, as well as reliably and validly assess students’ inquiry competencies. This article reviews current computer-based educational technologies, namely, educational data mining and natural language processing, and describes how these technologies have been used to automatically assess science inquiry practices aligned with NGSS practices. The second section describes the implementation of real-time adaptive, individualized scaffolds and instruction, based on automated inquiry assessment techniques. Finally, we aim to direct the attention of policy makers toward the use of technology to promote significant progress of nationwide in...
Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 2018
The Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) for K-12 science education has outlined new standard... more The Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) for K-12 science education has outlined new standards that integrate science inquiry practices with scientific concepts and ideas. The challenge with implementing this framework has been determining how to provide students with authentic scientific experiences and real-time individualized scaffolding during inquiry, as well as reliably and validly assess students’ inquiry competencies. This article reviews current computer-based educational technologies, namely, educational data mining and natural language processing, and describes how these technologies have been used to automatically assess science inquiry practices aligned with NGSS practices. The second section describes the implementation of real-time adaptive, individualized scaffolds and instruction, based on automated inquiry assessment techniques. Finally, we aim to direct the attention of policy makers toward the use of technology to promote significant progress of nationwide in...
Computer-assisted assessment environments, such as intelligent tutoring systems, simulations, and... more Computer-assisted assessment environments, such as intelligent tutoring systems, simulations, and virtual environments are now being designed to measure students’ science inquiry practices. Some assessment environments not only evaluate students’ inquiry practice competencies, but also provide real-time scaffolding in order to help students learn. The present study aims to examine the impact of real-time scaffolding from an animated, pedagogical agent on students’ inquiry performance across a number of practices. Participants were randomly assigned to one of two conditions: receiving scaffolding or no scaffolding. All participants completed three virtual labs: Flower (a general pretest), Phase Change, and Density. Results showed that students who received immediate feedback during assessment performed better on subsequent inquiry tasks. These findings have implications for designers and researchers regarding the benefits of including real-time scaffolding within intelligent assessment systems.
Cyber-Physical Laboratories in Engineering and Science Education, 2018
This chapter addresses students’ data interpretation, a key NGSS inquiry practice, with which stu... more This chapter addresses students’ data interpretation, a key NGSS inquiry practice, with which students have several different types of difficulties. In this work, we unpack the difficulties associated with data interpretation from those associated with warranting claims. We do this within the context of Inq-ITS (Inquiry Intelligent Tutoring System), a lightweight LMS, providing computer-based assessment and tutoring for science inquiry practices/skills. We conducted a systematic analysis of a subset of our data to address whether our scaffolding is supporting students in the acquisition and transfer of these inquiry skills. We also describe an additional study, which used Bayesian Knowledge Tracing (Corbett and Anderson. User Model User-Adapt Interact 4(4):253–278, 1995), a computational approach allowing for the analysis of the fine-grained sub-skills underlying our practices of data interpretation and warranting claims.
THE MID-ATLANTIC EDUCATION REVIEW is a peer-reviewed, online journal that provides a forum for st... more THE MID-ATLANTIC EDUCATION REVIEW is a peer-reviewed, online journal that provides a forum for studies pertaining to educational issues of interest to educators and researchers in the Mid-Atlantic region. The Review publishes articles that contribute to the knowledge base of researchers, policy-makers, teachers, and administrators. To appeal to a broad educational audience, articles cover a spectrum in their level of analysis, subject focus, and methodological approach. The journal is available at This Special Issue provides a collection of scholarly essays written in the span between the election and subsequent inauguration of Donald Trump. The editorial board felt the need to take action, and as educators and scholars we did this in the way we know how: we asked our colleagues to join in a reflection on where we are and where we might be going. There was a sense of danger, and with it, a great need to talk to each other and to understand experiences with which we are not familiar....
In this study, an extension of Klahr and Nigam (2004), we tested 177 middle school students' ... more In this study, an extension of Klahr and Nigam (2004), we tested 177 middle school students' on their acquisition of the control of variables strategy (CVS) using an interactive virtual ramp environment. We compared the effectiveness of three pedagogical approaches, namely, direct instruction with reification, direct instruction without reification, and discovery learning, all of which were authored using the ASSISTment system. MANCOVAs showed that all conditions performed equally on a CVS multiple-choice post test, but that the two direct learning conditions (with and without reification) significantly outperformed the discovery learning condition for constructing unconfounded experiments starting from an initially multiply confounded experimental setup.
Cultivating science inquiry skills is increasingly seen as important to students’ science literac... more Cultivating science inquiry skills is increasingly seen as important to students’ science literacy and effective scaffolding can support productive and successful inquiry practices. In this paper, we examine the evaluations of data interpretation practices of students who conducted inquiry within Inq-ITS, an intelligent tutoring system for science. We trace students’ progress on data interpretation tasks to a new science topic after having received scaffolds that assist with the procedural aspects of data interpretation. Results show that, overall, after receiving data interpretation scaffolds within the system, students were more skilled at interpreting data in the new topic. However, there were still certain aspects of data interpretation with which students experienced difficulty after receiving the scaffolding.
Models and modeling are frequently used as instructional tools in science education to convey imp... more Models and modeling are frequently used as instructional tools in science education to convey important information concerning both the explanatory and structural features of topic areas in science. The efficacy of models as such rests almost entirely upon students' ability to conceptualize them as abstracted "representations" of scientific phenomena. This investigation considers the relationship between students' epistemology of scientific models and their success at learning about a complex system, namely plate tectonics. Ninth-grade students were asked to draw diagrams at three specific points in a short text: (1) a static model; (2) a causal/dynamic model of the movement in the layers; and (3) an outcome in the world, i.e., volcanic eruption due to two plates moving away from one another. Students received a posttest to assess different types of knowledge, namely spatial knowledge, causal/dynamic knowledge, and knowledge through inference. Students were also ad...
has developed a rigorous, technology-based learning environment that assists and assesses (hence,... more has developed a rigorous, technology-based learning environment that assists and assesses (hence, " assistments ") middle school students in Earth, Life, and Physical Science so that teachers can assess their students' skills rigorously, frequently, and in the context in which they are developing, namely, during instruction (Mislevy et al, 2002). Our program of work represents a significant advance over other programs that utilize pencil and paper assessments because ours makes use of a state-of-the art logging infrastructure to do web-based tutoring and assessment (Razzaq et al, 2005). Our learning environment Science Assistments (www.scienceassistments.org;) scaffolds middle school students' scientific inquiry skills, namely, hypothesizing, designing and conducting experiments, interpreting data, warranting claims with evidence, and communicating findings.
This symposium addresses how different classes of research methods, all based upon the use of log... more This symposium addresses how different classes of research methods, all based upon the use of log data from educational software, can facilitate the analysis of students’ learning strategies and behaviors. To this end, four multi-method programs of research are discussed, including the use of qualitative, quantitative-statistical, quantitative-modeling, and educational data mining methods. The symposium presents evidence regarding the applicability of each type of method to research questions of different grain sizes, and provides several examples of how these methods can be used in concert to facilitate our understanding of learning processes, learning strategies, and behaviors related to motivation, meta-cognition, and engagement.
Proceedings of the Sixth (2019) ACM Conference on Learning @ Scale, 2019
Prior studies on scaffolding for investigative inquiry practices (i.e. forming a question/hypothe... more Prior studies on scaffolding for investigative inquiry practices (i.e. forming a question/hypothesis, collecting data, and analyzing and interpreting data [21]) revealed that students who received scaffolding were better able to both learn practices and transfer these competencies to new topics than were students who did not receive scaffolding. Prior studies have also shown that after removing scaffolding, students continued to demonstrate improved inquiry performance on a variety of practices across new driving questions over time. However, studies have not examined the relationship between the amount of scaffolding received and transfer of inquiry performance; this is the focus of the present study. 107 middle school students completed four virtual lab activities (i.e. driving questions) in Inq-ITS. Students received scaffolding when needed from an animated pedagogical computer agent for the first three driving questions for the Animal Cell virtual lab. Then they completed the fourth driving question without access to scaffolding in a different topic, Plant Cell. Results showed that students' performances increased even with fewer scaffolds for the inquiry practices of hypothesizing, collecting data, interpreting data, and warranting claims; furthermore, these results were robust as evidenced by the finding that students required less scaffolding as they completed subsequent inquiry activities. These data provide evidence of near and far transfer as a result of adaptive scaffolding of science inquiry practices.
Scientific explanations, which include a claim, evidence, and reasoning (CER), are frequently use... more Scientific explanations, which include a claim, evidence, and reasoning (CER), are frequently used to measure students’ deep conceptual understandings of science. In this study, we developed an automated scoring approach for the CER that students constructed as a part of virtual inquiry (e.g., formulating questions, analyzing data, and warranting claims) in an intelligent tutoring system (ITS), called Inq-ITS. Results showed that the automated scoring of CER was strongly correlated with human scores when validated using independent sets of data from both the same inquiry task/question, as well as when using data from a different inquiry task/question. These findings imply that automated CER is a very promising approach to reliably and efficiently score scientific explanations in open response format for both smalland largescale assessments. It also provides Inq-ITS with the capability to assess the full complement of inquiry practices described by NGSS.
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