Papers by Dr. Farah Ashraf
Our Heritage, 2020
There was a provision for only two accepted genders everywhere in the world-the males and the fem... more There was a provision for only two accepted genders everywhere in the world-the males and the females. But in the recent past the category of third gender is also identified and classified as one of the accepted in some parts of the world. Till 2011, Indian Census never gave recognition to the Transgender Community, but 2011 became the first census accounting of third gender persons in India. "Hijra" is a term used in South Asia-particularly in India and Pakistan-to refer to transgender individuals who are born male, but being neither completely male nor female. The term commonly advocated for them is khwaja sira, khusras, zenanas (cross-dresser) or enunch. The total population of transgender"s is estimated around 4.88 lakh, which included 4137 transgender"s in Jammu and Kashmir as per the 2011 census. In April 2014, the Supreme Court in India gave them recognition in law. But in the State of Jammu and Kashmir, they still are living as ostracized and marginalized community. They face precarious and traumatized gender based violence which continues as human rights violation against their safety, stability, prestige, self-respect, freedom, health and development. In this realm of discussion, this paper intends to put forward the problems and hindrances faced by the transgender community in Jammu and Kashmir. It will further review the rights and highlight the discriminatory attitude based on gender and sexuality. The study is exploratory in nature and is based on the secondary sources of data. Lastly a set of recommendations will be suggested to address the problems in order to combat human rights violations and promote equality as basic principle of social justice.
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Akinik Publications, New Delhi, 2018
Gender is one of the fundamental ways in which the social life of human beings is organized. From... more Gender is one of the fundamental ways in which the social life of human beings is organized. From infancy onwards, parents often think that boys and girls are very different.
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The patriarchal formulations of appropriate behavior for widows of different castes are reflected... more The patriarchal formulations of appropriate behavior for widows of different castes are reflected and are structurally integrated into the ideology and material relations of the caste system. The status of marginalized widows in different classes, castes, regions and religions of the different parts of the country has been analyzed. Widows are compelled to experience the difficulties and insecurity such as limited choice of remarriage, gender division of labor limiting the job opportunities, strong patrilineal family structure and pitiable economic support. It can thus be concluded from the above discussion that widowhood marks a transition from marital status which is not smooth, for it means not only a loss of status but also a loss of pride, privilege, prestige and independence. Widowhood brings about severe social, economic and cultural deprivation. It may have deleterious effects not only because of sudden loss of spouse but because of lack of well defined cultural expectations regarding the role of widow. Although various efforts are made to work towards the reformation in order to improve the conditions of widows. But still, glaring gender discrimination exists over the centuries. Particularly for the widows in India who are facing a lot of problems and hardships in the family as well as the society because of traditional norms, cultural practices and beliefs within the society. Being in Kashmir, the widows face a triple layer of oppression – first being the Muslim women, second being the widow and third living in an armed conflict situation. The multiple layers of oppression increases the vulnerability and hence socially ostracizes them. Hence, the structure of widowhood among Kashmiri Muslims is used as a means of their cultural reproduction and there prevails the stigma amounting to widowhood especially for the armed conflict victimized widows. This study tries to understand and describe the lived experiences of Muslim widows in Kashmir. This study is further designed to focus on the problems and sufferings faced by them in the current scenario by trying to evaluate the impact of socio-cultural, religious and political factors on the widows' experiences. Finally, this study seeks to explore the programmes and policies run by government for safeguarding the welfare of the widows of Kashmir.
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Our ideas about differences between the sexes have deep historical roots. For generations these i... more Our ideas about differences between the sexes have deep historical roots. For generations these ideas were accepted uncritically. Sexual identity is a central part of human personality. Women have come to recognize themselves as a minority group similar in many ways to other minority groups. Though things are beginning to change to some extent, but even minor changes have far-reaching implications. However, people are becoming aware that sexual inequality is as unjust as racial, ethnic, caste and class inequality.
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We live in a world which is organized around the idea that sex role stereotypes are the rigid fix... more We live in a world which is organized around the idea that sex role stereotypes are the rigid fixed ideas of what is appropriate to masculine and feminine behavior. They imply a belief that " masculine " and " feminine " are two distinct and mutually exclusive categories and that an individual's behavior must be one or the other. These ideas pervade nearly in every culture. In a society, the notion of the two sexes (male and female) have been stereotyped and revolves round the preoccupied notion that men and women have different bodies, different capabilities, different needs and desires which is depicted in terms of different tasks, privileges and role patterns that are traditionally assigned to them. Despite the fact that every society gives affirmation to only two types of gender and their prescribed roles. But what about those who confirm the worldwide acceptance under the terminology used as transgender. It is often used as an umbrella term to signify individuals who defy rigid, binary gender constructions and who express or present a breaking and blurring culturally prevalent stereotypically gender roles. Children are put under strong social pressure to conform to these sex-role stereotypes, regardless of their natural dispositions. During the process of socialization, boys and girls are reared differently. Boys are encouraged and reinforced to develop masculine characteristics that is in terms of aggression, dominance, independence, sense of adventure, high risk taking behavior, freedom of space, and achievement oriented outlook whereas, girls are encouraged to acquire feminine characteristics as such in terms of submissiveness, nurturance, dependence, and low achievement orientation. The purpose of this research paper is to throw light on how and why the social world is arranged around gender distinctions. The paper also highlights the various problems faced by transgender community in Kashmir especially Male to Female (MTF) transgender. The paper attempts to examine to what extent gender is imposed on individuals as a result of the material conditions and social structures in which they live. The present paper relies entirely on the secondary sources of data. Certain suggestions will be recommended in this paper on promoting equality as a fundamental human right and basic principle of social justice.
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Papers by Dr. Farah Ashraf