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Turkey vulture

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Turkey Vulture
At Santa Teresa County Park, San Jose, California, USA
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Animalia
Phylum:
Chordata
Class:
Aves
Order:
Incertae sedis (disputed)
Family:
Cathartidae
Genus:
Cathartes
Species:
C. aura
Binomial name
Cathartes aura
(Linnaeus, 1758)
Approximate range map:
  • Yellow – summer-only range
  • Green – year-round range    

The Turkey Vulture, Cathartes aura, is a bird found throughout most of the Americas. It's also known in some North American regions as the Turkey Buzzard (or just Buzzard), and in some areas of the Caribbean as the John Crow or Carrion Crow.[2] One of three species in the genus Cathartes, in the family Cathartidae, the Turkey Vulture is the most widespread of the New World vultures,[3] ranging from southern Canada to the southernmost tip of South America. It inhabits a variety of open and semi-open areas, including subtropical forests, shrublands, pastures, and deserts.[1] A large bird, it has a wingspan of 170–183 cm (67–72 in), a length of 64–81 cm (25–32 in), and weight of 0.85–2.26 kg (1.9–5 lb).[4][5][6][7] It has dark brown to black plumage; a featherless, purplish-red head and neck; and a short, hooked, ivory-colored beak. Its life expectancy in the wild ranges upward of 16 years, with a captive life span of over 30 years being possible.[8][9]

The Turkey Vulture is a scavenger and feeds almost exclusively on carrion.[10] It finds its meals using its keen vision and sense of smell, flying low enough to detect the gasses produced by the beginnings of the process of decay in dead animals.[10] In flight, it uses thermals to move through the air, flapping its wings infrequently. It roosts in large community groups. Lacking a syrinx—the vocal organ of birds—its only vocalizations are grunts or low hisses.[11] It nests in caves, hollow trees, or thickets. Each year it generally raises two chicks, which it feeds by regurgitation.[12] It has very few natural predators.[13] In the United States of America, the vulture receives legal protection under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918.[14]

Taxonomy

A turkey vulture

The Turkey Vulture received its common name from the resemblance of the adult's bald red head and its dark plumage to that of the male Wild Turkey, while the name "vulture" is derived from the Latin word vulturus, meaning "tearer," and is a reference to its feeding habits.[15] The word buzzard is used by North Americans to refer to this bird, yet in the Old World this word refers to members of the genus Buteo.[16] The generic term Cathartes means "purifier" and is the Latinized form from the Greek kathartēs/καθαρτης.[17] The species name, aura, is Latinized from the Native Mexican word for the bird, auroura.[15] The Turkey Vulture was first formally described by Linnaeus as Vultur aura in his Systema Naturae in 1758, and characterised as V. fuscogriseus, remigibus nigris, rostro albo ("brown-gray vulture, with black wings and a white beak").[18] It is a member of the family Cathartidae, along with the other six species of New World vultures, and included in the genus Cathartes, along with the Greater Yellow-headed Vulture and the Lesser Yellow-headed Vulture. Like other New World vultures, the Turkey Vulture has a diploid chromosome number of 80.[19]

The exact taxonomic placement of the Turkey Vulture and the remaining six species of New World Vultures remains unclear.[20] Though both are similar in appearance and have similar ecological roles, the New World and Old World Vultures evolved from different ancestors in different parts of the world. Just how different the two are is currently under debate, with some earlier authorities suggesting that the New World vultures are more closely related to storks.[21] More recent authorities maintain their overall position in the order Falconiformes along with the Old World Vultures[22] or place them in their own order, Cathartiformes.[23] The South American Classification Committee has removed the New World Vultures from Ciconiiformes and instead placed them in Incertae sedis, but notes that a move to Falconiformes or Cathartiformes is possible.[20]

C. a. septentrionalis, Ottawa, Canada

There are five subspecies of Turkey Vulture:

  • C. a. aura is the nominate subspecies. It is found from Mexico south through South America and the Greater Antilles. This subspecies occasionally overlaps its range with other subspecies. It is the smallest of the subspecies but is nearly indistinguishable from C. a. meridionalis in color.[24]
  • C. a. jota, the Chilean Turkey Vulture, is larger, browner, and slightly paler than C. a. ruficollis. The secondary feathers and wing coverts may have gray margins.[25]
  • C. a. meridionalis, the Western Turkey Vulture, is a synonym for C. a. teter. C. a. teter was identified as a subspecies by Friedman in 1933, but in 1964 Alexander Wetmore separated the western birds, which took the name meridionalis, which was applied earlier to a migrant from South America. It breeds from southern Manitoba, southern British Columbia, central Alberta and Saskatchewan south to Baja California, south-central Arizona, and south-central Texas.[26] It is the most migratory subspecies, migrating as far as South America, where it overlaps the range of the smaller C. a. aura. It differs from the Eastern Turkey Vulture in color, as the edges of the lesser wing coverts are darker brown and narrower.[24]
  • C. a. ruficollis is found in Panama south through Uruguay and Argentina. It is also found on the island of Trinidad.[27] It is darker and more black than C. a. aura, with brown wing edgings which are narrower or absent altogether.[27] The head and neck are dull red with yellow-white or green-white markings. Adults generally have a pale yellow patch on the crown of the head.[25]
  • C. a. septentrionalis is known as the Eastern Turkey Vulture. The Eastern and Western Turkey Vultures differ in tail and wing proportions. It ranges from southeastern Canada south through the eastern United States. It is less migratory than C. a. meridionalis and rarely migrates to areas south of the United States.[24]

Description

A side view, showing the perforated nostrils.

The typical adult Turkey Vulture is from 66–81 cm (26–32 in) long with a 173–183 cm (68–72 in) wingspan and a weight of 1.4 kg (3.1 lb).[4] It displays minimal sexual dimorphism; sexes are identical in plumage and in coloration, although the female is slightly larger.[28] The body feathers are mostly brownish-black, but the flight feathers on the wings appear to be silvery-gray beneath, contrasting with the darker wing linings.[4] The adult's head is small in proportion to its body and is red in color with few to no feathers. It also has a relatively short, hooked, ivory-colored beak.[29] The irises of the eyes are gray-brown; legs and feet are pink-skinned, although typically stained white. The eye has a single incomplete row of eyelashes on the upper lid and two rows on the lower lid.[30]

Tracks in mud. Animation highlights the left print, showing the presence of vestigial webbing between the front toes. Note also the increased weight toward the front of the toes as the bird dipped its head down to take a drink.

The two front toes of the foot are long and have small webs at their bases.[31] Tracks are large, between 3.75 and 5.5 inches in length (9.5–14 cm) and 3.25 and 4 inches in width (8.2–10.2 cm), both measurements including claw marks. Toes are arranged in the classic, anisodactyl pattern.[32] The feet are flat, relatively weak, and poorly adapted to grasping; the talons are also not designed for grasping, as they are relatively blunt.[3] In flight, the tail is long and slim, in contrast to that of the Black Vulture. The nostrils are not divided by a septum, but rather are perforate; from the side one can see through the beak.[33] It undergoes a molt in late winter to early spring. It is a gradual molt, which lasts until early autumn.[12] The immature bird has a gray head with a black beak tip; the colors change to those of the adult as the bird matures.[34] How long turkey vultures can live in captivity is not well known. While 21 years is generally given as a maximum age, the Gabbert Raptor Center on the University of Minnesota campus is home to a turkey vulture named Nero with a confirmed age of 34. The oldest wild captured banded bird was 16 years old.[10]

Leucistic (sometimes mistakenly called "albino") Turkey Vultures are sometimes seen.[35] The well-documented records come from the United States of America, but this probably reflects the fact that such birds are more commonly reported by birders there, rather than a geographical variation. Even in the United States, white Turkey Vultures (although they presumably always turned up every now and then) were only discussed in birder and raptor conservation circles and are not scientifically studied.[36]

The Turkey Vulture, like most other vultures, has very few vocalization capabilities. Because it lacks a syrinx, it can only utter hisses and grunts.[11] It usually hisses when it feels threatened. Grunts are commonly heard from hungry young and from adults in their courtship display.

Distribution and habitat

In flight over Florida, USA
In flight, from profile

The Turkey Vulture has a large range, with an estimated global occurrence of 28,000,000 km². It is the most abundant vulture in the Americas.[3] Its global population is estimated to be 4,500,000 individuals.[1] It is found in open and semi-open areas throughout the Americas from southern Canada to Cape Horn. It is a permanent resident in the southern United States, though northern birds may migrate as far south as South America.[10] The Turkey Vulture is widespread over open country, subtropical forests, shrublands, deserts, and foothills.[37] It is also found in pastures, grasslands, and wetlands.[1] It is most commonly found in relatively open areas which provide nearby woods for nesting and it generally avoids heavily forested areas.[4]

Ecology and behavior

Spread-winged adult
Vultures on cellphone tower

The Turkey Vulture is gregarious and roosts in large community groups, breaking away to forage independently during the day. Several hundred vultures may roost communally in groups which sometimes even include Black Vultures. It roosts on dead, leafless trees, and will also roost on man-made structures such as water or microwave towers. Though it nests in caves, it does not enter them except during the breeding season.[12] The Turkey Vulture lowers its night-time body temperature by about 6 degrees Celsius to 34 °C (93 °F), becoming slightly hypothermic.[31]

This vulture is often seen standing in a spread-winged stance. The stance is believed to serve multiple functions: drying the wings, warming the body, and baking off bacteria. It is practiced more often following damp or rainy nights. This same behavior is displayed by other New World vultures, by Old World vultures, and by storks.[13] Like storks, the Turkey Vulture often defecates on its own legs, using the evaporation of the water in the feces and/or urine to cool itself, a process known as urohidrosis.[38] It cools the blood vessels in the unfeathered tarsi and feet, and causes white uric acid to streak the legs.[39]

Two black vultures on the sore of a lake
Immatures attracted to the shore of Lake Huron, Canada by beached dead fish

The Turkey Vulture has few natural predators. Adult, immature and fledging vultures may fall prey to golden eagles, bald eagles and great horned owls, while eggs and nestlings may be preyed on by mammals such as raccoons, virginia opossum and foxes.[6][13] Its primary form of defense is regurgitating semi-digested meat, a foul-smelling substance which deters most creatures intent on raiding a vulture nest.[12] It will also sting if the predator is close enough to get the vomit in its face or eyes. In some cases, the vulture must rid its crop of a heavy, undigested meal in order to take flight to flee from a potential predator.[29]

The Turkey Vulture is awkward on the ground with an ungainly, hopping walk. It requires a great deal of effort to take flight, flapping its wings while pushing off the ground and hopping with its feet.[29] While soaring, the Turkey Vultures holds its wings in a shallow V-shape and often tips from side to side, frequently causing the gray flight feathers to appear silvery as they catch the light. The flight of the Turkey Vulture is an example of static soaring flight, in which it flaps its wings very infrequently, and takes advantage of rising thermals to stay soaring.[40]

Diet

Feeding on dead gull at Morro Bay, California, USA

The Turkey Vulture feeds primarily on a wide variety of carrion, from small mammals to large grazers, preferring those recently dead, and avoiding carcasses that have reached the point of putrefaction. It may rarely feed on plant matter, shoreline vegetation, pumpkin and other crops, live insects and other invertebrates.[37] In South America, it has been seen (and photographed) feeding on the fruits of the introduced Oil Palm.[41][42] It rarely, if ever, kills prey itself.[43] The Turkey Vulture can often be seen along roadsides feeding on roadkill, or near bodies of water, feeding on washed-up fish.[10] It also will feed on fish or insects which have become stranded in shallow water.[12] Like other vultures, it plays an important role in the ecosystem by disposing of carrion which would otherwise be a breeding ground for disease.[44]

The Turkey Vulture forages by smell, an ability that is uncommon in the avian world. It often will fly low to the ground to pick up the scent of ethyl mercaptan, a gas produced by the beginnings of decay in dead animals.[13] The olfactory lobe of its brain, responsible for processing smells, is particularly large compared to that of other animals.[13] This heightened ability to detect odors allows it to search for carrion below the forest canopy. King Vultures and Black Vultures, which lack the ability to smell carrion, follow the Turkey Vulture to carcasses. The Turkey Vulture arrives first at the carcass, or with Greater Yellow-headed Vultures or Lesser Yellow-headed Vultures, which also share the ability to smell carrion.[13] It displaces the Yellow-headed Vultures from carcasses due to its larger size,[44] but is displaced in turn by the King Vulture, which makes the first cut into the skin of the dead animal. This allows the smaller, weaker-billed, Turkey Vulture access to food, because it cannot tear the tough hides of larger animals on its own. This is an example of mutual dependence between species.[45]

Reproduction

Egg and newly hatched chick less than one day old

The breeding season of the Turkey Vulture commences in March, peaks in April to May, and continues into June.[clarification needed][46] Courtship rituals of the Turkey Vulture involve several individuals gathering in a circle, where they perform hopping movements around the perimeter of the circle with wings partially spread. In the air, one bird closely follows another while flapping and diving.[37]

Eggs are generally laid in the nesting site in a protected location such as a cliff, a cave, a rock crevice, a burrow, inside a hollow tree, or in a thicket. There is little or no construction of a nest; eggs are laid on a bare surface. Females generally lay two eggs, but sometimes one and rarely three. The eggs are cream-colored, with brown or lavender spots around their larger end.[37] Both parents incubate, and the young hatch after 30 to 40 days. Chicks are altricial, or helpless at birth. Both adults feed the chicks by regurgitating food for them, and care for them for 10 to 11 weeks. When adults are threatened while nesting, they may flee, or they may regurgitate on the intruder or feign death.[12] If the chicks are threatened in the nest, they defend themselves by hissing and regurgitating.[37] The young fledge at about nine to ten weeks. Family groups remain together until fall.[37]

Relationship with humans

The Turkey Vulture is sometimes accused of carrying anthrax or hog cholera, both livestock diseases, on its feet or bill by cattle ranchers and is therefore occasionally perceived as a threat.[47] However, the virus that causes hog cholera is destroyed when it passes through the Turkey Vulture's digestive tract.[29] This species also may be perceived as a threat by farmers due to the similar Black Vulture's tendency to attack and kill newborn cattle. The Turkey Vulture does not kill live animals but will mix with flocks of Black Vultures and will scavenge what they leave behind. Nonetheless, its appearance at a location where a calf has been killed gives the incorrect impression that the Turkey Vulture represents a danger to calves.[48] The droppings produced by Turkey Vultures and other vultures can harm or kill trees and other vegetation.[49] The Turkey Vulture can be held in captivity, though the Migratory Bird Treaty Act prevents this in the case of uninjured animals or animals capable of returning to the wild.[50] In captivity, it can be fed fresh meat, and younger birds will gorge themselves if given the opportunity.[29]

Skull

The Turkey Vulture species receives special legal protections under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 in the United States,[14] by the Convention for the Protection of Migratory Birds in Canada,[51] and by the Convention for the Protection of Migratory Birds and Game Mammals in Mexico.[51] In the USA it is illegal to take, kill, or possess Turkey Vultures, and violation of the law is punishable by a fine of up to 15,000 US dollars and imprisonment of up to six months.[50] It is listed as a species of Least Concern by the IUCN Red List. Populations appear to remain stable, and it has not reached the threshold of inclusion as a threatened species, which requires a decline of more than 30 percent in ten years or three generations.[1]

References

Notes

  1. ^ a b c d e "Species factsheet: Cathartes aura". BirdLife International. Archived from the original on November 28, 2007. Retrieved 2007-10-13. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  2. ^ The Peregrine Fund Turkey Vulture page
  3. ^ a b c "2007". Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2007-10-14.
  4. ^ a b c d Hilty, Stephen L. (1977). A Guide to the Birds of Colombia. Princeton University Press. p. 87. ISBN 069108372X. Cite error: The named reference "Hilty" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  5. ^ "Turkey Vulture, Life History, All About Birds — Cornell Lab of Ornithology". Allaboutbirds.org. Retrieved 2009-12-24.
  6. ^ a b "ADW: Cathartes aura: Information". Animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu. 2009-12-20. Retrieved 2009-12-24.
  7. ^ "Turkey Vulture". Peregrinefund.org. Retrieved 2009-12-24.
  8. ^ http://vulturesociety.homestead.com/QandA.html
  9. ^ url=http://www.raptorrehab.org/raptors/tv.htm
  10. ^ a b c d e Attwood,, E. "Cathartes aura". Animal Diversity Web. University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. Retrieved 2007-09-30.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  11. ^ a b Miskimen, Mildred (1957). "Absence of Syrinx in the Turkey Vulture (Cathartes Aura)" (PDF). The Auk. 74 (1): 104–105. Retrieved 2006-10-24. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  12. ^ a b c d e f Fergus, Charles (2003). Wildlife of Virginia and Maryland Washington D.C. Stackpole Books. p. 171. ISBN 0811728218.
  13. ^ a b c d e f Snyder, Noel F. R. and Helen Snyder (2006). Raptors of North America: Natural History and Conservation. Voyageur Press. p. 40. ISBN 0760325820.
  14. ^ a b "Birds Protected by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act". US Fish & Wildlife Service. Archived from the original on October 10, 2007. Retrieved 2007-10-14.
  15. ^ a b Holloway, Joel Ellis (2003). Dictionary of Birds of the United States: Scientific and Common Names. Timber Press. p. 59. ISBN 0881926000.
  16. ^ "Turkey Vulture". Birds of Texas. Texas Parks & Wildlife. 2001. Retrieved 2007-10-29.
  17. ^ Liddell, Henry George (1980). Greek-English Lexicon, Abridged Edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-910207-4. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthor= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  18. ^ Template:La icon Linnaeus, Carolus (1758). Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima, reformata. Holmiae. (Laurentii Salvii). p. 86.
  19. ^ Tagliarini, Marcella Mergulhão; Pieczarka, Julio Cesar; Nagamachi, Cleusa Yoshiko; Rissino, Jorge; de Oliveira, Edivaldo Herculano C. (2009). "Chromosomal analysis in Cathartidae: distribution of heterochromatic blocks and rDNA, and phylogenetic considerations". Genetica. 135 (3): 299–304. doi:10.1007/s10709-008-9278-2. PMID 18504528.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  20. ^ a b Remsen, J. V., Jr.; C. D. Cadena; A. Jaramillo; M. Nores; J. F. Pacheco; M. B. Robbins; T. S. Schulenberg; F. G. Stiles; D. F. Stotz & K. J. Zimmer. 2007. A classification of the bird species of South America. South American Classification Committee. Retrieved on 2007 – 10–15
  21. ^ Sibley, Charles G. and Burt L. Monroe. 1990. Distribution and Taxonomy of the Birds of the World. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-04969-2. Retrieved 2007-04-11.
  22. ^ Sibley, Charles G., and Jon E. Ahlquist. 1991. Phylogeny and Classification of Birds: A Study in Molecular Evolution. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-04085-7. Retrieved 2007-04-11.
  23. ^ Ericson, Per G. P.; Anderson, Cajsa L.; Britton, Tom; Elżanowski, Andrzej; Johansson, Ulf S.; Kallersjö, Mari; Ohlson, Jan I.; Parsons, Thomas J.; Zuccon, Dario & Mayr, Gerald (2006): Diversification of Neoaves: integration of molecular sequence data and fossils. Biology Letters online: 1–5. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2006.0523 PDF preprint Electronic Supplementary Material (PDF)
  24. ^ a b c Amadon, Dean (1977). "Notes on the Taxonomy of Vultures" (PDF). Condor. 79 (4). Cooper Ornithological Society: 413–416. doi:10.2307/1367720. JSTOR 1367720.
  25. ^ a b Blake, Emmet Reid (1953). Birds of Mexico: A Guide for Field Identification. University of Chicago Press. p. 267. ISBN 0226056414.
  26. ^ Peters J. L.; Mayr E.& Cottrell,W. (1979). Check-list of Birds of the World. Museum of Comparative Zoology. p. 276.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  27. ^ a b Brown, Leslie & Amadon, Dean (1968). Eagles, Hawks, and Falcons of the World. McGraw-Hill. p. 175.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  28. ^ Hill, N. P. (1944). "Sexual Dimorphism in the Falconiformes" (PDF). Auk. 61 (April): 228. Retrieved 2007-10-14.
  29. ^ a b c d e Terres, J. K. (1980). The Audubon Society Encyclopedia of North American Birds. New York, NY: Knopf. p. 959. ISBN 0394466519.
  30. ^ Fisher, Harvey I. (February). "The Pterylosis of the Andean Condor". Condor. 44 (1). Cooper Ornithological Society: 30–32. doi:10.2307/1364195. JSTOR 1364195. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= and |year= / |date= mismatch (help)
  31. ^ a b Feduccia, J. Alan (1999). The Origin and Evolution of Birds. Yale University Press. p. 116. ISBN 0226056414.
  32. ^ Elbroch, Mark (2001). Bird Tracks & Sign. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books. p. 456. ISBN 0811726967.
  33. ^ Allaby, Michael (1992). The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Zoology. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 348. ISBN 0192860933.
  34. ^ "Turkey Vulture". Cornell Lab of Ornithology. 2003. Retrieved 2007-09-30.
  35. ^ Kirk, D. A.; Mossman, M. J. (1998). "Turkey Vulture (Cathartes aura)". In A. Poole and F. Gill (ed.). The Birds of North America. Vol. 339. Philadelphia, PA.: The Birds of North America, Inc.
  36. ^ Golden Gate Raptor Observatory: Rare Raptors. Retrieved 2007-09-17.
  37. ^ a b c d e f Kaufman, Kenn (1996). Lives of North American Birds. Houghton Mifflin Field Guides. p. 112. ISBN 0-618-15988-6. {{cite book}}: line feed character in |publisher= at position 23 (help)
  38. ^ Ridenhou, Larry. "NCA – Turkey Vulture". Snake River Birds of Prey National Conservation Area. Bureau of Land Management. Retrieved 2006-12-17.
  39. ^ Gordon, Malcolm S. (1977). Animal Physiology: Principles and Adaptations. Macmillan. p. 357.
  40. ^ "Turkey vulture, Cathartes aura". U.S. Geological Survey. Retrieved 2007-09-30.
  41. ^ Pinto, O. M. O., Dos frutos da palmeira Elaeis guineensis na dieta de Cathartes aura ruficollis. Hornero 8:276–277, 1965; Mauro Galetti & Paulo R. Guimarães Jr., "Seed dispersal of Attalea phalerata (Palmae) by Crested caracaras (Caracara plancus) in the Pantanal and a review of frugivory by raptors", Ararajuba 12 (2):133–135, December 2004; available at www.ararajuba.org.br/sbo/ararajuba/artigos/Volume122/ara122not1.pdf
  42. ^ [1] Brazilian birdwatcher's site, photo taken on 22nd. October 2006 the in Rio de Janeiro Botanical Garden
  43. ^ Kritcher, John C. (1999). A Neotropical Companion. Princeton University Press. p. 286. ISBN 0691009740.
  44. ^ a b Gomez, LG; Houston, DC; Cotton, P; Tye, A, Luis G.; Houston, David C.; Cotton, Peter; Tye, Alan (1994). "The role of greater yellow-headed vultures Cathartes melambrotus as scavengers in neotropical forest". Ibis. 136 (2): 193–196. doi:10.1111/j.1474-919X.1994.tb01084.x. Retrieved 2007-10-03.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  45. ^ Muller-Schwarze, Dietland (2006). Chemical Ecology of Vertebrates. Cambridge University Press. p. 350. ISBN 0521363772.
  46. ^ "Species Description: Turkey Vulture (Cathartes aura)". Georgia Museum of Natural History. Retrieved 2007-10-14.
  47. ^ Kirk, D. A., and M. J. Mossman. 1998. Turkey Vulture (Cathartes aura). In The Birds of North America, No. 339 (A. Poole and F. Gill, eds.). The Birds of North America, Inc., Philadelphia, PA.
  48. ^ Paulik, Laurie (2007-08-06). "Vultures and Livestock". AgNIC Wildlife Damage Management Web. Retrieved 2007-10-15.
  49. ^ Paulik, Laurie (2007-08-06). "Vultures". AgNIC Wildlife Damage Management Web. Retrieved 2007-10-15.
  50. ^ a b "Migratory Bird Treaty Act". US Code Collection. Cornell Law School. Retrieved 2007-10-14.
  51. ^ a b "Game and Wild Birds: Preservation". US Code Collection. Cornell Law School. Retrieved 2007-10-29.

Bibliography

  • ffrench, F. Birds of Trinidad and Tobago. ISBN 0-7136-6759-1
  • Stiles and Skutch. A guide to the birds of Costa Rica. ISBN 0-8014-9600-4
  • Kirk, D. A. and M. J. Mossman. 1998. Turkey Vulture (Cathartes aura). In The Birds of North America, No. 339 (A. Poole and F. Gill, eds.). The Birds of North America, Inc., Philadelphia, PA.
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