From 74f6b74e403248cd0e481be56dec922c0b93eb6e Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Molen Date: Mon, 17 Oct 2016 22:35:11 +0800 Subject: [PATCH 001/126] Update ReadMe Update ReadMe file. --- ReadMe.md | 52 ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ 1 file changed, 52 insertions(+) create mode 100644 ReadMe.md diff --git a/ReadMe.md b/ReadMe.md new file mode 100644 index 00000000..dc7afddf --- /dev/null +++ b/ReadMe.md @@ -0,0 +1,52 @@ +# 简明 Python 教程 +**翻译进行中** + +简明 Python 教程 +*A Byte of Python* +Version 2.1 for Python 3 + +**Swaroop C H** 著 +**漠伦** 译 + +## 说明 + +本译本系根据《A Byte of Python》在 [GitHub](https://github.com/swaroopch/byte-of-python) 提供的版本进行翻译。根据目前销售的实体书所述信息,翻译版本遵循同样的版本号,定义为 Version 2.1 for Python 3。 + +《简明 Python 教程》是一本旨在于介绍如何使用 Python 语言进行编程的自由图书。它以教材或指南的形式为入门者介绍 Python 语言。如果你对电脑知识的了解仅限于如何保存文本文件的话,那这本书就是为你准备的。 + +本书曾在 2005 年被沈洁元翻译为汉语,并传阅至今。 + +## 有关 Python 3 + +本书将指导你如何使用 Python 3。同时,本书也会以指南的形式告诉你应如何适应虽老些但使用更加更普遍的 Python2。 + +## 许可证 + +本书是根据 Swaroop C H 所创作的《A Byte of Python》翻译而来的译本。《A Byte of Python》采用 [知识共享 署名-相同方式共享 国际 4.0 协议(CC BY-SA Intl. 4.0)](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/) 进行授权,你可以在原书的[官方网站](https://python.swaroopch.com/)上获取本书的全部原始内容。 +本译本依据相关协议进行翻译与再分发。 + + + +### 文本与图片内容 +对于本译本的文本与图片内容,采用 [知识共享 署名-相同方式共享 国际 4.0 协议(CC BY-SA Intl. 4.0)](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/) 进行授权。 + +你可以自由地: + +**分享** - 在任何媒介或格式下复制并分发本书。如转载至你的网站,或将其印刷后分发。 +**改编** - 对本书进行修改、重混、转换或依据本书进行再创作。如对本译本进行修改或编辑,并重新发布。 +你可以于任何目的或环境使用本创作,即使运用于商业性用途。 + +唯须遵循以下条件: + +**署名** - 你必须明确说明本创作、或经过修改的原创作来源于何处,并提供原始链接以及授权协议的链接。同时,除非另有许可,你不得明示或暗示你的使用行为或商业行为,来自于创作的原作者的授意或授权,或已为你的使用行为背书。 +**相同方式共享** - 如果你对本书进行了修改、重混、转换,或依据本素材进行再创作,你必须采用与本书相同的许可协议来分发你的创作。 +**不得增加额外限制** - 你不能增设任何法律限制或是技术限制,来限制他人进行本许可证已经允许的行为。 + +对于更详细的授权说明,及授权协议的法律文本,请参阅: [知识共享 署名-相同方式共享 国际 4.0 协议(CC BY-SA Intl. 4.0)](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/) + + + +### 代码内容 +本译本所附的所有代码与脚本均来源于原书。 +在原书中,这些代码与脚本均采用 [3-clause BSD License](http://www.opensource.org/licenses/bsd-license.php) 进行授权。 +本译本中,除部分必要的解释性文字或注释可能被翻译或修改外,其余部分均保持原书原样。这些代码与脚本采用 [3-clause BSD License](http://www.opensource.org/licenses/bsd-license.php) 进行授权。 From 97c03a40ced1612c90d4c01d01b6f91b4c06cee9 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Molen Date: Mon, 17 Oct 2016 22:36:58 +0800 Subject: [PATCH 002/126] Delete ReadMe.md --- ReadMe.md | 52 ---------------------------------------------------- 1 file changed, 52 deletions(-) delete mode 100644 ReadMe.md diff --git a/ReadMe.md b/ReadMe.md deleted file mode 100644 index dc7afddf..00000000 --- a/ReadMe.md +++ /dev/null @@ -1,52 +0,0 @@ -# 简明 Python 教程 -**翻译进行中** - -简明 Python 教程 -*A Byte of Python* -Version 2.1 for Python 3 - -**Swaroop C H** 著 -**漠伦** 译 - -## 说明 - -本译本系根据《A Byte of Python》在 [GitHub](https://github.com/swaroopch/byte-of-python) 提供的版本进行翻译。根据目前销售的实体书所述信息,翻译版本遵循同样的版本号,定义为 Version 2.1 for Python 3。 - -《简明 Python 教程》是一本旨在于介绍如何使用 Python 语言进行编程的自由图书。它以教材或指南的形式为入门者介绍 Python 语言。如果你对电脑知识的了解仅限于如何保存文本文件的话,那这本书就是为你准备的。 - -本书曾在 2005 年被沈洁元翻译为汉语,并传阅至今。 - -## 有关 Python 3 - -本书将指导你如何使用 Python 3。同时,本书也会以指南的形式告诉你应如何适应虽老些但使用更加更普遍的 Python2。 - -## 许可证 - -本书是根据 Swaroop C H 所创作的《A Byte of Python》翻译而来的译本。《A Byte of Python》采用 [知识共享 署名-相同方式共享 国际 4.0 协议(CC BY-SA Intl. 4.0)](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/) 进行授权,你可以在原书的[官方网站](https://python.swaroopch.com/)上获取本书的全部原始内容。 -本译本依据相关协议进行翻译与再分发。 - - - -### 文本与图片内容 -对于本译本的文本与图片内容,采用 [知识共享 署名-相同方式共享 国际 4.0 协议(CC BY-SA Intl. 4.0)](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/) 进行授权。 - -你可以自由地: - -**分享** - 在任何媒介或格式下复制并分发本书。如转载至你的网站,或将其印刷后分发。 -**改编** - 对本书进行修改、重混、转换或依据本书进行再创作。如对本译本进行修改或编辑,并重新发布。 -你可以于任何目的或环境使用本创作,即使运用于商业性用途。 - -唯须遵循以下条件: - -**署名** - 你必须明确说明本创作、或经过修改的原创作来源于何处,并提供原始链接以及授权协议的链接。同时,除非另有许可,你不得明示或暗示你的使用行为或商业行为,来自于创作的原作者的授意或授权,或已为你的使用行为背书。 -**相同方式共享** - 如果你对本书进行了修改、重混、转换,或依据本素材进行再创作,你必须采用与本书相同的许可协议来分发你的创作。 -**不得增加额外限制** - 你不能增设任何法律限制或是技术限制,来限制他人进行本许可证已经允许的行为。 - -对于更详细的授权说明,及授权协议的法律文本,请参阅: [知识共享 署名-相同方式共享 国际 4.0 协议(CC BY-SA Intl. 4.0)](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/) - - - -### 代码内容 -本译本所附的所有代码与脚本均来源于原书。 -在原书中,这些代码与脚本均采用 [3-clause BSD License](http://www.opensource.org/licenses/bsd-license.php) 进行授权。 -本译本中,除部分必要的解释性文字或注释可能被翻译或修改外,其余部分均保持原书原样。这些代码与脚本采用 [3-clause BSD License](http://www.opensource.org/licenses/bsd-license.php) 进行授权。 From 0975da150932d8e6257b280d4efe439af3722de1 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: LenKiMo Date: Mon, 17 Oct 2016 22:40:20 +0800 Subject: [PATCH 003/126] Update README Signed-off-by: LenKiMo --- README.md | 293 ++++++------------------------------------------------ 1 file changed, 31 insertions(+), 262 deletions(-) diff --git a/README.md b/README.md index 0a12e09a..8402d50c 100644 --- a/README.md +++ b/README.md @@ -1,283 +1,52 @@ -# A Byte of Python +# 简明 Python 教程 +**翻译进行中** -"A Byte of Python" is a free book on programming using the Python language. It serves as a tutorial or guide to the Python language for a beginner audience. If all you know about computers is how to save text files, then this is the book for you. +简明 Python 教程 +*A Byte of Python* +Version 2.1 for Python 3 -## For Python version 3 +**Swaroop C H** 著 +**漠伦** 译 -This book will teach you to use Python version 3. There will also be guidance for you to adapt to the older and more common Python version 2 in the book. +## 说明 -## Who reads A Byte of Python? {#who-reads-bop} +本译本系根据《A Byte of Python》在 [GitHub](https://github.com/swaroopch/byte-of-python) 提供的版本进行翻译。根据目前销售的实体书所述信息,翻译版本遵循同样的版本号,定义为 Version 2.1 for Python 3。 -Here are what people are saying about the book: +《简明 Python 教程》是一本旨在于介绍如何使用 Python 语言进行编程的自由图书。它以教材或指南的形式为入门者介绍 Python 语言。如果你对电脑知识的了解仅限于如何保存文本文件的话,那这本书就是为你准备的。 -> This is the best beginner's tutorial I've ever seen! Thank you for your effort. -> -- [Walt Michalik](mailto:wmich50@theramp.net) +本书曾在 2005 年被沈洁元翻译为汉语,并传阅至今。 - - -> The best thing i found was "A Byte of Python", which is simply a brilliant book for a beginner. It's well written, the concepts are well explained with self evident examples. -> -- [Joshua Robin](mailto:joshrob@poczta.onet.pl) - - - -> Excellent gentle introduction to programming #Python for beginners -> -- [Shan Rajasekaran](https://twitter.com/ShanRajasekaran/status/268910645842423809) - - - -> Best newbie guide to python -> -- [Nickson Kaigi](https://twitter.com/nickaigi/status/175508815729541120) - - - -> start to love python with every single page read -> -- [Herbert Feutl](https://twitter.com/HerbertFeutl/status/11901471389913088) - - - -> perfect beginners guide for python, will give u key to unlock magical world of python -> -- [Dilip](https://twitter.com/Dili_mathilakam/status/220033783066411008) - - - -> I should be doing my actual "work" but just found "A Byte of Python". A great guide with great examples. -> -- [Biologist John](https://twitter.com/BiologistJohn/statuses/194726001803132928) - - - -> Recently started reading a Byte of python. Awesome work. And that too for free. Highly recommended for aspiring pythonistas. -> -- [Mangesh](https://twitter.com/mangeshnanoti/status/225680668867321857) - - - -> A Byte of Python, written by Swaroop. (this is the book I'm currently reading). Probably the best to start with, and probably the best in the world for every newbie or even a more experienced user. -> -- [Apostolos](http://apas.gr/2010/04/27/learning-python/) - - - -> Enjoying Reading #ByteOfPython by @swaroopch best book ever -> -- [Yuvraj Sharma](https://twitter.com/YuvrajPoudyal/status/448050415356346368) - - - -> Thank you so much for writing A Byte Of Python. I just started learning how to code two days ago and I'm already building some simple games. Your guide has been a dream and I just wanted to let you know how valuable it has been. -> -- Franklin - - - -> I'm from Dayanandasagar College of Engineering (7th sem, CSE). Firstly i want to say that your book "The byte of python" is too good a book for a beginner in python like me.The concepts are so well explained with simple examples that helped me to easily learn python. Thank you so much. -> -- Madhura - - - -> I am a 18 year old IT student studying at University in Ireland. I would like to express my gratitude to you for writing your book "A Byte of Python", I already had knowledge of 3 programming langagues - C, Java and Javascript, and Python was by far the easiest langague I have ever learned, and that was mainly because your book was fantastic and made learning python very simple and interesting. It is one of the best written and easy to follow programming books I have ever read. Congratulations and keep up the great work. -> -- Matt - - - -> Hi, I'm from Dominican Republic. My name is Pavel, recently I read your book _A Byte of Python_ and I consider it excellent!! :). I learnt much from all the examples. Your book is of great help for newbies like me... -> -- [Pavel Simo](mailto:pavel.simo@gmail.com) - - - -> I am a student from China, Now ,I have read you book A byte of Python, Oh it's beautiful. The book is very simple but can help all the first learnners. You know I am interesting in Java and cloud computing many times, i have to coding programm for the server, so i think python is a good choice, finish your book, i think its not only a good choice its must use the Python. My English is not very well, the email to you, i just wanna thank you! Best Wishes for you and your family. -> -- Roy Lau - - - -> I recently finished reading Byte of Python, and I thought I really ought to thank you. I was very sad to reach the final pages as I now have to go back to dull, tedious oreilly or etc. manuals for learning about python. Anyway, I really appreciate your book. -> [Samuel Young](mailto:sy137@gmail.com) - - - -> Dear Swaroop, I am taking a class from an instructor that has no interest in teaching. We are using Learning Python, second edition, by O'Reilly. It is not a text for beginner without any programming knowledge, and an instructor that should be working in another field. Thank you very much for your book, without it I would be clueless about Python and programming. Thanks a million, you are able to _break the message down_ to a level that beginners can understand and not everyone can. -> -- [Joseph Duarte](mailto:jduarte1@cfl.rr.com) - - - -> I love your book! It is the greatest Python tutorial ever, and a very useful reference. Brilliant, a true masterpiece! Keep up the good work! -> -- Chris-André Sommerseth - - - -> First of all, I want to say thanks to you for this greate book. I think it is a good book for those who are looking for a beginner's tutorial for Python. -> It is about two or there years ago, I think, when I first heard of this book. At that time, I am not able to read some book in English yet, so I got a chinese translation, which took me into the gate of Python programming. -> Recently, I reread this book. This time, of course, the english version. I couldn't believe that I can read the whole book without my dictionary at hand. Of course, it all dues to your effort to make this book an easy-to-understand one. -> -- [myd7349](https://github.com/swaroopch/byte_of_python/pull/13) - - - -> I'm just e-mailing you to thank you for writing Byte of Python online. I had been attempting Python for a few months prior to stumbling across your book, and although I made limited success with pyGame, I never completed a program. -> Thanks to your simplification of the categories, Python actually seems a reachable goal. It seems like I have finally learned the foundations and I can continue into my real goal, game development. -> ... -> Once again, thanks VERY much for placing such a structured and helpful guide to basic programming on the web. It shoved me into and out of OOP with an understanding where two text books had failed. -> -- [Matt Gallivan](mailto:m_gallivan12@hotmail.com) - - - -> I would like to thank you for your book _A Byte of Python_ which i myself find the best way to learn python. I am a 15 year old i live in egypt my name is Ahmed. Python was my second programming language i learn visual basic 6 at school but didn't enjoy it, however i really enjoyed learning python. I made the addressbook program and i was sucessful. i will try to start make more programs and read python programs (if you could tell me source that would be helpful). I will also start on learning java and if you can tell me where to find a tutorial as good as yours for java that would help me a lot. Thanx. -> -- [Ahmed Mohammed](mailto:sedo_91@hotmail.com) - - +## 有关 Python 3 -> A wonderful resource for beginners wanting to learn more about Python is the 110-page PDF tutorial A Byte of Python by Swaroop C H. It is well-written, easy to follow, and may be the best introduction to Python programming available. -> -- [Drew Ames](http://www.linux.com/feature/126522) +本书将指导你如何使用 Python 3。同时,本书也会以指南的形式告诉你应如何适应虽老些但使用更加更普遍的 Python2。 - - -> Yesterday I got through most of Byte of Python on my Nokia N800 and it's the easiest and most concise introduction to Python I have yet encountered. Highly recommended as a starting point for learning Python. -> -- [Jason Delport](http://paxmodept.com/telesto/blogitem.htm?id=627) - - - -> Byte of Vim and Python by @swaroopch is by far the best works in technical writing to me. Excellent reads #FeelGoodFactor -> -- [Surendran](http://twitter.com/suren/status/12840485454) - - - -> "Byte of python" best one by far man -> (in response to the question "Can anyone suggest a good, inexpensive resource for learning the basics of Python? ") -> -- [Justin LoveTrue](http://www.facebook.com/pythonlang/posts/406873916788) +## 许可证 - - -> The Book Byte of python was very helpful ..Thanks bigtime :) -> [Chinmay](https://twitter.com/a_chinmay/status/258822633741762560) +本书是根据 Swaroop C H 所创作的《A Byte of Python》翻译而来的译本。《A Byte of Python》采用 [知识共享 署名-相同方式共享 国际 4.0 协议(CC BY-SA Intl. 4.0)](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/) 进行授权,你可以在原书的[官方网站](https://python.swaroopch.com/)上获取本书的全部原始内容。 +本译本依据相关协议进行翻译与再分发。 -> Always been a fan of A Byte of Python - made for both new and experienced programmers. -> -- [Patrick Harrington](http://stackoverflow.com/a/457785/4869) - - +### 文本与图片内容 +对于本译本的文本与图片内容,采用 [知识共享 署名-相同方式共享 国际 4.0 协议(CC BY-SA Intl. 4.0)](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/) 进行授权。 -> I started learning python few days ago from your book..thanks for such a nice book. it is so well written, you made my life easy..so you found a new fan of yours..thats me :) tons of thanks. -> -- [Gadadhari Bheem](https://twitter.com/Pagal_e_azam/statuses/242865885256232960) +你可以自由地: - +**分享** - 在任何媒介或格式下复制并分发本书。如转载至你的网站,或将其印刷后分发。 +**改编** - 对本书进行修改、重混、转换或依据本书进行再创作。如对本译本进行修改或编辑,并重新发布。 +你可以于任何目的或环境使用本创作,即使运用于商业性用途。 -> Before I started to learn Python, I've acquired basic programming skills in Assembly, C, C++, C# and Java. The very reason I wanted to learn Python is it's popular (people are talking about it) and powerful (reality). This book written by Mr. Swaroop is a very good guide for both brand-new programmers and new python programmers. Took 10 half days to go through it. Great Help! -> -- [Fang Biyi (PhD Candidate ECE, Michigan State University)](mailto:fangbiyi@gmail.com) +唯须遵循以下条件: - +**署名** - 你必须明确说明本创作、或经过修改的原创作来源于何处,并提供原始链接以及授权协议的链接。同时,除非另有许可,你不得明示或暗示你的使用行为或商业行为,来自于创作的原作者的授意或授权,或已为你的使用行为背书。 +**相同方式共享** - 如果你对本书进行了修改、重混、转换,或依据本素材进行再创作,你必须采用与本书相同的许可协议来分发你的创作。 +**不得增加额外限制** - 你不能增设任何法律限制或是技术限制,来限制他人进行本许可证已经允许的行为。 -> Thank you ever so much for this book!! -> This book cleared up many questions I had about certain aspects of Python such as object oriented programming. -> I do not feel like an expert at OO but I know this book helped me on a first step or two. -> I have now written several python programs that actually do real things for me as a system administrator. They are all procedural oriented but they are small by most peoples standards. -> Again, thanks for this book. Thank you for having it on the web. -> -- Bob +对于更详细的授权说明,及授权协议的法律文本,请参阅: [知识共享 署名-相同方式共享 国际 4.0 协议(CC BY-SA Intl. 4.0)](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/) -> I just want to thank you for writing the first book on programming I've ever really read. Python is now my first language, and I can just imagine all the possibilities. So thank you for giving me the tools to create things I never would have imagined I could do before. -> -- "The Walrus" - - - -> I wanted to thank you for writing _A Byte Of Python_ (2 & 3 Versions). It has been invaluable to my learning experience in Python & Programming in general. -> Needless to say, I am a beginner in the programming world, a couple of months of self study up to this point. I had been using youtube tutorials & some other online tutorials including other free books. I decided to dig into your book yesterday, & I've learned more on the first few pages than any other book or tutorial. A few things I had been confused about, were cleared right up with a GREAT example & explanation. Can't wait to read (and learn) more!! -> Thank you so much for not only writing the book, but for putting it under the creative commons license (free). Thank goodness there are unselfish people like you out there to help & teach the rest of us. -> -- Chris - - - -> I wrote you back in 2011 and I was just getting into Python and wanted to thank you for your tutorial "A Byte of Python". Without it, I would have fallen by the wayside. Since then I have gone on to program a number of functions in my organization with this language with yet more on the horizon. I would not call myself an advanced programmer by any stretch but I notice the occasional request for assistance now from others since I started using it. I discovered, while reading "Byte" why I had ceased studying C and C\++ and it was because the book given to me started out with an example containing an augmented assignment. Of course, there was no explanation for this arrangement of operators and I fell on my head trying to make sense of what was on the written page. As I recall it was a most frustrating exercise which I eventually abandoned. Doesn't mean C or C++ is impossible to learn, or even that I am stupid, but it does mean that the documentation I worked my way through did not define the symbols and words which is an essential part of any instruction. Just as computers will not be able to understand a computer word or computer symbol that is outside the syntax for the language being used, a student new to any field will not grasp his subject if he encounters words or symbols for which there are no definitions. You get a "blue screen" as it were in either case. The solution is simple, though: find the word or symbol and get the proper definition or symbol and lo and behold,the computer or student can proceed. Your book was so well put together that I found very little in it I couldn't grasp. So, thank you. I encourage you to continue to include full definitions of terms. The documentation with Python is good, once you know, (the examples are its strength from what I see) but in many cases it seems that you have to know in order to understand the documentation which to my mind is not what should be. Third party tutorials express the need for clarification of the documentation and their success largely depends on the words that are used to describe the terminology. I have recommended your book to many others. Some in Australia, some in the Caribbean and yet others in the US. It fills a niche no others do. I hope you are doing well and wish you all the success in the future. -> -- Nick - - - -> hey, this is ankush(19). I was facing a great difficulty to start with python. I tried a lot of books but all were bulkier and not target oriented; and then i found this lovely one, which made me love python in no time. Thanks a lot for this "beautiful piece of book". -> -- Ankush - - - -> I would like to thank you for your excellent guide on Python. I am a molecular biologist (with little programming background) and for my work I need to handle big datasets of DNA sequences and to analyse microscope images. For both things, programming in python has been useful, if not essential to complete and publish a 6-years project. -> That such a guide is freely available is a clear sign that the forces of evil are not yet ruling the world! :) -> -- Luca - - - -> Since this is going to be the first language you learn, you should use A Byte of Python. It really gives a proper introduction into programming in Python and it is paced well enough for the average beginner. The most important thing from then on will be actually starting to practice making your own little programs. -> -- ["{Unregistered}"](http://www.overclock.net/t/1177951/want-to-learn-programming-where-do-i-start#post_15837176) - - - -> Just to say a loud and happy _thank you very much_ for publishing "A Byte of Python" and "A Byte of Vim". Those books were very useful to me four or five years ago when I starting learning programming. Right now I'm developing a project that was a dream for a long, long time and just want to say _thank you_. Keep walking. You are a source of motivation. All the best. -> -- Jocimar - - - -> Finished reading A byte of Python in 3 days. It is thoroughly interesting. Not a single page was boring. I want to understand the Orca screen reader code. Your book has hopefully equipped me for it. -> -- Dattatray - - - -> Hi, 'A byte of python' is really a good reading for python beginners. So, again, NICE WORK! -> i'm a 4 years experienced Java&C developer from China. Recently, i want to do some work on zim-wiki note project which uses pygtk to implement. -> i read your book in 6 days, and i can read and write python code examples now. -> thx for your contribution. -> plz keep your enthusiasm to make this world better, this is just a little encourage from China. -> -- Lee - - - -> I am Isen from Taiwan, who is a graduating PhD student in Electrical Engineering Department of National Taiwan University. I would like to thank you for your great book. I think it is not only just easy to read but also comprehensive and complete for a new comer of Python. The reason I read your book is that I am starting to work on the GNU Radio framework. Your book let me catch most of important core ideas and skill of Python with a minimum time. -> I also saw that you do not mind that readers send you a thank note in your book. So I really like your book and appreciate it. Thanks. -> -- [Isen I-Chun Chao](mailto:chao926@gmail.com) - -The book is even used by NASA! It is used in their [Jet Propulsion Laboratory](http://dsnra.jpl.nasa.gov/software/Python/byte-of-python/output/byteofpython_html/) with their Deep Space Network project. - -## Academic Courses - -This book is/was being used as instructional material in various educational institutions: - -- 'Principles of Programming Languages' course at [Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam](http://www.few.vu.nl/~nsilvis/PPL/2007/index.html) -- 'Basic Concepts of Computing' course at [University of California, Davis](http://www.cs.ucdavis.edu/courses/exp_course_desc/10.html) -- 'Programming With Python' course at [Harvard University](http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~preshman/python_winter.html) -- 'Introduction to Programming' course at [University of Leeds](http://www.comp.leeds.ac.uk/acom1900/) -- 'Introduction to Application Programming' course at [Boston University](http://www.cs.bu.edu/courses/cs108/materials.html) -- 'Information Technology Skills for Meteorology' course at [University of Oklahoma](http://gentry.metr.ou.edu/byteofpython/) -- 'Geoprocessing' course at [Michigan State University](http://www.msu.edu/~ashton/classes/825/index.html) -- 'Multi Agent Semantic Web Systems' course at the [University of Edinburgh](http://homepages.inf.ed.ac.uk/ewan/masws/) -- 'Introduction to Computer Science and Programming' at [MIT OpenCourseWare](http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/electrical-engineering-and-computer-science/6-00sc-introduction-to-computer-science-and-programming-spring-2011/references/) -- 'Basic programming at the Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia' -- [Aleš Žiberna](mailto:ales.ziberna@fdv.uni-lj.si) says _"I (and my predecessor) have been using your book as the main literature for this course"_ -- 'Introduction to programming', Department of Information Sciences, University of Zadar, Croatia -- Krešimir Zauder says _"I would like to inform you that A Byte of Python is a mandatory read at my course"_ - -## License - -This book is licensed under a [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). - -This means: - -- You are free to Share i.e. to copy, distribute and transmit this book -- You are free to Remix i.e. to make changes to this book (especially translations) -- You are free to use it for commercial purposes - -Please note: - -- Please do *not* sell electronic or printed copies of the book unless you have clearly and prominently mentioned in the description that these copies are *not* from the original author of this book. -- Attribution *must* be shown in the introductory description and front page of the document by linking back to {{ book.officialUrl }} and clearly indicating that the original text can be fetched from this location. -- All the code/scripts provided in this book is licensed under the [3-clause BSD License](http://www.opensource.org/licenses/bsd-license.php) unless otherwise noted. - -## Read Now - -You can read it online at {{ book.officialUrl }} - -## Buy The Book - -A printed hardcopy of the book can be purchased at {{ book.buyBookUrl }} for your offline reading pleasure, and to support the continued development and improvement of this book. - -## Download - -Visit {{ book.downloadUrl }} for the following types of downloads: - -- [PDF (for desktop reading, etc.)](https://www.gitbook.com/download/pdf/book/swaroopch/byte-of-python) -- [EPUB (for iPhone/iPad, ebook readers, etc.)](https://www.gitbook.com/download/epub/book/swaroopch/byte-of-python) -- [Mobi (for Kindle)](https://www.gitbook.com/download/mobi/book/swaroopch/byte-of-python) - -Visit {{ book.sourceUrl }} for the raw content (for suggesting corrections, changes, translating, etc.) - -## Read the book in your native language - -If you are interested in reading or contributing translations of this book to other human languages, please see [Translations](./translations.md#translations). +### 代码内容 +本译本所附的所有代码与脚本均来源于原书。 +在原书中,这些代码与脚本均采用 [3-clause BSD License](http://www.opensource.org/licenses/bsd-license.php) 进行授权。 +本译本中,除部分必要的解释性文字或注释可能被翻译或修改外,其余部分均保持原书原样。这些代码与脚本采用 [3-clause BSD License](http://www.opensource.org/licenses/bsd-license.php) 进行授权。 From 7dddb2a3bcddd4e390d3a247603336d082bb0588 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: LenKiMo Date: Wed, 16 Nov 2016 23:25:14 +0800 Subject: [PATCH 004/126] Upload the first finished part. Signed-off-by: LenKiMo --- "0.0.\351\246\226\351\241\265.md" | 11 + "01.\344\273\213\347\273\215.md" | 303 +++++++++++++ "02.\347\214\256\350\257\215.md" | 7 + "03.1.\345\211\215\350\250\200.md" | 26 ++ "04.\345\205\263\344\272\216Python.md" | 90 ++++ INSTALL.md | 6 - README.md | 41 +- SUMMARY.md | 26 -- about.md | 35 -- about_python.md | 92 ---- basics.md | 420 ------------------ book.json | 6 +- control_flow.md | 166 ------- data_structures.md | 240 ---------- dedication.md | 7 - exceptions.md | 123 ----- feedback.md | 3 - first_steps.md | 190 -------- floss.md | 41 -- functions.md | 217 --------- img/pycharm_create_new_project.png | Bin 193965 -> 17975 bytes ...pycharm_create_new_project_pure_python.png | Bin 209991 -> 18631 bytes img/pycharm_hello_open.png | Bin 305635 -> 18705 bytes img/pycharm_new_file_input.png | Bin 325178 -> 23626 bytes img/pycharm_new_python_file.png | Bin 466929 -> 41671 bytes img/pycharm_open.png | Bin 226113 -> 15410 bytes img/pycharm_output.png | Bin 343779 -> 29273 bytes img/pycharm_run.png | Bin 408586 -> 49479 bytes installation.md | 84 ---- io.md | 118 ----- modules.md | 212 --------- more.md | 174 -------- oop.md | 184 -------- op_exp.md | 204 --------- preface.md | 23 - problem_solving.md | 157 ------- revision_history.md | 105 ----- stdlib.md | 67 --- translation_howto.md | 8 - translations.md | 201 --------- what_next.md | 148 ------ 41 files changed, 468 insertions(+), 3267 deletions(-) create mode 100644 "0.0.\351\246\226\351\241\265.md" create mode 100644 "01.\344\273\213\347\273\215.md" create mode 100644 "02.\347\214\256\350\257\215.md" create mode 100644 "03.1.\345\211\215\350\250\200.md" create mode 100644 "04.\345\205\263\344\272\216Python.md" delete mode 100644 INSTALL.md delete mode 100644 SUMMARY.md delete mode 100644 about.md delete mode 100644 about_python.md delete mode 100644 basics.md delete mode 100644 control_flow.md delete mode 100644 data_structures.md delete mode 100644 dedication.md delete mode 100644 exceptions.md delete mode 100644 feedback.md delete mode 100644 first_steps.md delete mode 100644 floss.md delete mode 100644 functions.md delete mode 100644 installation.md delete mode 100644 io.md delete mode 100644 modules.md delete mode 100644 more.md delete mode 100644 oop.md delete mode 100644 op_exp.md delete mode 100644 preface.md delete mode 100644 problem_solving.md delete mode 100644 revision_history.md delete mode 100644 stdlib.md delete mode 100644 translation_howto.md delete mode 100644 translations.md delete mode 100644 what_next.md diff --git "a/0.0.\351\246\226\351\241\265.md" "b/0.0.\351\246\226\351\241\265.md" new file mode 100644 index 00000000..c906bbf8 --- /dev/null +++ "b/0.0.\351\246\226\351\241\265.md" @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +
{% include "./programs/if.py" %}
-
-Output:
-
-{% include "./programs/if.txt" %}
-
-**How It Works**
-
-In this program, we take guesses from the user and check if it is the number that we have. We set the variable +number+ to any integer we want, say `23`. Then, we take the user's guess using the `input()` function. Functions are just reusable pieces of programs. We'll read more about them in the [next chapter](./functions.md#functions).
-
-We supply a string to the built-in `input` function which prints it to the screen and waits for input from the user. Once we enter something and press kbd:[enter] key, the `input()` function returns what we entered, as a string. We then convert this string to an integer using `int` and then store it in the variable `guess`. Actually, the `int` is a class but all you need to know right now is that you can use it to convert a string to an integer (assuming the string contains a valid integer in the text).
-
-Next, we compare the guess of the user with the number we have chosen. If they are equal, we print a success message. Notice that we use indentation levels to tell Python which statements belong to which block. This is why indentation is so important in Python. I hope you are sticking to the "consistent indentation" rule. Are you?
-
-Notice how the `if` statement contains a colon at the end - we are indicating to Python that a block of statements follows.
-
-Then, we check if the guess is less than the number, and if so, we inform the user that they must guess a little higher than that. What we have used here is the `elif` clause which actually combines two related `if else-if else` statements into one combined `if-elif-else` statement. This makes the program easier and reduces the amount of indentation required.
-
-The `elif` and `else` statements must also have a colon at the end of the logical line followed by their corresponding block of statements (with proper indentation, of course)
-
-You can have another `if` statement inside the if-block of an `if` statement and so on - this is called a nested `if` statement.
-
-Remember that the `elif` and `else` parts are optional. A minimal valid `if` statement is:
-
-```python
-if True:
- print('Yes, it is true')
-```
-
-After Python has finished executing the complete `if` statement along with the associated `elif` and `else` clauses, it moves on to the next statement in the block containing the `if` statement. In this case, it is the main block (where execution of the program starts), and the next statement is the `print('Done')` statement. After this, Python sees the ends of the program and simply finishes up.
-
-Even though this is a very simple program, I have been pointing out a lot of things that you should notice. All these are pretty straightforward (and surprisingly simple for those of you from C/C++ backgrounds). You will need to become aware of all these things initially, but after some practice you will become comfortable with them, and it will all feel 'natural' to you.
-
-> **Note for C/C++ Programmers**
->
-> There is no `switch` statement in Python. You can use an `if..elif..else` statement to do the same thing (and in some cases, use a [dictionary](./data_structures.md#dictionary) to do it quickly)
-
-## The while Statement
-
-The `while` statement allows you to repeatedly execute a block of statements as long as a condition is true. A `while` statement is an example of what is called a *looping* statement. A `while` statement can have an optional `else` clause.
-
-Example (save as `while.py`):
-
-{% include "./programs/while.py" %}
-
-Output:
-
-{% include "./programs/while.txt" %}
-
-**How It Works**
-
-In this program, we are still playing the guessing game, but the advantage is that the user is allowed to keep guessing until he guesses correctly - there is no need to repeatedly run the program for each guess, as we have done in the previous section. This aptly demonstrates the use of the `while` statement.
-
-We move the `input` and `if` statements to inside the `while` loop and set the variable `running` to `True` before the while loop. First, we check if the variable `running` is `True` and then proceed to execute the corresponding *while-block*. After this block is executed, the condition is again checked which in this case is the `running` variable. If it is true, we execute the while-block again, else we continue to execute the optional else-block and then continue to the next statement.
-
-The `else` block is executed when the `while` loop condition becomes `False` - this may even be the first time that the condition is checked. If there is an `else` clause for a `while` loop, it is always executed unless you break out of the loop with a `break` statement.
-
-The `True` and `False` are called Boolean types and you can consider them to be equivalent to the value `1` and `0` respectively.
-
-> **Note for C/C++ Programmers**
->
-> Remember that you can have an `else` clause for the `while` loop.
-
-## The `for` loop
-
-The `for..in` statement is another looping statement which *iterates* over a sequence of objects i.e. go through each item in a sequence. We will see more about [sequences](./data_structures.md#sequence) in detail in later chapters. What you need to know right now is that a sequence is just an ordered collection of items.
-
-Example (save as `for.py`):
-
-{% include "./programs/for.py" %}
-
-Output:
-
-{% include "./programs/for.txt" %}
-
-**How It Works**
-
-In this program, we are printing a *sequence* of numbers. We generate this sequence of numbers using the built-in `range` function.
-
-What we do here is supply it two numbers and `range` returns a sequence of numbers starting from the first number and up to the second number. For example, `range(1,5)` gives the sequence `[1, 2, 3, 4]`. By default, `range` takes a step count of 1. If we supply a third number to `range`, then that becomes the step count. For example, `range(1,5,2)` gives `[1,3]`. Remember that the range extends *up to* the second number i.e. it does *not* include the second number.
-
-Note that `range()` generates only one number at a time, if you want the full list of numbers, call `list()` on the `range()`, for example, `list(range(5))` will result in `[0, 1, 2, 3, 4]`. Lists are explained in the [data structures chapter](./data_structures.md#data-structures).
-
-The `for` loop then iterates over this range - `for i in range(1,5)` is equivalent to `for i in [1, 2, 3, 4]` which is like assigning each number (or object) in the sequence to i, one at a time, and then executing the block of statements for each value of `i`. In this case, we just print the value in the block of statements.
-
-Remember that the `else` part is optional. When included, it is always executed once after the `for` loop is over unless a <{% include "./programs/break.py" %}
-
-Output:
-
-{% include "./programs/break.txt" %}
-
-**How It Works**
-
-In this program, we repeatedly take the user's input and print the length of each input each
-time. We are providing a special condition to stop the program by checking if the user input is
-`'quit'`. We stop the program by *breaking* out of the loop and reach the end of the program.
-
-The length of the input string can be found out using the built-in `len` function.
-
-Remember that the `break` statement can be used with the `for` loop as well.
-
-**Swaroop's Poetic Python**
-
-The input I have used here is a mini poem I have written:
-
-```
-Programming is fun
-When the work is done
-if you wanna make your work also fun:
- use Python!
-```
-
-## The `continue` Statement {#continue-statement}
-
-The `continue` statement is used to tell Python to skip the rest of the statements in the current loop block and to *continue* to the next iteration of the loop.
-
-Example (save as `continue.py`):
-
-{% include "./programs/continue.py" %}
-
-Output:
-
-{% include "./programs/continue.txt" %}
-
-**How It Works**
-
-In this program, we accept input from the user, but we process the input string only if it is at least 3 characters long. So, we use the built-in `len` function to get the length and if the length is less than 3, we skip the rest of the statements in the block by using the `continue` statement. Otherwise, the rest of the statements in the loop are executed, doing any kind of processing we want to do here.
-
-Note that the `continue` statement works with the `for` loop as well.
-
-## Summary
-
-We have seen how to use the three control flow statements - `if`, `while` and `for` along with their associated `break` and `continue` statements. These are some of the most commonly used parts of Python and hence, becoming comfortable with them is essential.
-
-Next, we will see how to create and use functions.
diff --git a/data_structures.md b/data_structures.md
deleted file mode 100644
index b243b025..00000000
--- a/data_structures.md
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,240 +0,0 @@
-# Data Structures {#data-structures}
-
-Data structures are basically just that - they are *structures* which can hold some *data* together. In other words, they are used to store a collection of related data.
-
-There are four built-in data structures in Python - _list, tuple, dictionary and set_. We will see how to use each of them and how they make life easier for us.
-
-## List
-
-A `list` is a data structure that holds an ordered collection of items i.e. you can store a *sequence* of items in a list. This is easy to imagine if you can think of a shopping list where you have a list of items to buy, except that you probably have each item on a separate line in your shopping list whereas in Python you put commas in between them.
-
-The list of items should be enclosed in square brackets so that Python understands that you are specifying a list. Once you have created a list, you can add, remove or search for items in the list. Since we can add and remove items, we say that a list is a *mutable* data type i.e. this type can be altered.
-
-## Quick Introduction To Objects And Classes
-
-Although I've been generally delaying the discussion of objects and classes till now, a little explanation is needed right now so that you can understand lists better. We will explore this topic in detail in a [later chapter](./oop.md#oop).
-
-A list is an example of usage of objects and classes. When we use a variable `i` and assign a value to it, say integer `5` to it, you can think of it as creating an *object* (i.e. instance) `i` of *class* (i.e. type) `int`. In fact, you can read `help(int)` to understand this better.
-
-A class can also have *methods* i.e. functions defined for use with respect to that class only. You can use these pieces of functionality only when you have an object of that class. For example, Python provides an `append` method for the `list` class which allows you to add an item to the end of the list. For example, `mylist.append('an item')` will add that string to the list `mylist`. Note the use of dotted notation for accessing methods of the objects.
-
-A class can also have *fields* which are nothing but variables defined for use with respect to that class only. You can use these variables/names only when you have an object of that class. Fields are also accessed by the dotted notation, for example, `mylist.field`.
-
-Example (save as `ds_using_list.py`):
-
-{% include "./programs/ds_using_list.py" %}
-
-Output:
-
-{% include "./programs/ds_using_list.txt" %}
-
-**How It Works**
-
-The variable `shoplist` is a shopping list for someone who is going to the market. In `shoplist`, we only store strings of the names of the items to buy but you can add _any kind of object_ to a list including numbers and even other lists.
-
-We have also used the `for..in` loop to iterate through the items of the list. By now, you must have realised that a list is also a sequence. The speciality of sequences will be discussed in a [later section](#sequence).
-
-Notice the use of the `end` parameter in the call to `print` function to indicate that we want to end the output with a space instead of the usual line break.
-
-Next, we add an item to the list using the `append` method of the list object, as already discussed before. Then, we check that the item has been indeed added to the list by printing the contents of the list by simply passing the list to the `print` function which prints it neatly.
-
-Then, we sort the list by using the `sort` method of the list. It is important to understand that this method affects the list itself and does not return a modified list - this is different from the way strings work. This is what we mean by saying that lists are _mutable_ and that strings are _immutable_.
-
-Next, when we finish buying an item in the market, we want to remove it from the list. We achieve this by using the `del` statement. Here, we mention which item of the list we want to remove and the `del` statement removes it from the list for us. We specify that we want to remove the first item from the list and hence we use `del shoplist[0]` (remember that Python starts counting from 0).
-
-If you want to know all the methods defined by the list object, see `help(list)` for details.
-
-## Tuple
-
-Tuples are used to hold together multiple objects. Think of them as similar to lists, but without the extensive functionality that the list class gives you. One major feature of tuples is that they are *immutable* like strings i.e. you cannot modify tuples.
-
-Tuples are defined by specifying items separated by commas within an optional pair of parentheses.
-
-Tuples are usually used in cases where a statement or a user-defined function can safely assume that the collection of values i.e. the tuple of values used will not change.
-
-Example (save as `ds_using_tuple.py`):
-
-{% include "./programs/ds_using_tuple.py" %}
-
-Output:
-
-{% include "./programs/ds_using_tuple.txt" %}
-
-**How It Works**
-
-The variable `zoo` refers to a tuple of items. We see that the `len` function can be used to get the length of the tuple. This also indicates that a tuple is a [sequence](#sequence) as well.
-
-We are now shifting these animals to a new zoo since the old zoo is being closed. Therefore, the `new_zoo` tuple contains some animals which are already there along with the animals brought over from the old zoo. Back to reality, note that a tuple within a tuple does not lose its identity.
-
-We can access the items in the tuple by specifying the item's position within a pair of square brackets just like we did for lists. This is called the _indexing_ operator. We access the third item in `new_zoo` by specifying `new_zoo[2]` and we access the third item within the third item in the `new_zoo` tuple by specifying `new_zoo[2][2]`. This is pretty simple once you've understood the idiom.
-
-> **Tuple with 0 or 1 items**
->
-> An empty tuple is constructed by an empty pair of parentheses such as `myempty = ()`. However, a tuple with a single item is not so simple. You have to specify it using a comma following the first (and only) item so that Python can differentiate between a tuple and a pair of parentheses surrounding the object in an expression i.e. you have to specify `singleton = (2 , )` if you mean you want a tuple containing the item `2`.
-
-
-
-> **Note for Perl programmers**
->
-> A list within a list does not lose its identity i.e. lists are not flattened as in Perl. The same applies to a tuple within a tuple, or a tuple within a list, or a list within a tuple, etc. As far as Python is concerned, they are just objects stored using another object, that's all.
-
-## Dictionary
-
-A dictionary is like an address-book where you can find the address or contact details of a person by knowing only his/her name i.e. we associate *keys* (name) with *values* (details). Note that the key must be unique just like you cannot find out the correct information if you have two persons with the exact same name.
-
-Note that you can use only immutable objects (like strings) for the keys of a dictionary but you can use either immutable or mutable objects for the values of the dictionary. This basically translates to say that you should use only simple objects for keys.
-
-Pairs of keys and values are specified in a dictionary by using the notation `d = {key1 : value1, key2 : value2 }`. Notice that the key-value pairs are separated by a colon and the pairs are separated themselves by commas and all this is enclosed in a pair of curly braces.
-
-Remember that key-value pairs in a dictionary are not ordered in any manner. If you want a particular order, then you will have to sort them yourself before using it.
-
-The dictionaries that you will be using are instances/objects of the `dict` class.
-
-Example (save as `ds_using_dict.py`):
-
-{% include "./programs/ds_using_dict.py" %}
-
-Output:
-
-{% include "./programs/ds_using_dict.txt" %}
-
-**How It Works**
-
-We create the dictionary `ab` using the notation already discussed. We then access key-value pairs by specifying the key using the indexing operator as discussed in the context of lists and tuples. Observe the simple syntax.
-
-We can delete key-value pairs using our old friend - the `del` statement. We simply specify the dictionary and the indexing operator for the key to be removed and pass it to the `del` statement. There is no need to know the value corresponding to the key for this operation.
-
-Next, we access each key-value pair of the dictionary using the `items` method of the dictionary which returns a list of tuples where each tuple contains a pair of items - the key followed by the value. We retrieve this pair and assign it to the variables `name` and `address` correspondingly for each pair using the `for..in` loop and then print these values in the for-block.
-
-We can add new key-value pairs by simply using the indexing operator to access a key and assign that value, as we have done for Guido in the above case.
-
-We can check if a key-value pair exists using the `in` operator.
-
-For the list of methods of the `dict` class, see `help(dict)`.
-
-> **Keyword Arguments and Dictionaries**
->
-> If you have used keyword arguments in your functions, you have already used dictionaries! Just think about it - the key-value pair is specified by you in the parameter list of the function definition and when you access variables within your function, it is just a key access of a dictionary (which is called the _symbol table_ in compiler design terminology).
-
-## Sequence
-
-Lists, tuples and strings are examples of sequences, but what are sequences and what is so special about them?
-
-The major features are *membership tests*, (i.e. the `in` and `not in` expressions) and *indexing operations*, which allow us to fetch a particular item in the sequence directly.
-
-The three types of sequences mentioned above - lists, tuples and strings, also have a *slicing* operation which allows us to retrieve a slice of the sequence i.e. a part of the sequence.
-
-Example (save as `ds_seq.py`):
-
-{% include "./programs/ds_seq.py" %}
-
-Output:
-
-{% include "./programs/ds_seq.txt" %}
-
-**How It Works**
-
-First, we see how to use indexes to get individual items of a sequence. This is also referred to as the _subscription operation_. Whenever you specify a number to a sequence within square brackets as shown above, Python will fetch you the item corresponding to that position in the sequence. Remember that Python starts counting numbers from 0. Hence, `shoplist[0]` fetches the first item and `shoplist[3]` fetches the fourth item in the `shoplist`sequence.
-
-The index can also be a negative number, in which case, the position is calculated from the end of the sequence. Therefore, `shoplist[-1]` refers to the last item in the sequence and `shoplist[-2]` fetches the second last item in the sequence.
-
-The slicing operation is used by specifying the name of the sequence followed by an optional pair of numbers separated by a colon within square brackets. Note that this is very similar to the indexing operation you have been using till now. Remember the numbers are optional but the colon isn't.
-
-The first number (before the colon) in the slicing operation refers to the position from where the slice starts and the second number (after the colon) indicates where the slice will stop at. If the first number is not specified, Python will start at the beginning of the sequence. If the second number is left out, Python will stop at the end of the sequence. Note that the slice returned _starts_ at the start position and will end just before the _end_ position i.e. the start position is included but the end position is excluded from the sequence slice.
-
-Thus, `shoplist[1:3]` returns a slice of the sequence starting at position 1, includes position 2 but stops at position 3 and therefore a *slice* of two items is returned. Similarly, `shoplist[:]` returns a copy of the whole sequence.
-
-You can also do slicing with negative positions. Negative numbers are used for positions from the end of the sequence. For example, `shoplist[:-1]` will return a slice of the sequence which excludes the last item of the sequence but contains everything else.
-
-You can also provide a third argument for the slice, which is the _step_ for the slicing (by default, the step size is 1):
-
-```python
->>> shoplist = ['apple', 'mango', 'carrot', 'banana']
->>> shoplist[::1]
-['apple', 'mango', 'carrot', 'banana']
->>> shoplist[::2]
-['apple', 'carrot']
->>> shoplist[::3]
-['apple', 'banana']
->>> shoplist[::-1]
-['banana', 'carrot', 'mango', 'apple']
-```
-
-Notice that when the step is 2, we get the items with position 0, 2,... When the step size is 3, we get the items with position 0, 3, etc.
-
-Try various combinations of such slice specifications using the Python interpreter interactively i.e. the prompt so that you can see the results immediately. The great thing about sequences is that you can access tuples, lists and strings all in the same way!
-
-## Set
-
-Sets are _unordered_ collections of simple objects. These are used when the existence of an object in a collection is more important than the order or how many times it occurs.
-
-Using sets, you can test for membership, whether it is a subset of another set, find the intersection between two sets, and so on.
-
-```python
->>> bri = set(['brazil', 'russia', 'india'])
->>> 'india' in bri
-True
->>> 'usa' in bri
-False
->>> bric = bri.copy()
->>> bric.add('china')
->>> bric.issuperset(bri)
-True
->>> bri.remove('russia')
->>> bri & bric # OR bri.intersection(bric)
-{'brazil', 'india'}
-```
-
-**How It Works**
-
-The example is pretty much self-explanatory because it involves basic set theory mathematics taught in school.
-
-## References
-
-When you create an object and assign it to a variable, the variable only _refers_ to the object and does not represent the object itself! That is, the variable name points to that part of your computer's memory where the object is stored. This is called *binding* the name to the object.
-
-Generally, you don't need to be worried about this, but there is a subtle effect due to references which you need to be aware of:
-
-Example (save as `ds_reference.py`):
-
-{% include "./programs/ds_reference.py" %}
-
-Output:
-
-{% include "./programs/ds_reference.txt" %}
-
-**How It Works**
-
-Most of the explanation is available in the comments.
-
-Remember that if you want to make a copy of a list or such kinds of sequences or complex objects (not simple _objects_ such as integers), then you have to use the slicing operation to make a copy. If you just assign the variable name to another name, both of them will ''refer'' to the same object and this could be trouble if you are not careful.
-
-> **Note for Perl programmers**
->
-> Remember that an assignment statement for lists does **not** create a copy. You have to use slicing operation to make a copy of the sequence.
-
-## More About Strings {#more-strings}
-
-We have already discussed strings in detail earlier. What more can there be to know? Well, did you know that strings are also objects and have methods which do everything from checking part of a string to stripping spaces!
-
-The strings that you use in program are all objects of the class `str`. Some useful methods of this class are demonstrated in the next example. For a complete list of such methods, see `help(str)`.
-
-Example (save as `ds_str_methods.py`):
-
-{% include "./programs/ds_str_methods.py" %}
-
-Output:
-
-{% include "./programs/ds_str_methods.txt" %}
-
-**How It Works**
-
-Here, we see a lot of the string methods in action. The `startswith` method is used to find out whether the string starts with the given string. The `in` operator is used to check if a given string is a part of the string.
-
-The `find` method is used to locate the position of the given substring within the string; `find` returns -1 if it is unsuccessful in finding the substring. The `str` class also has a neat method to `join` the items of a sequence with the string acting as a delimiter between each item of the sequence and returns a bigger string generated from this.
-
-## Summary
-
-We have explored the various built-in data structures of Python in detail. These data structures will be essential for writing programs of reasonable size.
-
-Now that we have a lot of the basics of Python in place, we will next see how to design and write a real-world Python program.
diff --git a/dedication.md b/dedication.md
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--- a/dedication.md
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,7 +0,0 @@
-# Dedication
-
-To [Kalyan Varma](http://www.kalyanvarma.net/) and many other seniors at [PESIT](http://www.pes.edu/) who introduced us to GNU/Linux and the world of open source.
-
-To the memory of [Atul Chitnis](http://www.nextbigwhat.com/atul-chitnis-obituary-297/), a friend and guide who shall be missed greatly.
-
-To the [pioneers who made the Internet happen](http://www.ibiblio.org/pioneers/index.html). This book was first written in 2003. It still remains popular, thanks to the nature of sharing knowledge on the Internet as envisioned by the pioneers.
diff --git a/exceptions.md b/exceptions.md
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--- a/exceptions.md
+++ /dev/null
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-# Exceptions
-
-Exceptions occur when _exceptional_ situations occur in your program. For example, what if you are going to read a file and the file does not exist? Or what if you accidentally deleted it when the program was running? Such situations are handled using **exceptions**.
-
-Similarly, what if your program had some invalid statements? This is handled by Python which **raises** its hands and tells you there is an **error**.
-
-## Errors
-
-Consider a simple `print` function call. What if we misspelt `print` as `Print`? Note the capitalization. In this case, Python _raises_ a syntax error.
-
-```python
->>> Print("Hello World")
-Traceback (most recent call last):
- File "{% include "./programs/exceptions_handle.py" %}
-
-Output:
-
-{% include "./programs/exceptions_handle.txt" %}
-
-**How It Works**
-
-We put all the statements that might raise exceptions/errors inside the `try` block and then put handlers for the appropriate errors/exceptions in the `except` clause/block. The `except` clause can handle a single specified error or exception, or a parenthesized list of errors/exceptions. If no names of errors or exceptions are supplied, it will handle _all_ errors and exceptions.
-
-Note that there has to be at least one `except` clause associated with every `try` clause. Otherwise, what's the point of having a try block?
-
-If any error or exception is not handled, then the default Python handler is called which just stops the execution of the program and prints an error message. We have already seen this in action above.
-
-You can also have an `else` clause associated with a `try..except` block. The `else` clause is executed if no exception occurs.
-
-In the next example, we will also see how to get the exception object so that we can retrieve additional information.
-
-## Raising Exceptions
-
-You can _raise_ exceptions using the `raise` statement by providing the name of the error/exception and the exception object that is to be _thrown_.
-
-The error or exception that you can raise should be a class which directly or indirectly must be a derived class of the `Exception` class.
-
-Example (save as `exceptions_raise.py`):
-
-{% include "./programs/exceptions_raise.py" %}
-
-Output:
-
-{% include "./programs/exceptions_raise.txt" %}
-
-**How It Works**
-
-Here, we are creating our own exception type. This new exception type is called `ShortInputException`. It has two fields - `length` which is the length of the given input, and `atleast` which is the minimum length that the program was expecting.
-
-In the `except` clause, we mention the class of error which will be stored `as` the variable name to hold the corresponding error/exception object. This is analogous to parameters and arguments in a function call. Within this particular `except` clause, we use the `length` and `atleast` fields of the exception object to print an appropriate message to the user.
-
-## Try ... Finally {#try-finally}
-
-Suppose you are reading a file in your program. How do you ensure that the file object is closed properly whether or not an exception was raised? This can be done using the `finally` block.
-
-Save this program as `exceptions_finally.py`:
-
-{% include "./programs/exceptions_finally.py" %}
-
-Output:
-
-{% include "./programs/exceptions_finally.txt" %}
-
-**How It Works**
-
-We do the usual file-reading stuff, but we have arbitrarily introduced sleeping for 2 seconds after printing each line using the `time.sleep` function so that the program runs slowly (Python is very fast by nature). When the program is still running, press `ctrl + c` to interrupt/cancel the program.
-
-Observe that the `KeyboardInterrupt` exception is thrown and the program quits. However, before the program exits, the finally clause is executed and the file object is always closed.
-
-Note that we use `sys.stdout.flush()` after `print` so that it prints to the screen immediately.
-
-## The with statement {#with}
-
-Acquiring a resource in the `try` block and subsequently releasing the resource in the `finally` block is a common pattern. Hence, there is also a `with` statement that enables this to be done in a clean manner:
-
-Save as `exceptions_using_with.py`:
-
-{% include "./programs/exceptions_using_with.py" %}
-
-**How It Works**
-
-The output should be same as the previous example. The difference here is that we are using the `open` function with the `with` statement - we leave the closing of the file to be done automatically by `with open`.
-
-What happens behind the scenes is that there is a protocol used by the `with` statement. It fetches the object returned by the `open` statement, let's call it "thefile" in this case.
-
-It _always_ calls the `thefile.__enter__` function before starting the block of code under it and _always_ calls `thefile.__exit__` after finishing the block of code.
-
-So the code that we would have written in a `finally` block should be taken care of automatically by the `__exit__` method. This is what helps us to avoid having to use explicit `try..finally` statements repeatedly.
-
-More discussion on this topic is beyond scope of this book, so please refer [PEP 343](http://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0343/) for a comprehensive explanation.
-
-## Summary
-
-We have discussed the usage of the `try..except` and `try..finally` statements. We have seen how to create our own exception types and how to raise exceptions as well.
-
-Next, we will explore the Python Standard Library.
diff --git a/feedback.md b/feedback.md
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--- a/feedback.md
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,3 +0,0 @@
-# Feedback
-
-The book needs the help of its readers such as yourselves to point out any parts of the book which are not good, not comprehensible or are simply wrong. Please [write to the main author]({{ book.contactUrl }}) or the respective [translators](./translations.md#translations) with your comments and suggestions.
diff --git a/first_steps.md b/first_steps.md
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+++ /dev/null
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-# First Steps
-
-We will now see how to run a traditional 'Hello World' program in Python. This will teach you how to write, save and run Python programs.
-
-There are two ways of using Python to run your program - using the interactive interpreter prompt or using a source file. We will now see how to use both of these methods.
-
-## Using The Interpreter Prompt
-
-Open the terminal in your operating system (as discussed previously in the [Installation](./installation.md#installation) chapter) and then open the Python prompt by typing `python3` and pressing `[enter]` key.
-
-Once you have started Python, you should see `>>>` where you can start typing stuff. This is called the _Python interpreter prompt_.
-
-At the Python interpreter prompt, type:
-
-```python
-print("Hello World")
-```
-
-followed by the `[enter]` key. You should see the words `Hello World` printed to the screen.
-
-Here is an example of what you should be seeing, when using a Mac OS X computer. The details about the Python software will differ based on your computer, but the part from the prompt (i.e. from `>>>` onwards) should be the same regardless of the operating system.
-
-
-```python
-> python3
-Python 3.5.1 (default, Jan 14 2016, 06:54:11)
-[GCC 4.2.1 Compatible Apple LLVM 7.0.2 (clang-700.1.81)] on darwin
-Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.
->>> print("Hello World")
-Hello World
-```
-
-Notice that Python gives you the output of the line immediately! What you just entered is a single Python _statement_. We use `print` to (unsurprisingly) print any value that you supply to it. Here, we are supplying the text `Hello World` and this is promptly printed to the screen.
-
-### How to Quit the Interpreter Prompt
-
-If you are using a GNU/Linux or OS X shell, you can exit the interpreter prompt by pressing `[ctrl + d]` or entering `exit()` (note: remember to include the parentheses, `()`) followed by the `[enter]` key.
-
-If you are using the Windows command prompt, press `[ctrl + z]` followed by the `[enter]` key.
-
-## Choosing An Editor
-
-We cannot type out our program at the interpreter prompt every time we want to run something, so we have to save them in files and can run our programs any number of times.
-
-To create our Python source files, we need an editor software where you can type and save. A good programmer's editor will make your life easier in writing the source files. Hence, the choice of an editor is crucial indeed. You have to choose an editor as you would choose a car you would buy. A good editor will help you write Python programs easily, making your journey more comfortable and helps you reach your destination (achieve your goal) in a much faster and safer way.
-
-One of the very basic requirements is _syntax highlighting_ where all the different parts of your Python program are colorized so that you can _see_ your program and visualize its running.
-
-If you have no idea where to start, I would recommend using [PyCharm Educational Edition](https://www.jetbrains.com/pycharm-edu/) software which is available on Windows, Mac OS X and GNU/Linux. Details in the next section.
-
-If you are using Windows, *do not use Notepad* - it is a bad choice because it does not do syntax highlighting and also importantly it does not support indentation of the text which is very important in our case as we will see later. Good editors will automatically do this.
-
-If you are an experienced programmer, then you must be already using [Vim](http://www.vim.org) or [Emacs](http://www.gnu.org/software/emacs/). Needless to say, these are two of the most powerful editors and you will benefit from using them to write your Python programs. I personally use both for most of my programs, and have even written an [entire book on Vim]({{ book.vimBookUrl }}).
-
-In case you are willing to take the time to learn Vim or Emacs, then I highly recommend that you do learn to use either of them as it will be very useful for you in the long run. However, as I mentioned before, beginners can start with PyCharm and focus the learning on Python rather than the editor at this moment.
-
-To reiterate, please choose a proper editor - it can make writing Python programs more fun and easy.
-
-## PyCharm {#pycharm}
-
-[PyCharm Educational Edition](https://www.jetbrains.com/pycharm-edu/) is a free editor which you can use for writing Python programs.
-
-When you open PyCharm, you'll see this, click on `Create New Project`:
-
-
-
-Select `Pure Python`:
-
-
-
-Change `untitled` to `helloworld` as the location of the project, you should see details similar to this:
-
-
-
-Click the `Create` button.
-
-Right-click on the `helloworld` in the sidebar and select `New` -> `Python File`:
-
-
-
-You will be asked to type the name, type `hello`:
-
-
-
-You can now see a file opened for you:
-
-
-
-Delete the lines that are already present, and now type the following:
-
-
-
-```python
-print("hello world")
-```
-Now right-click on what you typed (without selecting the text), and click on `Run 'hello'`.
-
-
-
-You should now see the output (what it prints) of your program:
-
-
-
-Phew! That was quite a few steps to get started, but henceforth, every time we ask you to create a new file, remember to just right-click on `helloworld` on the left -> `New` -> `Python File` and continue the same steps to type and run as shown above.
-
-You can find more information about PyCharm in the [PyCharm Quickstart](https://www.jetbrains.com/pycharm-educational/quickstart/) page.
-
-## Vim
-
-1. Install [Vim](http://www.vim.org)
- * Mac OS X users should install `macvim` package via [HomeBrew](http://brew.sh/)
- * Windows users should download the "self-installing executable" from [Vim website](http://www.vim.org/download.php)
- * GNU/Linux users should get Vim from their distribution's software repositories, e.g. Debian and Ubuntu users can install the `vim` package.
-2. Install [jedi-vim](https://github.com/davidhalter/jedi-vim) plugin for autocompletion.
-3. Install corresponding `jedi` python package : `pip install -U jedi`
-
-## Emacs
-
-1. Install [Emacs 24+](http://www.gnu.org/software/emacs/).
- * Mac OS X users should get Emacs from http://emacsformacosx.com
- * Windows users should get Emacs from http://ftp.gnu.org/gnu/emacs/windows/
- * GNU/Linux users should get Emacs from their distribution's software repositories, e.g. Debian and Ubuntu users can install the `emacs24` package.
-2. Install [ELPY](https://github.com/jorgenschaefer/elpy/wiki)
-
-## Using A Source File
-
-Now let's get back to programming. There is a tradition that whenever you learn a new programming language, the first program that you write and run is the 'Hello World' program - all it does is just say 'Hello World' when you run it. As Simon Cozens[^1] says, it is the "traditional incantation to the programming gods to help you learn the language better."
-
-Start your choice of editor, enter the following program and save it as `hello.py`.
-
-If you are using PyCharm, we have already [discussed how to run from a source file](#pycharm).
-
-For other editors, open a new file `hello.py` and type this:
-
-```python
-print("hello world")
-```
-
-Where should you save the file? To any folder for which you know the location of the folder. If you
-don't understand what that means, create a new folder and use that location to save and run all
-your Python programs:
-
-- `/tmp/py` on Mac OS X
-- `/tmp/py` on GNU/Linux
-- `C:\\py` on Windows
-
-To create the above folder (for the operating system you are using), use the `mkdir` command in the terminal, for example, `mkdir /tmp/py`.
-
-IMPORTANT: Always ensure that you give it the file extension of `.py`, for example, `foo.py`.
-
-To run your Python program:
-
-1. Open a terminal window (see the previous [Installation](./installation.md#installation) chapter on how to do that)
-2. **C**hange **d**irectory to where you saved the file, for example, `cd /tmp/py`
-3. Run the program by entering the command `python hello.py`. The output is as shown below.
-
-```
-$ python hello.py
-hello world
-```
-
-
-
-If you got the output as shown above, congratulations! - you have successfully run your first Python program. You have successfully crossed the hardest part of learning programming, which is, getting started with your first program!
-
-In case you got an error, please type the above program _exactly_ as shown above and run the program again. Note that Python is case-sensitive i.e. `print` is not the same as `Print` - note the lowercase `p` in the former and the uppercase `P` in the latter. Also, ensure there are no spaces or tabs before the first character in each line - we will see [why this is important](./basics.md#indentation) later.
-
-**How It Works**
-
-A Python program is composed of _statements_. In our first program, we have only one statement. In this statement, we call the `print` _statement_ to which we supply the text "hello world".
-
-## Getting Help
-
-If you need quick information about any function or statement in Python, then you can use the built-in `help` functionality. This is very useful especially when using the interpreter prompt. For example, run `help('len')` - this displays the help for the `len` function which is used to count number of items.
-
-TIP: Press `q` to exit the help.
-
-Similarly, you can obtain information about almost anything in Python. Use `help()` to learn more about using `help` itself!
-
-In case you need to get help for operators like `return`, then you need to put those inside quotes such as `help('return')` so that Python doesn't get confused on what we're trying to do.
-
-## Summary
-
-You should now be able to write, save and run Python programs at ease.
-
-Now that you are a Python user, let's learn some more Python concepts.
-
----
-
-[^1]: the author of the amazing 'Beginning Perl' book
diff --git a/floss.md b/floss.md
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-# Appendix: FLOSS {#floss}
-
-> NOTE: Please note that this section was written in 2003, so some of this will sound quaint to you :-)
-
-"Free/Libre and Open Source Software", in short, [FLOSS](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FLOSS) is based on the concept of a community, which itself is based on the concept of sharing, and particularly the sharing of knowledge. FLOSS are free for usage, modification and redistribution.
-
-If you have already read this book, then you are already familiar with FLOSS since you have been using *Python* all along and Python is an open source software!
-
-Here are some examples of FLOSS to give an idea of the kind of things that community sharing and building can create:
-
-[Linux](http://www.kernel.org): This is a FLOSS OS kernel used in the GNU/Linux operating system. Linux, the kernel, was started by Linus Torvalds as a student. Android is based on Linux. Any website you use these days will mostly be running on Linux.
-
-[Ubuntu](http://www.ubuntu.com): This is a community-driven distribution, sponsored by Canonical and it is the most popular GNU/Linux distribution today. It allows you to install a plethora of FLOSS available and all this in an easy-to-use and easy-to-install manner. Best of all, you can just reboot your computer and run GNU/Linux off the CD! This allows you to completely try out the new OS before installing it on your computer. However, Ubuntu is not entirely free software; it contains proprietary drivers, firmware, and applications.
-
-[LibreOffice](http://www.libreoffice.org/): This is an excellent community-driven and developed office suite with a writer, presentation, spreadsheet and drawing components among other things. It can even open and edit MS Word and MS PowerPoint files with ease. It runs on almost all platforms and is entirely free, libre and open source software.
-
-[Mozilla Firefox](http://www.mozilla.org/products/firefox): This is _the_ best web browser. It is blazingly fast and has gained critical acclaim for its sensible and impressive features. The extensions concept allows any kind of plugins to be used.
-
-[Mono](http://www.mono-project.com): This is an open source implementation of the Microsoft .NET platform. It allows .NET applications to be created and run on GNU/Linux, Windows, FreeBSD, Mac OS and many other platforms as well.
-
-[Apache web server](http://httpd.apache.org): This is the popular open source web server. In fact, it is _the_ most popular web server on the planet! It runs nearly more than half of the websites out there. Yes, that's right - Apache handles more websites than all the competition (including Microsoft IIS) combined.
-
-[VLC Player](http://www.videolan.org/vlc/): This is a video player that can play anything from DivX to MP3 to Ogg to VCDs and DVDs to ... who says open source ain't fun? ;-)
-
-This list is just intended to give you a brief idea - there are many more excellent FLOSS out there, such as the Perl language, PHP language, Drupal content management system for websites, PostgreSQL database server, TORCS racing game, KDevelop IDE, Xine - the movie player, VIM editor, Quanta+ editor, Banshee audio player, GIMP image editing program, ... This list could go on forever.
-
-To get the latest buzz in the FLOSS world, check out the following websites:
-
-- [OMG! Ubuntu!](http://www.omgubuntu.co.uk/)
-- [Web Upd8](http://www.webupd8.org/)
-- [DistroWatch](http://www.distrowatch.com)
-- [Planet Debian](http://planet.debian.org/)
-
-Visit the following websites for more information on FLOSS:
-
-- [GitHub Explore](http://github.com/explore)
-- [Code Triage](http://www.codetriage.com/)
-- [SourceForge](http://www.sourceforge.net)
-- [FreshMeat](http://www.freshmeat.net)
-
-So, go ahead and explore the vast, free and open world of FLOSS!
diff --git a/functions.md b/functions.md
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--- a/functions.md
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-# Functions
-
-Functions are reusable pieces of programs. They allow you to give a name to a block of statements, allowing you to run that block using the specified name anywhere in your program and any number of times. This is known as *calling* the function. We have already used many built-in functions such as `len` and `range`.
-
-The function concept is probably *the* most important building block of any non-trivial software (in any programming language), so we will explore various aspects of functions in this chapter.
-
-Functions are defined using the `def` keyword. After this keyword comes an *identifier* name for the function, followed by a pair of parentheses which may enclose some names of variables, and by the final colon that ends the line. Next follows the block of statements that are part of this function. An example will show that this is actually very simple:
-
-Example (save as `function1.py`):
-
-{% include "./programs/function1.py" %}
-
-Output:
-
-{% include "./programs/function1.txt" %}
-
-**How It Works**
-
-We define a function called `say_hello` using the syntax as explained above. This function takes no parameters and hence there are no variables declared in the parentheses. Parameters to functions are just input to the function so that we can pass in different values to it and get back corresponding results.
-
-Notice that we can call the same function twice which means we do not have to write the same code again.
-
-## Function Parameters
-
-A function can take parameters, which are values you supply to the function so that the function
-can *do* something utilising those values. These parameters are just like variables except that the
-values of these variables are defined when we call the function and are already assigned values
-when the function runs.
-
-Parameters are specified within the pair of parentheses in the function definition, separated by
-commas. When we call the function, we supply the values in the same way. Note the terminology
-used - the names given in the function definition are called *parameters* whereas the values you
-supply in the function call are called *arguments*.
-
-Example (save as `function_param.py`):
-
-{% include "./programs/function_param.py" %}
-
-Output:
-
-{% include "./programs/function_param.txt" %}
-
-**How It Works**
-
-Here, we define a function called `print_max` that uses two parameters called `a` and `b`. We find out the greater number using a simple `if..else` statement and then print the bigger number.
-
-The first time we call the function `print_max`, we directly supply the numbers as arguments. In the second case, we call the function with variables as arguments. `print_max(x, y)` causes the value of argument `x` to be assigned to parameter `a` and the value of argument `y` to be assigned to parameter `b`. The `print_max` function works the same way in both cases.
-
-## Local Variables
-
-When you declare variables inside a function definition, they are not related in any way to other variables with the same names used outside the function - i.e. variable names are *local* to the function. This is called the *scope* of the variable. All variables have the scope of the block they are declared in starting from the point of definition of the name.
-
-Example (save as `function_local.py`):
-
-{% include "./programs/function_local.py" %}
-
-Output:
-
-{% include "./programs/function_local.txt" %}
-
-**How It Works**
-
-The first time that we print the *value* of the name *x* with the first line in the function's body, Python uses the value of the parameter declared in the main block, above the function definition.
-
-Next, we assign the value `2` to `x`. The name `x` is local to our function. So, when we change the value of `x` in the function, the `x` defined in the main block remains unaffected.
-
-With the last `print` statement, we display the value of `x` as defined in the main block, thereby confirming that it is actually unaffected by the local assignment within the previously called function.
-
-## The `global` statement {#global-statement}
-
-If you want to assign a value to a name defined at the top level of the program (i.e. not inside any kind of scope such as functions or classes), then you have to tell Python that the name is not local, but it is *global*. We do this using the `global` statement. It is impossible to assign a value to a variable defined outside a function without the `global` statement.
-
-You can use the values of such variables defined outside the function (assuming there is no variable with the same name within the function). However, this is not encouraged and should be avoided since it becomes unclear to the reader of the program as to where that variable's definition is. Using the `global` statement makes it amply clear that the variable is defined in an outermost block.
-
-Example (save as `function_global.py`):
-
-{% include "./programs/function_global.py" %}
-
-Output:
-
-{% include "./programs/function_global.txt" %}
-
-**How It Works**
-
-The `global` statement is used to declare that `x` is a global variable - hence, when we assign a value to `x` inside the function, that change is reflected when we use the value of `x` in the main block.
-
-You can specify more than one global variable using the same `global` statement e.g. `global x, y, z`.
-
-## Default Argument Values {#default-arguments}
-
-For some functions, you may want to make some parameters *optional* and use default values in case the user does not want to provide values for them. This is done with the help of default argument values. You can specify default argument values for parameters by appending to the parameter name in the function definition the assignment operator (`=`) followed by the default value.
-
-Note that the default argument value should be a constant. More precisely, the default argument value should be immutable - this is explained in detail in later chapters. For now, just remember this.
-
-Example (save as `function_default.py`):
-
-{% include "./programs/function_default.py" %}
-
-Output:
-
-{% include "./programs/function_default.txt" %}
-
-**How It Works**
-
-The function named `say` is used to print a string as many times as specified. If we don't supply a value, then by default, the string is printed just once. We achieve this by specifying a default argument value of `1` to the parameter `times`.
-
-In the first usage of `say`, we supply only the string and it prints the string once. In the second usage of `say`, we supply both the string and an argument `5` stating that we want to *say* the string message 5 times.
-
-> *CAUTION*
->
-> Only those parameters which are at the end of the parameter list can be given default argument
-> values i.e. you cannot have a parameter with a default argument value preceding a parameter without
-> a default argument value in the function's parameter list.
->
-> This is because the values are assigned to the parameters by position. For example,`def func(a,
-> b=5)` is valid, but `def func(a=5, b)` is *not valid*.
-
-## Keyword Arguments
-
-If you have some functions with many parameters and you want to specify only some of them, then you can give values for such parameters by naming them - this is called *keyword arguments* - we use the name (keyword) instead of the position (which we have been using all along) to specify the arguments to the function.
-
-There are two advantages - one, using the function is easier since we do not need to worry about the order of the arguments. Two, we can give values to only those parameters to which we want to, provided that the other parameters have default argument values.
-
-Example (save as `function_keyword.py`):
-
-{% include "./programs/function_keyword.py" %}
-
-Output:
-
-{% include "./programs/function_keyword.txt" %}
-
-**How It Works**
-
-The function named `func` has one parameter without a default argument value, followed by two parameters with default argument values.
-
-In the first usage, `func(3, 7)`, the parameter `a` gets the value `3`, the parameter `b` gets the value `7` and `c` gets the default value of `10`.
-
-In the second usage `func(25, c=24)`, the variable `a` gets the value of 25 due to the position of the argument. Then, the parameter `c` gets the value of `24` due to naming i.e. keyword arguments. The variable `b` gets the default value of `5`.
-
-In the third usage `func(c=50, a=100)`, we use keyword arguments for all specified values. Notice that we are specifying the value for parameter `c` before that for `a` even though `a` is defined before `c` in the function definition.
-
-## VarArgs parameters
-
-Sometimes you might want to define a function that can take _any_ number of parameters, i.e. **var**iable number of **arg**uments, this can be achieved by using the stars (save as `function_varargs.py`):
-
-{% include "./programs/function_varargs.py" %}
-
-Output:
-
-{% include "./programs/function_varargs.txt" %}
-
-**How It Works**
-
-When we declare a starred parameter such as `*param`, then all the positional arguments from that point till the end are collected as a tuple called 'param'.
-
-Similarly, when we declare a double-starred parameter such as `**param`, then all the keyword arguments from that point till the end are collected as a dictionary called 'param'.
-
-We will explore tuples and dictionaries in a [later chapter](./data_structures.md#data-structures).
-
-## The `return` statement {#return-statement}
-
-The `return` statement is used to *return* from a function i.e. break out of the function. We can optionally *return a value* from the function as well.
-
-Example (save as `function_return.py`):
-
-{% include "./programs/function_return.py" %}
-
-Output:
-
-{% include "./programs/function_return.txt" %}
-
-**How It Works**
-
-The `maximum` function returns the maximum of the parameters, in this case the numbers supplied to the function. It uses a simple `if..else` statement to find the greater value and then *returns* that value.
-
-Note that a `return` statement without a value is equivalent to `return None`. `None` is a special type in Python that represents nothingness. For example, it is used to indicate that a variable has no value if it has a value of `None`.
-
-Every function implicitly contains a `return None` statement at the end unless you have written your own `return` statement. You can see this by running `print(some_function())` where the function `some_function` does not use the `return` statement such as:
-
-```python
-def some_function():
- pass
-```
-
-The `pass` statement is used in Python to indicate an empty block of statements.
-
-> TIP: There is a built-in function called `max` that already implements the 'find maximum' functionality, so use this built-in function whenever possible.
-
-## DocStrings
-
-Python has a nifty feature called *documentation strings*, usually referred to by its shorter name *docstrings*. DocStrings are an important tool that you should make use of since it helps to document the program better and makes it easier to understand. Amazingly, we can even get the docstring back from, say a function, when the program is actually running!
-
-Example (save as `function_docstring.py`):
-
-{% include "./programs/function_docstring.py" %}
-
-Output:
-
-{% include "./programs/function_docstring.txt" %}
-
-**How It Works**
-
-A string on the first logical line of a function is the *docstring* for that function. Note that DocStrings also apply to [modules](./modules.md#modules) and [classes](./oop.md#oop) which we will learn about in the respective chapters.
-
-The convention followed for a docstring is a multi-line string where the first line starts with a capital letter and ends with a dot. Then the second line is blank followed by any detailed explanation starting from the third line. You are *strongly advised* to follow this convention for all your docstrings for all your non-trivial functions.
-
-We can access the docstring of the `print_max` function using the `__doc__` (notice the *double underscores*) attribute (name belonging to) of the function. Just remember that Python treats *everything* as an object and this includes functions. We'll learn more about objects in the chapter on [classes](./oop.md#oop).
-
-If you have used `help()` in Python, then you have already seen the usage of docstrings! What it does is just fetch the `__doc__` attribute of that function and displays it in a neat manner for you. You can try it out on the function above - just include `help(print_max)` in your program. Remember to press the `q` key to exit `help`.
-
-Automated tools can retrieve the documentation from your program in this manner. Therefore, I *strongly recommend* that you use docstrings for any non-trivial function that you write. The `pydoc` command that comes with your Python distribution works similarly to `help()` using docstrings.
-
-## Summary
-
-We have seen so many aspects of functions but note that we still haven't covered all aspects of them. However, we have already covered most of what you'll use regarding Python functions on an everyday basis.
-
-Next, we will see how to use as well as create Python modules.
diff --git a/img/pycharm_create_new_project.png b/img/pycharm_create_new_project.png
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