Extended Data Fig. 9 | CCH3, intermediate pedal phalanx of H. luzonensis. a, Photograph of the or... more Extended Data Fig. 9 | CCH3, intermediate pedal phalanx of H. luzonensis. a, Photograph of the original specimen CCH3 in plantar view. b, Three-dimensional rendering of CCH3. From left to right: plantar, medial, dorsal, lateral, distal (top), proximal (bottom), disto-medial and proximo-medial aspects. c, Comparison of CCH3 with Pliocene (A.L.333- 21a, unknown side and rays 2–5, and A.L.333-115k, fourth intermediate phalanx), Upper Pleistocene (LB1/56, LB1-15 and LB1/39: unknown side and rays 2–5) and recent (PAPO-74-150) intermediate pedal phalanges in plantar (top) and side (bottom) views. Note the variation in shape and size both between taxa (for example, H. sapiens and H. floresiensis) and in the same individual (for example, LB1 and PAPO-74-150). A detailed list of specimens can be found in Supplementary Table 12. Scale bars, 10 mm.
Extended Data Fig. 7 | CCH5, distal manual phalanx of H. luzonensis. a, Photograph of the origina... more Extended Data Fig. 7 | CCH5, distal manual phalanx of H. luzonensis. a, Photograph of the original specimen CCH5 in palmar view. b, Three- dimensional rendering of CCH5. From left to right: palmar, lateral/medial, dorsal, medial/lateral, distal (top), proximal (bottom), disto-lateral/ medial and proximo-lateral/medial aspects. c, Comparison of CCH5 with Pliocene (A.L.333-11 and A.L.333-50), Lower Pleistocene (OH7 (FLK- NN-B) and SKX 27504), Upper Pleistocene (LB6/12) and recent distal manual phalanges (PAPO-74-53 and PAPO-74-11) in palmar (top) and side (bottom) views. All specimens are from rays 2–5 of unknown side, except for OH7 (second to fourth ray, probably from the right hand of a juvenile individual). d, e, Box-and-whisker plots depicting the expansion index ((apical tuft maximum medio-lateral width/maximum mediolateral width of the base) × 100)) (d) and the robusticity index ((apical tuft maximum medio-lateral width/biomechanical length) × 100) (e) of the distal manual phal...
Extended Data Fig. 3 | Elliptic Fourier analysis of M1 crown contour. CCH6-c compared to the holo... more Extended Data Fig. 3 | Elliptic Fourier analysis of M1 crown contour. CCH6-c compared to the holotype of H. floresiensis (LB1) and large samples of archaeological and recent H. sapiens individuals. a, PCA of shape data for all specimens, scatter plot of individual scores for PC1 versus PC2 (see Methods; elliptic Fourier descriptors applied to Procrustes-aligned outlines, ten harmonics included). LGM, Last Glacial Maximum. Sample sizes: H. luzonensis, n = 1; H. floresiensis, n = 2; pre- LGM, n = 2; pre-Neolithic post-LGM, n = 12; Neolithic/post-Neolithic, n = 232; recent 'Negritos', n = 19. A detailed list of specimens can be found in Supplementary Table 5. b, Bar plot of eigenvalues (%) of PC1–PC6. c, Extreme shape variations along PC1 and PC2. The scores of H. luzonensis M1 along PC1 and PC2 reflects a crown outline shape that is mesio-distally compressed, but not as much as that of H. floresiensis (two versions of the LB1 right M 1). d, Right M 1 of the holotype of H. flor...
Fig. 5 | Proximal pedal phalanx of H. luzonensis (CCH4). CCH4 compared with specimens attributed ... more Fig. 5 | Proximal pedal phalanx of H. luzonensis (CCH4). CCH4 compared with specimens attributed to Australopithecus (A. afarensis, n = 6; A. africanus, n = 1), recent H. sapiens (n = 64) and H. floresiensis (n = 2). a, bgPCA of Procrustes-registered landmarks and semilandmarks: scatter plot of individual scores for bgPC1 versus bgPC2. b, Shape variation associated with bgPC1 and bgPC2: CCH4 and Australopithecus phalanges are elongated and curved (see bgPC1 max.). A detailed list of specimens can be found in Supplementary Table 7.
Fig. 4 | Premolar EDJ of H. luzonensis. a, EDJ of the P 3 of H. luzonensis (CCH6-e) compared to t... more Fig. 4 | Premolar EDJ of H. luzonensis. a, EDJ of the P 3 of H. luzonensis (CCH6-e) compared to the EDJs of H. floresiensis (Liang Bua 1 (LB1)), H. sapiens, H. erectus (Sangiran 4) and H. neanderthalensis (KRD 53). Horns of dentine were reconstructed for CCH6-e, LB1 and Sangiran 4; see Methods. Scale bar, 5 mm. b, c, Between-group principal component analyses (bgPCAs) of the three-dimensional landmark Procrustes- registered shape coordinates of the P 3 s (b) and P 4 s (c). Sample sizes for b, c, respectively: H. erectus, n = 2, 3; H. neanderthalensis, n = 5, 6; fossil H. sapiens, n = 3, 3; extant H. sapiens, n = 8, 9; H. floresiensis, n = 1, 0; H. luzonensis, n = 2, 2. A detailed list of specimens can be found in Supplementary Table 6
Fig. 2 | Fossil remains of H. luzonensis from Late Pleistocene sediments at Callao Cave. a, Holot... more Fig. 2 | Fossil remains of H. luzonensis from Late Pleistocene sediments at Callao Cave. a, Holotype CCH6: postcanine maxillary teeth in occlusal (left) and buccal (right) aspects, with three-dimensional rendering of enamel (dark blue), dentine and cement (light brown), and pulp cavity (dark grey) for CCH6-b–CCH6-e. b, Intermediate manual phalanx CCH2 (dorsal, lateral and palmar aspects). c, Distal manual phalanx CCH5 (dorsal, lateral/medial and palmar aspects). d, Proximal pedal phalanx CCH4 (dorsal, lateral and plantar aspects). e, Intermediate pedal phalanx CCH3 (dorsal, medial and plantar aspects). f, Left P 3 or P 4 CCH8: occlusal (top) and buccal (bottom) aspects, with three-dimensional rendering of enamel, dentine and cement, and pulp cavity. g, Right M3 CCH9: occlusal (top) and buccal (bottom) aspects. h, Juvenile femoral shaft CCH7 (anterior, lateral and posterior aspects). Scale bars, 10 mm (a–g) and 20 mm (h); additional views are shown in Extended Data Figs. 1, 5, 7–10.
This chapter is an overview of the Philippine prehistory and archaeology. It provides the differe... more This chapter is an overview of the Philippine prehistory and archaeology. It provides the different chronology and periodization in the reconstruction of Philippine prehistory from the very beginning of the archaeological awareness in the Philippine archipelago, and until the most recent one. New archaeological data found in the Philippines are included in this chapter and the significance of these archaeological finds in the role of the Philippine archipelago to the archaeological setting of Island Southeast Asian prehistory. A better understanding of the terms “Palaeolithic”, “Neolithic”, “Metal Age”, and the “Age of Contact”in the Philippine archipelago has now becomes clear. There are more examples of archaeological sites representing these various periods in the Philippines.The connection of the Philippine archipelago with the rest of both Mainland and Island Southeast Asia is now demonstrated with the artifacts and archaeological features that were made available in the past t...
The species Homo luzonensis has recently been described based on a set of dental and postcranial ... more The species Homo luzonensis has recently been described based on a set of dental and postcranial elements found at Callao Cave (Northern Luzon, Philippines) and dated to at least 50-67 ka. Seven postcanine maxillary teeth are attributed to this taxon, five of them belonging to the same individual (CCH6) and representing the holotype of H. luzonensis, whereas the isolated upper premolar CCH8 and the upper third molar CCH9 are paratypes of the species. The teeth are characterized by their small dimensions associated with primitive features, as also found in Homo floresiensis, another hominin having evolved in an insular environment of Southeast Asia. Postcranial bones of the hands and feet of H. luzonensis and H. floresiensis show Homo habilis-like or australopith-like features, whereas cranial and dental morphology are more consistent with the Asian Homo erectus morphology. Due to this mosaic morphology, the origin and phylogenetic relationships of both H. luzonensis and H. floresiensis are still debated. To test the hypotheses that H. luzonensis derives from H. erectus or from an earlier small-brained hominin, we analyzed the µCT scans of the teeth. We investigated both external and internal tooth structure using morphometric methods including: crown outline shape, tooth crown tissue proportions, enamel-dentine junction shape, and pulp morphology. Homo luzonensis external crown morphology aligns more with H. erectus than with H. habilis/H. rudolfensis. The internal structural organization of H. luzonensis teeth exhibits more affinities with that of H. erectus and H. floresiensis than with Neanderthals and modern humans. Our results suggest that both H. floresiensis and H. luzonensis likely evolved from some H. erectus groups that dispersed in the various islands of this region and became isolated until endemic speciation events occurred at least twice during the Pleistocene in insular environments.
Abstract Analysing residues on stone tools can reveal precise information about the activities th... more Abstract Analysing residues on stone tools can reveal precise information about the activities that were conducted with the lithic tool and is a valuable technique to reconstruct past human behaviours. However, it is often difficult to assess the nature of the relationship between a residue and the artefact on which it is found. It is of great importance, therefore, to determine whether residues are use-related or a result of contamination. Here, we conducted experiments with 99 tool replicas made of red jasper, processed 15 different plant taxa and mapped the distribution of residues against the use-wear traces. Our experiments addressed several questions on the spatial relationship between use-wear and use-related residues on stone tools. In the majority of cases the residues were not spatially associated with use-wear. Therefore, it appears that residues should not necessarily be considered as non-related to use because they are not in close proximity to use-wear. On the other hand, our experiments also showed that the problem of contamination should not be underestimated and can be a serious cause for misinterpreting stone tool functions. Finally, our results showed a variability in residue distribution between tools used to process different plant taxa and revealed that the water content in the contact material has an influence on residue distribution.
Prehistoric stone tools discovered in Southeast Asia contrast with what is found in the rest of t... more Prehistoric stone tools discovered in Southeast Asia contrast with what is found in the rest of the world: they are simple and their production techniques remained unchanged for millennia. To explain these unique characteristics, some scholars offered what is called the “bamboo hypothesis”: if SE Asian stone tools are simple it would be because they were actually used to manufacture more complex implements made of bamboo. This hypothesis relies on a series of indirect evidence, among which the fact that use-traces occurring on the stone tools result from plant processing. These traces are often interpreted as due to bamboo working although in the absence of an adapted reference collection such a precise diagnosis is impossible to make. A fundamental question remains to be addressed: is it possible to distinguish the working of bamboo from the one of other plants based on the traces they produce? To answer this, we carried out several experiments, grounded on ethnoarchaeological observations, which involved 15 tropical plant taxa, including 3 bamboo genera and conducted microscopic use-wear analysis of the experimental tools. Our results show that the use-wear created by processing mature bamboo is well-developed and can be defined through a set of criteria. Altogether they distinguish bamboo wear from the one produced by other plants, although some overlapping exists. Our results can be used as a reference to which the traces on archaeological stone tools can be compared in order to determine whether they were really used to process bamboo and to what extent.
The authors compare pottery assemblages in the Marianas and the Philippines to claim endorsement ... more The authors compare pottery assemblages in the Marianas and the Philippines to claim endorsement for a first human expansion into the open Pacific around 1500 BC. The Marianas are separated from the Philippines by 2300km of open sea, so they are proposing an epic pioneering voyage of men and women, with presumably some cultivated plants but apparently no animals. How did they manage this unprecedented journey?
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 2007
We have used electron probe microanalysis to examine Southeast Asian nephrite (jade) artifacts, m... more We have used electron probe microanalysis to examine Southeast Asian nephrite (jade) artifacts, many archeologically excavated, dating from 3000 B.C. through the first millennium A.D. The research has revealed the existence of one of the most extensive sea-based trade networks of a single geological material in the prehistoric world. Green nephrite from a source in eastern Taiwan was used to make two very specific forms of ear pendant that were distributed, between 500 B.C. and 500 A.D., through the Philippines, East Malaysia, southern Vietnam, and peninsular Thailand, forming a 3,000-km-diameter halo around the southern and eastern coastlines of the South China Sea. Other Taiwan nephrite artifacts, especially beads and bracelets, were distributed earlier during Neolithic times throughout Taiwan and from Taiwan into the Philippines.
Extended Data Fig. 9 | CCH3, intermediate pedal phalanx of H. luzonensis. a, Photograph of the or... more Extended Data Fig. 9 | CCH3, intermediate pedal phalanx of H. luzonensis. a, Photograph of the original specimen CCH3 in plantar view. b, Three-dimensional rendering of CCH3. From left to right: plantar, medial, dorsal, lateral, distal (top), proximal (bottom), disto-medial and proximo-medial aspects. c, Comparison of CCH3 with Pliocene (A.L.333- 21a, unknown side and rays 2–5, and A.L.333-115k, fourth intermediate phalanx), Upper Pleistocene (LB1/56, LB1-15 and LB1/39: unknown side and rays 2–5) and recent (PAPO-74-150) intermediate pedal phalanges in plantar (top) and side (bottom) views. Note the variation in shape and size both between taxa (for example, H. sapiens and H. floresiensis) and in the same individual (for example, LB1 and PAPO-74-150). A detailed list of specimens can be found in Supplementary Table 12. Scale bars, 10 mm.
Extended Data Fig. 7 | CCH5, distal manual phalanx of H. luzonensis. a, Photograph of the origina... more Extended Data Fig. 7 | CCH5, distal manual phalanx of H. luzonensis. a, Photograph of the original specimen CCH5 in palmar view. b, Three- dimensional rendering of CCH5. From left to right: palmar, lateral/medial, dorsal, medial/lateral, distal (top), proximal (bottom), disto-lateral/ medial and proximo-lateral/medial aspects. c, Comparison of CCH5 with Pliocene (A.L.333-11 and A.L.333-50), Lower Pleistocene (OH7 (FLK- NN-B) and SKX 27504), Upper Pleistocene (LB6/12) and recent distal manual phalanges (PAPO-74-53 and PAPO-74-11) in palmar (top) and side (bottom) views. All specimens are from rays 2–5 of unknown side, except for OH7 (second to fourth ray, probably from the right hand of a juvenile individual). d, e, Box-and-whisker plots depicting the expansion index ((apical tuft maximum medio-lateral width/maximum mediolateral width of the base) × 100)) (d) and the robusticity index ((apical tuft maximum medio-lateral width/biomechanical length) × 100) (e) of the distal manual phal...
Extended Data Fig. 3 | Elliptic Fourier analysis of M1 crown contour. CCH6-c compared to the holo... more Extended Data Fig. 3 | Elliptic Fourier analysis of M1 crown contour. CCH6-c compared to the holotype of H. floresiensis (LB1) and large samples of archaeological and recent H. sapiens individuals. a, PCA of shape data for all specimens, scatter plot of individual scores for PC1 versus PC2 (see Methods; elliptic Fourier descriptors applied to Procrustes-aligned outlines, ten harmonics included). LGM, Last Glacial Maximum. Sample sizes: H. luzonensis, n = 1; H. floresiensis, n = 2; pre- LGM, n = 2; pre-Neolithic post-LGM, n = 12; Neolithic/post-Neolithic, n = 232; recent 'Negritos', n = 19. A detailed list of specimens can be found in Supplementary Table 5. b, Bar plot of eigenvalues (%) of PC1–PC6. c, Extreme shape variations along PC1 and PC2. The scores of H. luzonensis M1 along PC1 and PC2 reflects a crown outline shape that is mesio-distally compressed, but not as much as that of H. floresiensis (two versions of the LB1 right M 1). d, Right M 1 of the holotype of H. flor...
Fig. 5 | Proximal pedal phalanx of H. luzonensis (CCH4). CCH4 compared with specimens attributed ... more Fig. 5 | Proximal pedal phalanx of H. luzonensis (CCH4). CCH4 compared with specimens attributed to Australopithecus (A. afarensis, n = 6; A. africanus, n = 1), recent H. sapiens (n = 64) and H. floresiensis (n = 2). a, bgPCA of Procrustes-registered landmarks and semilandmarks: scatter plot of individual scores for bgPC1 versus bgPC2. b, Shape variation associated with bgPC1 and bgPC2: CCH4 and Australopithecus phalanges are elongated and curved (see bgPC1 max.). A detailed list of specimens can be found in Supplementary Table 7.
Fig. 4 | Premolar EDJ of H. luzonensis. a, EDJ of the P 3 of H. luzonensis (CCH6-e) compared to t... more Fig. 4 | Premolar EDJ of H. luzonensis. a, EDJ of the P 3 of H. luzonensis (CCH6-e) compared to the EDJs of H. floresiensis (Liang Bua 1 (LB1)), H. sapiens, H. erectus (Sangiran 4) and H. neanderthalensis (KRD 53). Horns of dentine were reconstructed for CCH6-e, LB1 and Sangiran 4; see Methods. Scale bar, 5 mm. b, c, Between-group principal component analyses (bgPCAs) of the three-dimensional landmark Procrustes- registered shape coordinates of the P 3 s (b) and P 4 s (c). Sample sizes for b, c, respectively: H. erectus, n = 2, 3; H. neanderthalensis, n = 5, 6; fossil H. sapiens, n = 3, 3; extant H. sapiens, n = 8, 9; H. floresiensis, n = 1, 0; H. luzonensis, n = 2, 2. A detailed list of specimens can be found in Supplementary Table 6
Fig. 2 | Fossil remains of H. luzonensis from Late Pleistocene sediments at Callao Cave. a, Holot... more Fig. 2 | Fossil remains of H. luzonensis from Late Pleistocene sediments at Callao Cave. a, Holotype CCH6: postcanine maxillary teeth in occlusal (left) and buccal (right) aspects, with three-dimensional rendering of enamel (dark blue), dentine and cement (light brown), and pulp cavity (dark grey) for CCH6-b–CCH6-e. b, Intermediate manual phalanx CCH2 (dorsal, lateral and palmar aspects). c, Distal manual phalanx CCH5 (dorsal, lateral/medial and palmar aspects). d, Proximal pedal phalanx CCH4 (dorsal, lateral and plantar aspects). e, Intermediate pedal phalanx CCH3 (dorsal, medial and plantar aspects). f, Left P 3 or P 4 CCH8: occlusal (top) and buccal (bottom) aspects, with three-dimensional rendering of enamel, dentine and cement, and pulp cavity. g, Right M3 CCH9: occlusal (top) and buccal (bottom) aspects. h, Juvenile femoral shaft CCH7 (anterior, lateral and posterior aspects). Scale bars, 10 mm (a–g) and 20 mm (h); additional views are shown in Extended Data Figs. 1, 5, 7–10.
This chapter is an overview of the Philippine prehistory and archaeology. It provides the differe... more This chapter is an overview of the Philippine prehistory and archaeology. It provides the different chronology and periodization in the reconstruction of Philippine prehistory from the very beginning of the archaeological awareness in the Philippine archipelago, and until the most recent one. New archaeological data found in the Philippines are included in this chapter and the significance of these archaeological finds in the role of the Philippine archipelago to the archaeological setting of Island Southeast Asian prehistory. A better understanding of the terms “Palaeolithic”, “Neolithic”, “Metal Age”, and the “Age of Contact”in the Philippine archipelago has now becomes clear. There are more examples of archaeological sites representing these various periods in the Philippines.The connection of the Philippine archipelago with the rest of both Mainland and Island Southeast Asia is now demonstrated with the artifacts and archaeological features that were made available in the past t...
The species Homo luzonensis has recently been described based on a set of dental and postcranial ... more The species Homo luzonensis has recently been described based on a set of dental and postcranial elements found at Callao Cave (Northern Luzon, Philippines) and dated to at least 50-67 ka. Seven postcanine maxillary teeth are attributed to this taxon, five of them belonging to the same individual (CCH6) and representing the holotype of H. luzonensis, whereas the isolated upper premolar CCH8 and the upper third molar CCH9 are paratypes of the species. The teeth are characterized by their small dimensions associated with primitive features, as also found in Homo floresiensis, another hominin having evolved in an insular environment of Southeast Asia. Postcranial bones of the hands and feet of H. luzonensis and H. floresiensis show Homo habilis-like or australopith-like features, whereas cranial and dental morphology are more consistent with the Asian Homo erectus morphology. Due to this mosaic morphology, the origin and phylogenetic relationships of both H. luzonensis and H. floresiensis are still debated. To test the hypotheses that H. luzonensis derives from H. erectus or from an earlier small-brained hominin, we analyzed the µCT scans of the teeth. We investigated both external and internal tooth structure using morphometric methods including: crown outline shape, tooth crown tissue proportions, enamel-dentine junction shape, and pulp morphology. Homo luzonensis external crown morphology aligns more with H. erectus than with H. habilis/H. rudolfensis. The internal structural organization of H. luzonensis teeth exhibits more affinities with that of H. erectus and H. floresiensis than with Neanderthals and modern humans. Our results suggest that both H. floresiensis and H. luzonensis likely evolved from some H. erectus groups that dispersed in the various islands of this region and became isolated until endemic speciation events occurred at least twice during the Pleistocene in insular environments.
Abstract Analysing residues on stone tools can reveal precise information about the activities th... more Abstract Analysing residues on stone tools can reveal precise information about the activities that were conducted with the lithic tool and is a valuable technique to reconstruct past human behaviours. However, it is often difficult to assess the nature of the relationship between a residue and the artefact on which it is found. It is of great importance, therefore, to determine whether residues are use-related or a result of contamination. Here, we conducted experiments with 99 tool replicas made of red jasper, processed 15 different plant taxa and mapped the distribution of residues against the use-wear traces. Our experiments addressed several questions on the spatial relationship between use-wear and use-related residues on stone tools. In the majority of cases the residues were not spatially associated with use-wear. Therefore, it appears that residues should not necessarily be considered as non-related to use because they are not in close proximity to use-wear. On the other hand, our experiments also showed that the problem of contamination should not be underestimated and can be a serious cause for misinterpreting stone tool functions. Finally, our results showed a variability in residue distribution between tools used to process different plant taxa and revealed that the water content in the contact material has an influence on residue distribution.
Prehistoric stone tools discovered in Southeast Asia contrast with what is found in the rest of t... more Prehistoric stone tools discovered in Southeast Asia contrast with what is found in the rest of the world: they are simple and their production techniques remained unchanged for millennia. To explain these unique characteristics, some scholars offered what is called the “bamboo hypothesis”: if SE Asian stone tools are simple it would be because they were actually used to manufacture more complex implements made of bamboo. This hypothesis relies on a series of indirect evidence, among which the fact that use-traces occurring on the stone tools result from plant processing. These traces are often interpreted as due to bamboo working although in the absence of an adapted reference collection such a precise diagnosis is impossible to make. A fundamental question remains to be addressed: is it possible to distinguish the working of bamboo from the one of other plants based on the traces they produce? To answer this, we carried out several experiments, grounded on ethnoarchaeological observations, which involved 15 tropical plant taxa, including 3 bamboo genera and conducted microscopic use-wear analysis of the experimental tools. Our results show that the use-wear created by processing mature bamboo is well-developed and can be defined through a set of criteria. Altogether they distinguish bamboo wear from the one produced by other plants, although some overlapping exists. Our results can be used as a reference to which the traces on archaeological stone tools can be compared in order to determine whether they were really used to process bamboo and to what extent.
The authors compare pottery assemblages in the Marianas and the Philippines to claim endorsement ... more The authors compare pottery assemblages in the Marianas and the Philippines to claim endorsement for a first human expansion into the open Pacific around 1500 BC. The Marianas are separated from the Philippines by 2300km of open sea, so they are proposing an epic pioneering voyage of men and women, with presumably some cultivated plants but apparently no animals. How did they manage this unprecedented journey?
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 2007
We have used electron probe microanalysis to examine Southeast Asian nephrite (jade) artifacts, m... more We have used electron probe microanalysis to examine Southeast Asian nephrite (jade) artifacts, many archeologically excavated, dating from 3000 B.C. through the first millennium A.D. The research has revealed the existence of one of the most extensive sea-based trade networks of a single geological material in the prehistoric world. Green nephrite from a source in eastern Taiwan was used to make two very specific forms of ear pendant that were distributed, between 500 B.C. and 500 A.D., through the Philippines, East Malaysia, southern Vietnam, and peninsular Thailand, forming a 3,000-km-diameter halo around the southern and eastern coastlines of the South China Sea. Other Taiwan nephrite artifacts, especially beads and bracelets, were distributed earlier during Neolithic times throughout Taiwan and from Taiwan into the Philippines.
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