Extremely slow recession of the Moon from the Earth has been recently proposed and attributed to ... more Extremely slow recession of the Moon from the Earth has been recently proposed and attributed to conversion of Earth’s axial spin to lunar orbital momentum. This hypothesis is inconsistent with long-standing recognition that the Moon’s orbit involves three-body interactions. This and other short-comings, such as Earth’s spin loss being internal, are summarized here. Considering point-masses is justified by theory and observational data on other moons. We deduce that torque in the Earth-Moon-Sun system increases eccentricity of the lunar orbit but decreases its inclination over time. Consequently, the average lunar orbital radius is decreasing. We also show that lunar drift is too small to be constrained through lunar laser ranging measurements, mainly because atmospheric refraction corrections are comparatively large and variations in lunar cycles are under-sampled. Our findings support co-accretion and explain how orbits evolve in many-body point-mass systems.
Available data on insulating, semiconducting, and metallic solids verify our new model that incor... more Available data on insulating, semiconducting, and metallic solids verify our new model that incorporates steady-state heat flow into a macroscopic, thermodynamic description of solids, with agreement being best for isotropic examples. Our model is based on: (1) mass and energy conservation; (2) Fourier’s law; (3) Stefan–Boltzmann’s law; and (4) rigidity, which is a large, yet heretofore neglected, energy reservoir with no counterpart in gases. To account for rigidity while neglecting dissipation, we consider the ideal, limiting case of a perfectly frictionless elastic solid (PFES) which does not generate heat from stress. Its equation-of-state is independent of the energetics, as in the historic model. We show that pressure-volume work (PdV) in a PFES arises from internal interatomic forces, which are linked to Young’s modulus (Ξ) and a constant (n) accounting for cation coordination. Steady-state conditions are adiabatic since heat content (Q) is constant. Because average temperatu...
Measurements, Mechanisms, and Models of Heat Transport, 2019
Abstract This chapter shows that timelines of discovery and experimental limitations contributed ... more Abstract This chapter shows that timelines of discovery and experimental limitations contributed to misunderstanding the continuous nature of light. Previous chapters associated thermal emissions with inelastic collisions, which are needed for temperature to evolve. Here, we show that Planck’s formula for “intensity” IBB overestimates the Stefan–Boltzmann constant (σSB) by fourfold, and provides noninteger values for the number of photons, contradicting frequency being quantized. We develop a continuum model for light, by combining macroscopic laws and equations of electromagnetism and thermodynamics, with constraints imposed by spin, the Virial theorem and the limits at null and infinite frequencies. Links between spin and translation energy are proposed, and the size of light is deduced. Our formula for IBB resembles Planck’s but yields σSB. The exponential component of IBB relates to proportional losses during inelastic collisions that produce light. The photoelectric effect does not require quantization, if momentum is considered.
In the Footsteps of Warren B. Hamilton: New Ideas in Earth Science, 2022
Lateral accelerations require lateral forces. We propose that force imbalances in the unique Eart... more Lateral accelerations require lateral forces. We propose that force imbalances in the unique Earth-Moon-Sun system cause large-scale, cooperative tectonic motions. The solar gravitational pull on the Moon, being 2.2× terrestrial pull, causes lunar drift, orbital elongation, and an ~1000 km radial monthly excursion of the Earth-Moon barycenter inside Earth’s mantle. Earth’s spin superimposes an approximately longitudinal 24 h circuit of the barycenter. Because the oscillating barycenter lies 3500–5500 km from the geocenter, Earth’s tangential orbital acceleration and solar pull are imbalanced. Near-surface motions are enabled by a weak low-velocity zone underlying the cold, brittle lithosphere: The thermal states of both layers result from leakage of Earth’s internal radiogenic heat to space. Concomitantly, stress induced by spin cracks the lithosphere in a classic X-pattern, creating mid-ocean ridges and plate segments. The inertial response of our high-spin planet with its low-velo...
Author(s): Criss, Everett M. | Abstract: A new method of joining Co by braze-welding it with an A... more Author(s): Criss, Everett M. | Abstract: A new method of joining Co by braze-welding it with an AgCu filler was developed in order to better understand the residual stresses in Be-AlSi weldments. The constituents of this new welding system were selected to replicate the physical properties, crystal structures, and chemical behaviors of the Be-AlSi welds; "welding surrogacy" is used to describe this process. Final welds are five pass manual tungsten inert gas (TIG), with He top -gas and Ar back-gas. Final welds exhibit full penetration melting of the cobalt base, while microscopy indicates that cracking is minimal and not through thickness. Welds are composed of five separate regions consisting of the unaffected Co base, the heat affected zone, the melted Co base, the AgCu filler, and the CoCu peritectic. Failure tests of the surrogate welds show that residual stresses have little or no effect on strength, whereas weld quality and geometry are extremely important. Crack com...
The present chapter focuses on essentially fully accreted planets, and evaluates heat produced du... more The present chapter focuses on essentially fully accreted planets, and evaluates heat produced during gravity driven planetary scale motions. These motions are important because planetary heat sources are insufficient to drive convection, and because volcanism can occur independently of plate tectonics. The differences between radial, axial, and lateral motions that are associated with gravitational forces explain various geophysical behaviors. Spin dissipation on planets is covered, emphasizing the role of friction. Torques produced by externally derived gravitational forces are another focus, as their presence explains lunar drift and the mechanism and late development of plate tectonics. Possible consequences of polar jets are explored. Addition of heat and matter by late-arriving impacts explains the high temperatures in the Hadean/Archean without relying on hot accretion, which is unlikely due to the immense energy reservoir of spin.
From femtosecond spectroscopy (fs-spectroscopy) of metals, electrons and phonons reequilibrate ne... more From femtosecond spectroscopy (fs-spectroscopy) of metals, electrons and phonons reequilibrate nearly independently, which contrasts with models of heat transfer at ordinary temperatures ([Formula: see text] K). These electronic transfer models only agree with thermal conductivity [Formula: see text] data at a single temperature, but do not agree with thermal diffusivity [Formula: see text] data. To address the discrepancies, which are important to problems in solid state physics, we separately measured electronic (ele) and phononic (lat) components of [Formula: see text] in many metals and alloys over [Formula: see text]290–1100 K by varying measurement duration and sample length in laser-flash experiments. These mechanisms produce distinct diffusive responses in temperature versus time acquisitions because carrier speeds [Formula: see text] and heat capacities [Formula: see text] differ greatly. Electronic transport of heat only operates for a brief time after heat is applied beca...
Interplanetary interactions are the largest forces in our Solar System that disturb the planets f... more Interplanetary interactions are the largest forces in our Solar System that disturb the planets from their elliptical orbits around the Sun, yet are weak (<10−3 Solar). Currently, these perturbations are computed in pairs using Hill’s model for steady-state, central forces between one circular and one elliptical ring of mass. However, forces between rings are not central. To represent interplanetary interactions, which are transient, time-dependent, and cyclical, we build upon Newton’s model of interacting point-mass pairs, focusing on circular orbits of the eight largest bodies. To probe general and evolutionary behavior, we present analytical and numerical models of the interplanetary forces and torques generated during the planetary interaction cycles. From symmetry, over a planetary interaction cycle, radial forces dominate while tangential forces average to zero. Our calculations show that orbital perturbations require millennia to quantify, but observations are only over ~1...
The large magnitude of the dimensionless Rayleigh number (Ra ~10 8) for Earth's ~3 000 km thi... more The large magnitude of the dimensionless Rayleigh number (Ra ~10 8) for Earth's ~3 000 km thick mantle is considered evidence of whole mantle convection. However, the current formulation assumes behavior characteristic of gases and liquids and also assumes Cartesian geometry. Issues arising from neglecting physical properties unique to solids and ignoring the spherical shapes for planets include: (1) Planet radius must be incorporated into Ra, in addition to layer thickness, to conserve mass during radial displacements. (2) The vastly different rates for heat and mass diffusion in solids, which result from their decoupled transport mechanisms, promote stability. (3) Unlike liquids, substantial stress is needed to deform solids, which independently promotes stability. (4) High interior compression stabilizes the mantle in additional minor ways. Therefore, representing conditions for convection in solid, self-gravitating spheroids, requires modifying formulae developed for bottom-...
Extremely slow recession of the Moon from the Earth has been recently proposed and attributed to ... more Extremely slow recession of the Moon from the Earth has been recently proposed and attributed to conversion of Earth’s axial spin to lunar orbital momentum. This hypothesis is inconsistent with long-standing recognition that the Moon’s orbit involves three-body interactions. This and other short-comings, such as Earth’s spin loss being internal, are summarized here. Considering point-masses is justified by theory and observational data on other moons. We deduce that torque in the Earth-Moon-Sun system increases eccentricity of the lunar orbit but decreases its inclination over time. Consequently, the average lunar orbital radius is decreasing. We also show that lunar drift is too small to be constrained through lunar laser ranging measurements, mainly because atmospheric refraction corrections are comparatively large and variations in lunar cycles are under-sampled. Our findings support co-accretion and explain how orbits evolve in many-body point-mass systems.
Available data on insulating, semiconducting, and metallic solids verify our new model that incor... more Available data on insulating, semiconducting, and metallic solids verify our new model that incorporates steady-state heat flow into a macroscopic, thermodynamic description of solids, with agreement being best for isotropic examples. Our model is based on: (1) mass and energy conservation; (2) Fourier’s law; (3) Stefan–Boltzmann’s law; and (4) rigidity, which is a large, yet heretofore neglected, energy reservoir with no counterpart in gases. To account for rigidity while neglecting dissipation, we consider the ideal, limiting case of a perfectly frictionless elastic solid (PFES) which does not generate heat from stress. Its equation-of-state is independent of the energetics, as in the historic model. We show that pressure-volume work (PdV) in a PFES arises from internal interatomic forces, which are linked to Young’s modulus (Ξ) and a constant (n) accounting for cation coordination. Steady-state conditions are adiabatic since heat content (Q) is constant. Because average temperatu...
Measurements, Mechanisms, and Models of Heat Transport, 2019
Abstract This chapter shows that timelines of discovery and experimental limitations contributed ... more Abstract This chapter shows that timelines of discovery and experimental limitations contributed to misunderstanding the continuous nature of light. Previous chapters associated thermal emissions with inelastic collisions, which are needed for temperature to evolve. Here, we show that Planck’s formula for “intensity” IBB overestimates the Stefan–Boltzmann constant (σSB) by fourfold, and provides noninteger values for the number of photons, contradicting frequency being quantized. We develop a continuum model for light, by combining macroscopic laws and equations of electromagnetism and thermodynamics, with constraints imposed by spin, the Virial theorem and the limits at null and infinite frequencies. Links between spin and translation energy are proposed, and the size of light is deduced. Our formula for IBB resembles Planck’s but yields σSB. The exponential component of IBB relates to proportional losses during inelastic collisions that produce light. The photoelectric effect does not require quantization, if momentum is considered.
In the Footsteps of Warren B. Hamilton: New Ideas in Earth Science, 2022
Lateral accelerations require lateral forces. We propose that force imbalances in the unique Eart... more Lateral accelerations require lateral forces. We propose that force imbalances in the unique Earth-Moon-Sun system cause large-scale, cooperative tectonic motions. The solar gravitational pull on the Moon, being 2.2× terrestrial pull, causes lunar drift, orbital elongation, and an ~1000 km radial monthly excursion of the Earth-Moon barycenter inside Earth’s mantle. Earth’s spin superimposes an approximately longitudinal 24 h circuit of the barycenter. Because the oscillating barycenter lies 3500–5500 km from the geocenter, Earth’s tangential orbital acceleration and solar pull are imbalanced. Near-surface motions are enabled by a weak low-velocity zone underlying the cold, brittle lithosphere: The thermal states of both layers result from leakage of Earth’s internal radiogenic heat to space. Concomitantly, stress induced by spin cracks the lithosphere in a classic X-pattern, creating mid-ocean ridges and plate segments. The inertial response of our high-spin planet with its low-velo...
Author(s): Criss, Everett M. | Abstract: A new method of joining Co by braze-welding it with an A... more Author(s): Criss, Everett M. | Abstract: A new method of joining Co by braze-welding it with an AgCu filler was developed in order to better understand the residual stresses in Be-AlSi weldments. The constituents of this new welding system were selected to replicate the physical properties, crystal structures, and chemical behaviors of the Be-AlSi welds; "welding surrogacy" is used to describe this process. Final welds are five pass manual tungsten inert gas (TIG), with He top -gas and Ar back-gas. Final welds exhibit full penetration melting of the cobalt base, while microscopy indicates that cracking is minimal and not through thickness. Welds are composed of five separate regions consisting of the unaffected Co base, the heat affected zone, the melted Co base, the AgCu filler, and the CoCu peritectic. Failure tests of the surrogate welds show that residual stresses have little or no effect on strength, whereas weld quality and geometry are extremely important. Crack com...
The present chapter focuses on essentially fully accreted planets, and evaluates heat produced du... more The present chapter focuses on essentially fully accreted planets, and evaluates heat produced during gravity driven planetary scale motions. These motions are important because planetary heat sources are insufficient to drive convection, and because volcanism can occur independently of plate tectonics. The differences between radial, axial, and lateral motions that are associated with gravitational forces explain various geophysical behaviors. Spin dissipation on planets is covered, emphasizing the role of friction. Torques produced by externally derived gravitational forces are another focus, as their presence explains lunar drift and the mechanism and late development of plate tectonics. Possible consequences of polar jets are explored. Addition of heat and matter by late-arriving impacts explains the high temperatures in the Hadean/Archean without relying on hot accretion, which is unlikely due to the immense energy reservoir of spin.
From femtosecond spectroscopy (fs-spectroscopy) of metals, electrons and phonons reequilibrate ne... more From femtosecond spectroscopy (fs-spectroscopy) of metals, electrons and phonons reequilibrate nearly independently, which contrasts with models of heat transfer at ordinary temperatures ([Formula: see text] K). These electronic transfer models only agree with thermal conductivity [Formula: see text] data at a single temperature, but do not agree with thermal diffusivity [Formula: see text] data. To address the discrepancies, which are important to problems in solid state physics, we separately measured electronic (ele) and phononic (lat) components of [Formula: see text] in many metals and alloys over [Formula: see text]290–1100 K by varying measurement duration and sample length in laser-flash experiments. These mechanisms produce distinct diffusive responses in temperature versus time acquisitions because carrier speeds [Formula: see text] and heat capacities [Formula: see text] differ greatly. Electronic transport of heat only operates for a brief time after heat is applied beca...
Interplanetary interactions are the largest forces in our Solar System that disturb the planets f... more Interplanetary interactions are the largest forces in our Solar System that disturb the planets from their elliptical orbits around the Sun, yet are weak (<10−3 Solar). Currently, these perturbations are computed in pairs using Hill’s model for steady-state, central forces between one circular and one elliptical ring of mass. However, forces between rings are not central. To represent interplanetary interactions, which are transient, time-dependent, and cyclical, we build upon Newton’s model of interacting point-mass pairs, focusing on circular orbits of the eight largest bodies. To probe general and evolutionary behavior, we present analytical and numerical models of the interplanetary forces and torques generated during the planetary interaction cycles. From symmetry, over a planetary interaction cycle, radial forces dominate while tangential forces average to zero. Our calculations show that orbital perturbations require millennia to quantify, but observations are only over ~1...
The large magnitude of the dimensionless Rayleigh number (Ra ~10 8) for Earth's ~3 000 km thi... more The large magnitude of the dimensionless Rayleigh number (Ra ~10 8) for Earth's ~3 000 km thick mantle is considered evidence of whole mantle convection. However, the current formulation assumes behavior characteristic of gases and liquids and also assumes Cartesian geometry. Issues arising from neglecting physical properties unique to solids and ignoring the spherical shapes for planets include: (1) Planet radius must be incorporated into Ra, in addition to layer thickness, to conserve mass during radial displacements. (2) The vastly different rates for heat and mass diffusion in solids, which result from their decoupled transport mechanisms, promote stability. (3) Unlike liquids, substantial stress is needed to deform solids, which independently promotes stability. (4) High interior compression stabilizes the mantle in additional minor ways. Therefore, representing conditions for convection in solid, self-gravitating spheroids, requires modifying formulae developed for bottom-...
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